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Management theorists and practitioners have developed various rationales for the adoption of participative management. In recent years empirical evidence has pointed to the increasing importance of the lateral dimension in the managerial role. The growing emphasis on a manager's lateral interactions provides new justification for the use of participative management. This article examines the relationship between participation and lateral relations and establishes a new rationale for the adoption of participative management. Participative management has been described variously as "a subtle means of having employees think they are a more important part of the organization" or as "group decision-making." The exact dimensions of this concept are not of major importance for this paper; but, for purposes of clarity, participative management is defined as the participation of employees in the managerial role. This includes decision-making, planning, controlling, and any of the other management functions. A possible side benefit of a more judicious use of the participative style of management is the reduction of time spent interacting horizontally in the organization. The participative approach can also get the subordinate involved in some aspects of lateral relations.

This article reports on a study of the largest Fortune 500 industrial firms in the U.S. The research was divided into three phases. In phase one, a survey questionnaire was mailed to the top industrial relations or personnel executive in each of the 500 largest U.S. industrial corporations. In phase two, a second questionnaire was sent to those first questionnaire respondents who indicated the adoption of a management by objectives (MBO) approach to performance appraisal. Phase three consisted of detailed follow-up studies of a sample of six companies that had responded to the earlier questionnaires. The first finding is that almost half of the U.S.'s largest industrial firms say they have already made attempts to utilize MBO in some fashion and a large number claim that MBO has been adopted throughout the organization. Nearly half of the companies responding to the first phase of the questionnaire said that MBO had been adopted in at least a portion of the organization. When asked if any serious difficulties or problems had been encountered with their MBO programs, 50% of the 120 respondents said that "lack of understanding by managers and/or employees of what they are supposed to do" was a serious problem.

A new technology of behavior modification has been making a noticeable appearance on the corporate management scene. A year ago, only a very few companies knew what it was, one could hardly find anything in a business journal dealing with the subject in any way, and it was not treated at all in more than a handful of the graduate schools of business administration. Now business journals frequently publish articles dealing with some application of behavior technology and several business schools have introduced the subject into such courses as industrial relations, organizational analysis, and personnel management. Judging from initial approaches and responses, however, behavior technology appears likely to travel an even rockier road than the one traveled by the information systems technology during the last couple of decades. The progress of information systems in industry was confounded largely by the fact that the people who had to make the policy and operating decisions required for effective information systems did not understand what it was and how it affected other operating systems.

The perceptions of researchers and managers are examined with regard to various aspects of the knowledge utilization process, adding an empirical dimension to earlier descriptive efforts. Substantial disagreement was found to exist between the two groups on many important elements of the knowledge utilization process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relationships between leader behavior and subordinate satisfaction and performance, unmoderated and moderated by a subordinate's role ambiguity, were studied at multiple occupational skill levels in a hospital. The results supported path-goal theory's propositions concerning the relationship between leader initiating structure and subordinate satisfaction, but not leader initiating structure and subordinate performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article looks at a study which investigates the relationships of life style and interpersonal need compatibilities in supervisor-subordinate pairs in the U.S. The study also investigates the attitudes of subordinates toward their supervisors as a function of their life style. The subjects, which were comprised of engineers and project team leaders employed by a large manufacturing company, were given a life style orientation questionnaire. The author concludes that the more compatible the life style and interpersonal needs of supervisor and subordinate, the more favorable the subordinate's attitudes toward the supervisor will be.

Eleven existing management theory streams can be reduced to four concurrently and sequentially developing ones. Past and present evolutionary developments in management theory indicate that a future "general theory" probably can result from a "comparative" analysis and synthesis in the present decade, utilizing the management process theory as a comparative base. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the relationship between transcendental meditation and productivity at work. Using six measures of productivity, mediators reported they experienced increased job satisfaction, better performance and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers. Data support the proposition that productivity gains are an increasing function of structural level. Mediators reported that their gains in job satisfaction and performance and improved interpersonal relationships were more position than those of mediators who work at low levels of organizations.

The article examines Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership with groups of young adults engaged in an initially unstructured research task over a period of about six weeks. Variables such as hours worked and performance relative to ability provide clear support for the theory. The differences between correlation coefficients are in the direction predicted by the theory. When it comes to product quality variables, the correlations with leader style are all negative regardless of whether leader-member relations are good or poor.

The article discusses the author's opinion on the span of control principle of organization conceptualized by Vytautas Andrius Graicunas. In business, the principle does not apply at the lowest level of supervision. Workers are engaged in groups on a repetitive operation and control of the work is exercised by individual output figures. In many industrial operations, an unofficial leadership is exercised by senior workers who are not given any official status or rank. There are many instances in business in which the principle is ignored with disastrous consequences to the business or the individual.

