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This paper reports the results of research into the range of actors involved in the marketing of urban places as shopping destinations and the processes by which this marketing activity is planned. The paper highlights the differences between the process of marketing planning in this context (at the interface of the public and private sectors), as opposed to processes in private sector organizations from which the majority of current marketing theory was developed. It suggests various implications as to the characteristics of what Ashworth (1993) has termed a 'special type of marketing' to be applied to urban places. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to draw together the largely non-empirical and fragmented literature on motives for retailer internationalization (RI), introduce new empirical data based upon a survey of UK-based international retailers, and examine the underlying structure of RI motives. Four factors were identified and those relating to the perceived international appeal and innovativeness of the retail offering and growth orientated and proactive motives were found to be the most important. Analysis revealed a more complex structure than previous dichotomous motive groupings and similarities with those found in export marketing studies. This, and the subsequent implications, are useful to both academics and retail practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saturation, the seemingly inevitable collision of the grocery retailer's superstore opening programmes with the UK's stable population and static per capita food volume consumption, is expected during the 1990s. If growth is to be maintained by the ambitious multiples, reappraisal of threats and opportunities and re-shaping of marketing strategies will be needed. Market leakage analysis can be used to show where present and future opportunities lie, and to indicate what sort of competitive strategies are needed to prevail and thrive in post-saturation grocery retailing. Retailers must differentiate themselves from each other, destroying the consumer's commodity-like perception of competing stores. This can be promoted through the strategic development of store personnel, the marketing-oriented application of technology, and more precise targeting of consumer demands and under-satisfied needs. The author's Strategic Choice Grid indicates that, through insightful and innovative marketing, UK grocery retailers can avoid the stagnation threatened by saturation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

EPOS is an established and rapidly growing feature of the UK retail scene with a wide range of potential impacts across the whole value chain. This paper focuses upon the more immediate impact of EPOS on the marketing strategies of retailers and their suppliers and on the retailer-supplier relationship. Emphasis is given lo the potential which EPOS presents for the development of new approaches to channel co-operation and for the building of new patterns of strategic alliance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article the author examines the link between personalized retailer credit cards and the use of direct marketing by retailers to foster the concept of the "privileged customer" with their cardholders, as well as boosting sales. Using the example of Debenhams, the growth of both credit cards and direct marketing is examined and the synergy between the two explored. Detail is given about the credit card data base held by Debenhams and suggestions are made as to how this information could be translated into effective direct marketing communication. The results of Debenhams direct marketing are used to demonstrate the effective use of this particular vehicle and finally consideration is given to the future in the United Kingdom for both retailer credit cards and direct marketing by retailers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasing volume of descriptive material about marketing in various nations has become available in recent years; few attempts have been made to generalize about all nations. This article, focusing on one aspect of this broad problem, presents a framework for generalizing about retail operating methods in different marketing systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current authors studied Black Friday in Britain and learned that the reality is somewhat different from the hype. There will always be a small proportion of shoppers who get a kick out of grabbing a bargain, no matter how hostile the experience, but the majority are sensible human beings who are in control and able to make their own decisions. Moreover, they are happily buying online, at home.While customers snap up a bargain, retailers are losing out--mostly to online discounters such as Amazon. We predict that Black Friday will become the domain of discounters as the rest of the retail community experiments with alternative strategies.We explore some of these alternatives and suggest a brighter future for UK retailers and customers alike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the marketing strategies of town centres to focus on retail competitiveness in Great Britain. He examines why the time has come for a new vision of the high street, and how demographic and economic changes are forcing a choice between innovation and obsolescence. He stresses that national planning policy has restricted the growth of out-of-town centres, but has been less successful at minimizing he move of retailing from compact stores to large sheds.

