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An encyclopedia entry for "temporal lobe seizures/epilepsy" is presented. It refers to the most common localization-related epilepsy in humans. Partial and complex partial seizures are often associated with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Mesial TLE usually occurs during early childhood. A childhood history of complex fibrile seizures, as well as status epilepticus may act as the substrate for mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS). Particular focus is also given to the semiology of TLE.

An encyclopedia entry for "status epilepticus" (SE) is presented. It refers to a common and life-threatening neurologic emergency that presents prolonged seizures. It notes that the most common type of Se is generalized convulsive SE (GCSE). In the U.S., 42,000 deaths are caused by SE while events total to 195,000.

An encyclopedia entry for the "classification of seizures and epilepsies" is presented. Several classification systems for seizures and epileptic syndromes have been proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE). The advantages of the diagnostic syndrome-oriented five-dimensional and patient-oriented classification systems are cited. The symptoms of different types of seizures and epilepsies are also outlined.

An encyclopedia entry for "absence epilepsy" is presented. It offers clinical information on absence epilepsy, which refers to the prototype for the idiopathic generalized epilepsies (IGE). Absence seizure is characterized with an alteration in consciousness alone or with additional features. It is also described as having abrupt arrest of ongoing activities, stare, eye fluttering and brief impairment of consciousness.

An encyclopedia entry for "versive seizures" is presented. This type of seizure is characterized by eye deviation involving the eyes (oculogyric seizures), with or without head involvement, with or without addition truncal rotation (gyratory seizures). Information is provided on gyratory seizures. It offers an overview of semiologic features of seizures which suggest a region of onset or propagation.

An encyclopedia entry for "sleep and epilepsy" is presented. It notes that sleep is a well-documented factor that affect the occurrence and morphology of seizures. It asserts that sleep disorders such as sleep apnea may result to seizures, as they cause sleep fragmentation and chronic sleep deprivation.

An encyclopedia entry for "interictal epileptiform discharges" (IED) is presented. IED represents a distinctive group of waveforms that are characteristically seen in persons with epilepsy. The interictal electroencephalography (EEG) during epilepsy may reveal paroxysmal bursts or phase-reversals that are paroxysmal occurring as single events or in bursts and mimic abnormal IEDs. It notes on the important role of EEG in providing ancillary support for a clinical diagnosis of epilepsy.

An encyclopedia entry for "elderly and epilepsy" is presented. It states that elderly people with epilepsy (PWE) are classified as those at least 65 years old. It notes that the number of elderly PWE has increased to make this population an important target for treatment. It adds that the elderly living in institutional settings such as nursing homes, have an increased prevalence of treatment targeted toward epilepsy.

An encyclopedia entry for "Unverricht-Lundborg Disease" is presented. The disease also known as Baltic myoclonus was first described in 1891 and serves as the protoype of the progressive myoclonus epilepsies. It relates the high incidence of the disease among people in the Baltic Sea and Mediterranean regions, as well as Estonia, Finland and southeast Sweden. It outlines the features of this progressive myoclonic epilepsy (PME). It describes the impact of cystatin B on the disease.

An encyclopedia entry for "symptomatogenic zone" is presented. It refers to a site associated with behavioral seizures. It notes that the symptomatogenic zone maybe located at a distance from the precise location of the epileptogenic zone. It asserts that clinical features of seizures are stereotyped because of specific pathways.

An encyclopedia entry for "symptomatic epilepsy" is presented. It refers to an acquired kind of epilepsy caused by an underlying identifiable etiology. It notes that these epilepsy may be caused by lesions such as those obtained from trauma, brain tumor or stroke. It is also characterized by various seizure types.

An encyclopedia entry for "Progressive Myoclonic Epilepsies" is presented. It offers clinical information on progressive myoclonic epilepsies (PME), which is a classification of a family of myoclonic syndromes. PME is characterized with massive myoclonus, tonic-clonic seizures and progressive dementia. Its clinical features include cherry-red spot in the optic fundus, early blindness and intracy-toplasmic inclusion bodies.

An encyclopedia entry for "Meningitis" is presented. It refers to an inflammation of the meninges surrounding the brain due to an infectious, chemical or neoplastic cause. A common cause of symptomatic epilepsy is infections of the central nervous system (CNS). Seizures usually occur when the condition progresses and involves the cortical surface of the brain in the form of meningoencephalitis or involve the parenchyma directly from brain abscess.