This paper critically reviews one of the most important but least understood concepts in management--organizational climate. A contingency approach is proposed, various measures are discussed, and the studies are reviewed. Recommendations for future research are enumerated based on an analysis of the existing literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of trust in the superior, perceived influence of the superior, and mobility aspirations of subordinates on upward communication behavior was examined. While the importance of trust as a facilitator of open information exchange was supported, this was less true of influence of the superior and mobility aspirations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stereotype of the dominant female leader who adversely affects the satisfaction of subordinates is tested utilizing a simulated business task. In general, satisfaction data for five different aspects of the situation do not support the view that high need for dominance female leaders have a detrimental effect on subordinate satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five samples, ranging from business executives to students, and two measures of cognitive complexity were used to replicate Mitchell's finding of a positive relationship between Fiedier's LPC and an individual's cognitive complexity and to test two related hypotheses. The results did not support Mitchell's findings or the two additional hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study on interpersonal relations in municipal government. The author defines interpersonal relations as the interaction between two or more persons who are directly involved with each other in the context of their work environment. The subjects of the study were the city manager and the directors of departments and staff agencies of a large southern U.S. city. The subjects completed Hall and William's Personnel Relations Survey. According to the author, results showed that significant increases were effected by the willingness of managers to seek and maintain more open relationships with their subordinates, their colleagues, and their superiors.

An integration of the rational model of expectancy theory and the "caring for people" philosophy of the participative approach to employee motivation is presented. The paper describes four ways in which these theories argue that the same processes increase motivation. Data are presented that support these predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Selected variables related to a Management by Objectives system were examined to determine their relationship to manager attitudes toward the system. Two variables, ability of MBO to contribute positively to intraorganizational communication and the perceived attitude of one's superior toward MBO, were found to be strong predictors of manager attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article empirically assesses the relationship between power and the sources of power in a channel of distribution that has a well-defined power source: the franchisor-franchisee channel. In addition, the consequences of franchisors utilizing coercive versus noncoercive sources of power are examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

British trade unionism has certain well-established characteristics and traditions that differentiate it from its European counterparts and have a strong influence over its political behavior. It is a unified movement, in the sense that it is not structurally divided on the basis of religion or politics, and it has only one organizational center, a long-standing institution, the Trades Union Congress. The Congress includes a high proportion of the unionized work force, but it has limited powers over the affiliated organizations, which jealously guard their independence in policy-making and industrial activity. These affiliated organizations, though many in number, are still less than one third of the total number of British trade unions. They overlap considerably in their fields of operation, and they exhibit a rich diversity of age, size, and structure. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the movement has tended to be constitutional in its political aspirations, seeking to win acceptance and representation within the existing political order.

This study provides a comprehensive summary of Pay Board standards during Phase II and assesses the effectiveness of those controls by a variety of tests, using data from internal Pay Board records among other sources. The author concludes that Phase II controls did have a significant impact on wage increases in new union agreements, but they had less effect on deferred increases and nonunion wages and little if any effect on aggregate income shares. The impact of Phase II on the nonwage aspects of industrial relations is also examined through an analysis of data on contract duration, strike activity, and NLRB election results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hawaii is one of only two jurisdictions with a law requiring that in every bargaining unit in the public sector, every employee--whether or not a union member--must pay a service fee to the exclusive bargaining representative. This article examines the legislative history of this novel provision and the problems that have arisen in cases before the administrative agency that must determine the "reasonableness" of each fee. The author finds that this agency has approved fees equal to union dues in eleven of its first twelve decisions, but it is moving to tighten its reporting requirements in ways that may change that record in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a list of reference sources on industrial labor relations. Some of the reference sources are "Labor Relations for Construction Employees in Ontario," by Peter M. Allen and Michael H. Eayrs, is published in the March 1973 issue of "Canadian Personnel and Industrial Relations Journal"; "Industrial Relations in the Common Market," by W. Campbell Balfour; "Labor Relations in the Public Sector: A Symposium," published in the "Catholic University Law Review"; "A Study of the Procedures Used in Collective Bargaining With Faculty Unions in Public Universities," by Alan C. Coe, published in "Journal of the College and University Personnel Association"; "Industrial Conflict; A Comparative Legal Survey," edited by Benjamin Aaron and K. W. Wedderburn.

The article reports on industrial arbitration in the city of Eugene, Oregon. The expansion of collective bargaining that occurred in the public sector during the 1960's and early 1970's has fostered unresolvable debate over the type of collective bargaining system that would be most appropriate for the public sector. The city's bargaining units represented with unions include the Eugene Police Patrolmen's Association, the Eugene Fire Fighters Association, International Association of Fire Fighters Local 851 and the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees Local 1724A. There were seven contracts negotiated by the unions and the city since arbitration was introduced in the city. Six of these contracts were negotiated under the final-offer arbitration. The initial fire fighters' contract was agreed to in February-March 1971 under a court-imposed conventional arbitration procedure.

The article presents a study that offers some empirical data on the effects of non-economic factors on the attitudes of negotiators. The negotiator attitudes measured included satisfaction with the resulting contract, satisfaction with the working relationship between the parties, and personal inclination to settle for the resulting contract. The sample was drawn from members of labor teams that were involved in contract negotiations from July 1970 to February 1971. In two negotiations both sides refused to participate, three negotiations were not concluded by the deadline for processing the data and, for unknown reasons, no data were received from the teams in the other two negotiations. The basic hypothesis tested was that the personal inclination of a negotiator toward settling for a new contract is positively related to all of the non-economic factors described above except the second, unfavorable recognition, for which a negative relationship is hypothesized.