Researchers suggest that private label penetration is due to the degree of retailer power over suppliers and the level of retailers' concentration (Tarzijan, 2004). While true for some countries, this is not the case in Australia, where the retailer concentration is one of the highest in the world (two retailers hold 74 per cent of the grocery market) and private labels account for only 24 per cent of supermarket sales. The aim of this article is to investigate additional factors besides retailer concentration, such as retailer strategies towards their private labels that may explain this exception. A detailed examination of the marketing activity and diversity in pricing and branding strategies in two countries, Australia (low private labels penetration) and the United Kingdom (high private labels penetration) has been undertaken. This involved in-store observations, price comparisons and a literature review. The findings show that the marketing strategy of Australian retailers is very different from British retailers. Private labels are rarely promoted, and are positioned as cheaper alternatives to national brands. This highlights the other factors, such as retailer commitment and marketing activity that may distinguish between countries with different private label penetration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses research which was conducted to develop a deeper understanding of the centrality of the own brand to fashion retailer brand strategy. Researchers conducted six in-depth interviews with large-scale fashion retailers from a sample of the 20 largest and most successful fashion retailers in the United Kingdom. They found that the interview participants identified the motivations, dimensions, success factors and problems associated with the creation, development and management of the own brand. The researchers found that while their research may be limited their study may provide information on key areas for future research development to be applied within the fashion retail sector or to be expanded within alternative retail sectors. They concluded that there has been little research conducted on the development of brand strategy within the fashion retailing sector.

Purpose -- The purpose of this empirical paper is to investigate internal marketing from a behavioural perspective. The impact of internal marketing behaviours, operationalised as an internal market orientation (IMO), on employees' marketing and other in-role behaviours (IRB) were examined. Design/methodology/approach -- Survey data measuring IMO, market orientation and a range of constructs relevant to the nomological network in which they are embedded were collected from the UK retail managers. These were tested to establish their psychometric properties and the conceptual model was analysed using structural equations modelling, employing a partial least squares methodology. Findings -- IMO has positive consequences for employees' market-oriented and other IRB. These, in turn, influence marketing success. Research limitations/implications -- The paper provides empirical support for the long-held assumption that internal and external marketing are related and that organisations should balance their external focus with some attention to employees. Future research could measure the attitudes and behaviours of managers, employees and customers directly and explore the relationships between them. Practical implications -- Firm must ensure that they do not put the needs of their employees second to those of managers and shareholders; managers must develop their listening skills and organisations must become more responsive to the needs of their employees. Originality/value -- The paper contributes to the scarce body of empirical support for the role of internal marketing in services organisations. For researchers, this paper legitimises the study of internal marketing as a route to external market success; for managers, the study provides quantifiable evidence that focusing on employees' wants and needs impacts their behaviours towards the market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Firms devote increasing funds and resources to cause-related marketing (CRM). This report seeks to uncover some of the factors that explain how firms choose between competing social causes in the development of their CRM strategy. The behavior of firms traded on the London Stock Exchange is analyzed, by highlighting regularities and patterns in CRMactivities. The rationales for the observed patterns are investigated through semistructured interviews with managers employed by UK-based nonprofit organizations, financial services, and retail firms. The authors identify, among other things, differences in the nature of the "selected" social causes, the length and geographical scope of the social campaigns, and the (CRM) strategies used to implement them. It is argued that these variations may reflect differences in the organizational legitimacy pressures experienced by firms in the retail and financial services sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this study is to explore empirically the relationship between the scope of the e-commerce strategies currently being deployed by the largest and most influential UK-based retailers, the drivers for their adoption, and perhaps most importantly the degree to which they are perceived to be successful. Design/methodology/approach - The objectives of this research were addressed by using a quantitative research strategy, based on a postal questionnaire survey of the UK's largest retailers. The research strategy produced a wealth of primary data, which were thoroughly analysed using a variety of multivariate, statistical techniques. Findings - The study's findings suggest that the scope of the retailers' e-commerce strategies is strongly associated with the strength of management support behind the strategy and its perceived strategic fit. By contrast, the perceived success of their strategies is most strongly associated with the degree to which the retailer has deployed a portfolio of appropriate resources and capabilities, in support of its online operations. Research limitations/implications - The major limitation associated with the study is with respect to the rather disappointing response rate of 10 per cent. However, this level of response is