An encyclopedia entry for "Landau-Kleffner Syndrome" is presented. It refers to an acquired epileptic encephalopathy. Characteristics of the Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (LKS) include acquired aphasia, epileptiform discharges on the electroencephalogram, epileptic seizures and behavioral problems. During the course of LKS, there are different manifestations of the language dysfunction. Examples of drugs effective in treating seizures are benzodiazepines, ethosuximide, valproic acid and immunoglobulins.

An encyclopedia entry for "induced seizures" is presented. Seizures can be induced, precipitated, triggered or provoked by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Seizure induction may be immediate, like during intermittent photic stimulation in patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE). Induction of seizures has also been used as a tool in diagnosing psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES).

An encyclopedia entry for "idiopathic seizures or epilepsies" is presented. These include both partial and generalized seizures and epilepsy. It notes on the occassional occurrence of an overlap between idiopathic focal and generalized features. The difference of hereditary transmission with idiopathic disorders is also noted.

An encyclopedia entry for "hydrocephalus" (HC) is presented. It is considered the most common etiology for epilepsy. The disease is treated by shunting, which has been associated with the incidence of seizures in shunted children ranging from 20% to 50%. Details on the findings of several studies on the association of epilepsy with HC are given. It notes on the possibility that endoscopic procedures may be helpful in the future in preventing the problem of postshunt epilepsy.

An encyclopedia entry for "hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia-epilepsy (HHE) syndrome" is presented. HHE, which has multiple etiologies, appears in three phases during early infancy or chilhood between 6 months and 2 years of age. Its initial phase is consists of hemiconvulsions with unilateral clonic jerking that affects a side of the body or at least predominatly unilateral. Hemiplegia is observed in the second phase which is due to a residual deficit that is longer than a Todd's phenomenon. Epilepsy is the third phase of the syndrome.

An encyclopedia entry for "grand mal (GM) seizure" or "tonic clonic seizure" is presented. It occurs in several epileptic syndromes, in idiopathic generalized epilepsies (IGEs), EGEs and epilepsies of uncertain localization.The general characteristics of IGEs presenting with generalized tonic clonic (GTC) seizures are cited, including increased incidence of an IGE in a family member and seizure triggred by sleep deprivation, excess alcohol intake, fatigue, menses, or photic stimuli.

An encyclopedia entry for "Focal Seizures" is presented. It refers to partial seizures in patients with localization-related epilepsy (LRE). Factors to consider in distinguishing between various kinds of focal seizures include structural lesions, maturational factors, modes of precipitation, and underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms. Trauma and vascular malformations in younger age groups are some of the frequent symptomatic causes of focal seizure.

An encyclopedia entry for the term "symptomatic generalized epilepsies" is presented. The term refers to a distinct classification of a number of epilepsy syndromes associated with diffuse structural injury of the brain. The entry identifies the West and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes among the notable symptomatic generalized epilepsies. It also notes the presence of secondarily generalized seizures among patients with symptomatic generalized epilepsies.

An encyclopedia entry for the term "secondary epileptogenesis" is presented. It discusses the hypothesis underlying this concept which involves the repeated bombardment of normal cortex by discharges from a focal epileptogenic lesion or primary focus. It also indicates the concern regarding the potential for secondary epileptogenesis.

An encyclopedia entry for the epidemiology of epilepsies is presented. This entry looks at epidemiologic studies that provide information on frequency, clinical expression, distribution, incidence, prevalence and mortality rates of epilepsies. It notes the use of analytic epidemiology to confirm hypotheses based on results obtained from descriptive epidemiology.

An encyclopedia entry for the term "encephalopathy" is presented. The term refers to any diffuse cerebral dysfunction. This entry relates the disorder to the systemic effects of toxic-metabolic, hypoxic (anoxic), degenerative, infectious, inflammatory, or neoplastic causation. It notes that progressive or static encephalopathies may cause epilepsy.

An encyclopedia entry for "employment" is presented. It states that the economic costs of epilepsy for society are mainly due to the indirect costs that accrue through loss of employment. It notes that lost wages make up for about 85 percent of all epilepsy costs. It mentions that although newly diagnosed epilepsy does not seem to affect the rate of employment, ongoing uncontrolled seizures are linked with a higher level of unemployment.