similar to many previous surveys in this domain, and it is probably not surprising, given the commercially sensitive nature of the data. Moreover, the extensive phone-based follow-up of non-respondents has provided an important reassurance that any resultant bias is likely to have only a modest effect on the results. Practical implications - The findings highlight that, despite their close relationship, the scope of an e-commerce strategy and its success are rather different entities, and therefore the factors that affect the scope of adoption cannot be relied on to deliver success. In particular, retailer managers must recognise that, while their support and commitment may well be the impetus necessary to deliver a wide-ranging strategy, its ultimate success may be dependent on their ability to deploy a suitable portfolio of resources and capabilities. Originality/value - The study makes a major contribution in a number of ways. It provides one of the first attempts to measure the relationship between the drivers, scope and perceived success of e-commerce strategies, and, in so doing, it delivers an objective comparison between those factors that affect the scope and the success of e-commerce strategies. Moreover, important new measures of e-commerce scope and success have been developed and deployed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the Net Book Agreement was abandoned in 1995 and struck down by the Restrictive Practices Court in 1997, retail book prices were widely expected to fall. Despite deeper and wider retail discounts, official indices show that book prices have subsequently risen more than general inflation. This apparent anomaly may be explained by an argument accepted at the 1962 Restrictive Practices Court hearing: that price competition would lead to concentration and greater buying power in bookselling and to bigger trade discounts from publishers, who would seek to maintain profits by raising list prices. Discounts by retailers would fail to compensate. Evidence provides some support for this explanation. While more research is required to confirm this analysis, it is relevant wherever there is debate about retention of resale price maintenance for books. It also supports the argument for case by case consideration of resale price maintenance, rather than condemnation on principle [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose- This paper seeks to investigate the use of town centre guides as a device for the representation of urban shopping destinations. Design/methodology/approach - Following a review of the relevant academic literature in the areas of cartography and place marketing, the paper considers the use of graphic interface elements of scale, projection and symbolisation in the specific context of maps in town centre guides. The guides are drawn from various UK locations reflecting different levels of the retail hierarchy and different locational "archetypes" as identified by URBED. Findings - The level of detail and content of maps in town centre guides studied varied significantly. All the graphic interface elements of scale, projection and symbolisation were incorporated. Projection was usually oblique, and in some maps isometric. Regarding symbolisation, the most important variables were shape and hue. Research limitations/implications - This is an exploratory investigation using a limited number of town centre guides. An agenda for further research, focusing on issues in relation to the production and consumption of maps in this context, is presented. Practical implications - The paper provides place marketing practitioners with guidance as to the development of town centre marketing/promotional material, which may incorporate maps. Originality/value - Town centre guides are an important and commonly used promotional mechanism for urban retail provision. This paper considers issues relating to the use of a crucial component of these guides, namely cartographic representations of the town cente. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many commentators suggest that market and competitive dynamics threaten the very survival of small shops in the UK. In light of this, the research presented here reports the findings of a major study that investigates the relationship between market orientation and performance in small UK retailers through an empirical analysis of survey data. Findings indicate that market orientation and performance are positively related and, moreover that, the customer strategy focus of small retailers is the key determinant of success compared with other components of market orientation and environmental influences. The implications for practitioners and policy makers are considered, particularly the importance of market-oriented culture in formulating and implementing customer-led strategies which distinguish successful small retailers from those that struggle to survive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose — The paper aims to investigate the problems encountered in retail international joint ventures (IJVs). It synthesizes and applies transaction cost economics and strategic management theories to help explain the dynamics within the international retail joint venture (IRJV) process. Design/methodology/approach — Applies a multiple case study approach based on a sample of UK-based retailers during the retail internationalisation process. Findings — Highlights the key problem areas encountered by retailers involved in IJV activity. Concludes that in contrast to production-driven joint venture activity, retailers appear to have a shorter and intensive adjustment period to effectively co-ordinate operational activity and bridge the corporate and behavioural differences between themselves and the partner. Research limitations/implications — Focuses on a sample of UK retail companies only. Given the intensive instantiation process, a predetermined approach may be more appropriate for retail firms to avoid problematic outcomes in IJV management. Practical implications — Retail companies may experience post formation risk in joint ventures, arising from partner resource limitations. Differences in management capability between the partners may lead to ineffective collaboration and poor operational performance. Originality/value — Addresses a previously neglected area of research and provides insights into the management of IRJV. Examines the relevance of key theoretical perspectives in relation to the problems encountered in IRJV activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose — The paper aims to analyse the reasons behind the leadership shown by a case study retailer through the introduction of factory gate pricing (FGP) within the grocery sector. Further, there is an evaluation of the transport management techniques used to support FGP and the operational benefits gained. Design/methodology/approach — The research is based around a single case study of a UK grocery retailer, which has adopted FGP. A range of data sources has been collected during a project with the retailer. Techniques used include process mapping, interviews, workshops and company presentations. Findings — Strategically, the introduction of FGP has provided economies for the retailer strengthening its position in the market. Four main transport management techniques have been deployed to achieve this, generating reductions in transport and inventory costs while improving customer service levels. There are also some issues that need addressing, in relation to the need for a single point of control, who manages this point and the technological capabilities of transport providers. Research limitations/implications — Only a single case study is presented, and the research was carried out during the early phase of implementation. Practical implications — FGP requires a certain degree of scale to be effective, and should complement current processes within a business. There is a need to manage relationship issues with suppliers and transport providers. Originality/value — The paper presents a detailed case study of FGP within the grocery sector, which is more complex than previous application of the concept. The strategic rationale for pioneering FGP is considered, along with its tactical deployment and operational benefits. Concerns are also highlighted, to provide a balanced evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The performance of the British fashion brand Burberry has been determined largely by the adoption of business models which, on occasion, have been detrimental to the company's performance. For the financial year ending 31 March 1998, Burberry saw its annual profits drop from £62m to £25m, leading financial analysts to describe it as "an outdated business with a fashion cachet of almost zero". However, from 1997, at the instigation of a newly appointed chief executive, Rose Marie Bravo, Burberry has radically re-aligned its business model and has enjoyed, as a result, significant improvements in its business performance. Drawing from extensive documentation that was published by Burberry in support of their initial public offering (IPO), this paper will provide a review of the history of Burberry; evaluate Burberry's re-positioning strategy as defined by the firm in their IPO prospectus; and critically delineate Burberry's current business model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the innovations throughout retailing in Great Britain between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries. In addition, it analyzes the impact of foreign multinationals on British retailing. While foreign entrants were present in British retailing from 1850 at the very latest, before 1885 they were essentially confined to a range of single-unit luxury goods boutiques. While no doubt important for some customers, these entrants were insignificant in British retailing overall. After the First World War, foreign multinationals were increasingly active in the sector, their market share increasing to around 1.3 per cent in 1929 and 1939, before rising rapidly to around four per cent of the country's retail sector. By 1914 around one-half of one per cent of the British manufacturing workforce was employed by a subsidiary of a foreign multinational. Although, with an above average output per employee, a reasonable conclusion is that foreign direct investment was around three times more significant in British manufacturing than retailing.

Within many retail organisations it would seem that the current position of loyalty card schemes is such that they are at something of a crossroads. With a number of highprofile retailers having terminated their schemes, and others seemingly unable or unwilling to achieve viable returns through the effective use of loyalty card data that are gathered, it appears timely to outline the potential applicability of such data for practitioners seeking to maximise their use and academics concerned with researching the phenomenon. The insights that can be gleaned from analysis of loyalty card databases arguably represent the most significant benefits of scheme implementation. To that end, this paper sets out the current use of such data in a (potentially) fruitful area, that of local marketing initiatives, and the prospective future use of such data therein. Drawing on earlier work that has considered the importance of the geographical nature of loyalty card data, illustrative models highlight how such data can be placed in the retail locational hierarchy and how they can be utilised in local marketing initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A profitable niche will have few entrants if the presence of significant mobility barriers impedes entry and, hence, reduces the expected rents for entrants. Identifying sources of mobility barriers is critical in explaining how incumbents can sustain competitive advantage and obtain supranormal profits (excess rents). While much of strategic management research (and strategic group research, in particular) focuses on the pursuit of sustainable performance advantages, there is relatively little empirical research exploring the dynamics of firm movement and the impact of mobility barriers on performance. The paper analyses mobility dynamics and, most importantly, develops a method to identify the location and severity of mobility barriers. The method is illustrated on a database of large multiples in the UK retail grocery industry for the period 1982-1986. It appears that there are two dimensions of strategic change that facilitate movement into profitable niches. Implications for competition and profitability are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]