An encyclopedia entry for "diagnosis" is presented. It states that the diagnosis of epilepsy needs two or more spontaneous seizures although it can be anticipated after initial recognition in those with high risk for recurrence. It notes that the diagnosis of a seizure will have several consequences for a patient, such as loss of driving privileges, social limitation of home and work life, and, for some, chronic antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy.

An encyclopedia entry for "discontinuation of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs)" is presented. It states that about 65 percent of patients with epilepsy (PWE) become seizure-free with AEDs. It notes that discontinuation of AEDs with some idiopathic generalized epilepsies (IGEs) have a possibility of relapse and in these PWEs discontinuation of AEDs is not suggested.

A definition of the term "cumulative incidence" is presented. It refers to the ratio of incident cases to the at-risk population at the beginning of the observation period. In the case of seizure or epilepsy, CI determines a frequency, in percentages, that measures the risk that the condition could occur at a specific age. An example of the CI for provoked and unprovoked seizures at 75 years of age is outlined.

An encyclopedia entry for "confusion" among patients with epilepsy (PWE) is presented. It outlines the reasons for the occurrence of confusion in PWE. It relates the occurrence of brief ictal confusion in complex partial seizures. Confusion following a seizure is a result of impairment of consciousness and may last from several hours to 1-2 days. It discusses the distinction of a postictal confusional state from ongoing ictal confusional states.

An encyclopedia entry for "ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCL)" is presented. It refers to a group of neurologic disorders which lead in the storage and accumulation of lipopigments in the lysosomes present in the brain and tissues. They are inherited as autosomal recessive conditions and their clinical features are those of progressive myoclonic epilepsy. The classic syndromes in NCL include early infantile, late infantile, juvenile and adult forms. Particular focus is given to the diagnosis of the disease.

An encyclopedia entry for "atypical absence" is presented. It offers clinical information on atypical absence seizure, which is characterized with staring, eyelid fluttering and activity interruption or conversation. It is associated with an irregular generalized 1.5 to 2.5 hertz (Hz) spike-wave discharge. Atypical absence seizure is said to be difficult to distinguish such type of epilepsy from complex partial seizures or other seizure types.

An encyclopedia entry for "vertigo" is presented. It describes the occurrence of vertigo in patients suffering from seizures. It relates that a nonspecific dizziness that is perceived inside one's head (cephalic aura), with or without visual blurring or vertigo may occur due to seizures. It discusses vertiginous auras in patients with epilepsy (PWE). It outlines the parts of the brain involved in true vertigo that occurs during focal seizures.

An encyclopedia entry for "Myoclonic Seizures" is presented. It offers clinical information on myoclonic seizures, which are consist of brief and violent muscular contractions that do not produce clinically apparent impairment of consciousness unless if it occur in frequent repetitive clusters. Such type of seizure is common in idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE) and encephalopathic generalized epilepsies.

An encyclopedia entry for "myoclonic epilepsies" is presented. It refers to epileptic syndromes wherein myoclonus occurs at the onset or as a prominent feature during the course of the disease. Idiopathic generalized epilepsies and cryptogenic or symptomatic generalized epilepsies are distinguished by the International Classification of the Epilepsies under which various myocolonic epilepsies are categorized.

An encyclopedia entry for "Jacksonian seizures" is presented. These are partial seizures characterized by a progressive spread from one part of the body to another without alteration of consciousness. The seizures can be purely motor with tonic contraction of the thumb or big toe followed by the hand or the foot, then clonic involvement of the hand, forearm, arm or foot, leg, and thigh, purely sensory with ascending paresthesias, or both sensory and motor symptomatology.

An encyclopedia entry for "inhibitory seizures" is presented. It refers to seizures that cause a clinical loss of function such as aphasia, blindness, amnesia, deafness, neglect, atonia and numbness. The reproduction of the mechanism of inhibition of motor function by a seizure in the somatomotor, primary, or supplementary sensorimotor areas, or in negative motor areas during electrical simulation studies of the brain, is noted.

An encyclopedia entry for "hypothalamic hamartomas" is presented. It is a developmental abnormalities in which histologically normal tissue resided in an abnormal location. These uncommon lesions are frequently associated with gelastic epilepsy. The disease frequently start in childhood and act as a progressive condition leading to cognitive decline and intractable encephalophathic generalized epilepsy. To control seizures, surgical resection of the hamartoma is suggested.

An encyclopedia entry for "hypocalcemia" in relation to epilepsy is presented. The deficiency can developed after thyroid or parathyroid surgery, but acute pancreatitis, renal dysfunction or vitamin D deficiencies may also act as precipitants. Seizures may occur in severe hypocalcemia, and it may be generalized tonic clonic, partial motor, or less frequently, atypical absence or drop attacks.

An encyclopedia entry for "hot water epilepsy" is presented. It refers to an epilepsy precipitated by hot water. The seizure is being experienced by patients during bathing, with or without secondarily generalized seizures. Most of the seizures occur as a reflex to exposure to hot water. Treatment include avoidance of pouring water over one's head, antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and benzodiazepines.

An encyclopedia entry for "Gelastic Seizures" is presented. It refers to seizures with the semiologic characteristic of involuntary laughter. Particular focus is given to the quality of the laughter in gelastic seizures. According to ictal recordings, laughter accompanied by other behavioral manifestations of joy or pleasure may occur in seizures arising preferentially from the left anterior cingulate gyrus.

An encyclopedia entry for "hemimegalencephaly" is presented. It refers to a disorder of neuronal migration that results in a unilaterally enlarged dysplastic hemisphere. The disorder can occur as an isolated finding or be associated with other conditions including neurofibromatosis, hypomelanosis of Ito, and the linear nevus syndrome. To control the seizure in hemimegalencephaly and improve neurocognitive outcome, anatomic hemispherectomy is suggested.

An encyclopedia entry for "gyratory seizures" is presented. It is a rare form of epilepsy which is consists of turning of the entire body in the vertical axis for 180 ° centigrade or more, occasionally in a ballet-like manner at the start of the seizure. The disorder is also known as circular, rotatory, or volvular seizures.

An encyclopedia entry for the evolution or progression of epilepsy is presented. This entry identifies several patterns that predict the progression of epilepsy, including single seizures, either acutely symptomatic or cryptogenic. It suggests to establish the syndromic classification and responsiveness to anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) to predict the evolution of epilepsy.

An encyclopedia entry for "early myoclonic encephalopathy (EME)" is presented. It states that EME is an age-dependent epileptic encephalopathy which begins in the neonatal period and may be associated with inborn errors of metabolism. It notes that like the Ohtahara syndrome, seizures start in the first three months of life, although the onset is usually a little later with EME.

An encyclopedia entry for "diones (oxazoline-diones)" is presented. Diones such as trimethadione and paramethadione were introduced in the 1940s and were the first class of antiepileptic drug (AED) to be used in the treatment of typical absence seizures, although they were commonly associated with adverse effects. They were replaced by ethosuximide, valproate, and lamotrigine in the treatment of childhood absence epilepsy.

An encyclopedia entry for "cryptogenic epilepsy" is presented. The Commission on Classification Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy defined cryptogenic epilepsy as partial or generalized epilepsies in which neither the history, clinical examination, nor ancillary investigations reveal a lesion accounting for the seizure. It explains how a clinically apparent cryptogenic epilepsy may be reclassified as a symptomatic epilepsy.

An encyclopedia entry for "complex partial seizures" is presented. This type of seizure is the most prevalent in an unselected adult population of patients with epilepsy. Some of the features of this type of seizure include staring, fumbling automatisms and blunting of awareness or recall. It highlights the distinction of complex partial seizures from simple partial seizures.

An encyclopedia entry for "clonic-tonic-clonic seizures" is presented. They refer to primary generalized seizures beginning with massive bilateral myoclonic jerks occurring at seizure onset. They are usually seen in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. A misdiagnosis of focal epilepsy in patients with clonic-tonic-clonic seizures and juvenile myoclonic epilepsy may be caused by asymmetric or unilateral jerks.

An encyclopedia entry for "Ativan® (Lorazepam)" is presented. It refers to a branded intravenous solution of lorazepam used for treating status epilepticus. It notes that oral preparations of lorazepam are not usually used for chronic seizure prophylaxis because it could trigger tachyphylaxis. Injectable lorazepam takes effect faster than oral or sublingual forms.

An encyclopedia entry for "Alpers' disease" is presented. It offers clinical information on Alpers' disease in relation to epilepsy. Alpers' disease refers to a syndrome that reflects a genetically determined disorder with rapidly progressive encephalopathy and intractable seizures associated with diffuse neuronal degeneration. The entry also discusses the diagnosis and treatment of Alpers' disease.