The article presents information related to the research programs undertaken by different branches of the U.S. department of labor. Projects undertaken by the Manpower Administration's Office of Research and Development range from basic explorations of labor market functioning to experiments and demonstrations testing diverse methods of overcoming chronic or acute employment problems. The broad objectives that guide the research and development program in its major areas of interest are provided in the article and typical projects in each category are briefly described. A major component of the project will be the establishment of an industry-oriented manpower delivery system for possible replication in other states. A computer-based labor market information system, developed by John T. Dunlop, Dean of Harvard University, and D. Quinn Mills of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is designed to reduce skill shortages and unemployment in the construction industry. Research directed by professor Charles Holt, is moving into the final stage of a three-year examination of interrelationships among labor market changes, aggregate demand, inflation, and unemployment.

There were many economic reforms initiated in the Soviet Union in the mid 1960s in an attempt to recentralize the planning system. The reforms initiated in 1965 failed to achieve their purpose, and the latest five-year plan represents a recentralization of planning and a return to several features of the incentive system that had existed prior to 1965. This paper analyzes these recent developments in the incentive system in Soviet industry. One of the important changes initiated in 1965 was an increased emphasis on profit as a source of employee bonuses. It was expected that giving greater scope for managers' initiative and providing more attractive incentives for both managers and workers would stimulate labor productivity. The size of this incentive fund was planned to be a varying percentage of the wage bill in each enterprise, depending on two success indicators that Soviet economists usually termed fundcreating indicators. It is remarked in the article that the significance of these changes, lies in their direction.

The article presents information related to recently published papers and books related to industrial and labor relations. Some of the research papers listed here are "Collective Bargaining in a Private College," by Mary S. Schinagl published in the September, 1972 issue of the journal Personnel Administration and Public Personnel Review, "The School Finance Decisions: Collective Bargaining and Future Finance Systems," by Larry G. Simon, published in the Yale Law Journal, and "Bureau of Labor Statistics," published in the Wage Calendar 1972. Some of the papers focusing on labor economic include "Sectoral Elasticities of Substitution between Capital and Labor in a Developing Economy: Time Series Analysis in the Case of Post-war Chile," by Jare R. Behrman, "The Current Inflation: Proceedings of a Conference held at the London School of Economics on 22 February, 1971," edited by H. G. Johnson, and A, R. Nobay, "The Effect of Teachers' Organizations on Salaries and Class Size," by W. Clayton Hall and Norman E Carroll, published in the journal Industrial and Labor Relations Review.

The article focuses on the effects of teacher unionism on teachers' salaries. It analyses the influence of collective negotiations on teacher salaries in New York state in the first year in which the Taylor Law, governing public employer-employee relations, was in effect. Most New York school districts entered bargaining for the first time after the passage of the Taylor Law in 1967. In a perfectly competitive labor market, where there are no barriers to worker mobility, and workers and employers possess no monopoly power with respect to wages, workers in the same occupation, possessing the same level of skill and having all other relevant characteristics in common, should receive the same wage. The model used in this study to explain differences in teacher salaries is derived from the consideration of the fact that teaching involves different duties in different districts, so the quality of the position will vary. The model's independent variables included teacher characteristics, structural factors, and financial variables, as well as a dummy variable representing the bargaining effect.

Strikes in an organization may cause physical facilities to be damaged or destroyed and the firm's entire workforce to be idled, and the interpersonal stress imposed by extended periods of labor unrest can extract even greater costs in terms of human resources. Hence, an understanding of the dynamics of labor unrest is important to the practitioner as well as the student of industrial relations. Despite a burgeoning number of job satisfaction studies, the relationship of employee attitudes to labor unrest has received scant empirical attention, except for recent studies generated by the spread of collective bargaining in the public sector. These studies, for the most part, have investigated the predisposition of professionals, such as nurses and particularly teachers, toward the use of the strike. The authors compare the variations among plants in labor unrest-measured by the criterion of strike-no strike and a ranking along other dimensions of unrest by several company executives, with interplant variations in scores on the attitude survey.

More recently, the growth of unionism and collective bargaining in public sectors has revived interest in compulsory arbitration. This article examines the system of compulsory arbitration that has regulated labor relations for all public school teachers in British Columbia for thirty-six years. Industrial relations in the major provinces of Canada tend to display distinct characteristics. British Columbia occupies an area greater than California, Oregon, and Washington combined and is economically dependent on primary industries, particularly forest products and mining. The labor movement is dominated by large international unions, with traditions of local autonomy, militance, and left-wing political action. For most of the twentieth century, British Columbia has had relatively conservative governments. This combination of economic and political factors has produced turbulent labor relations in British Columbia. Formal labor-management negotiations in British Columbia school districts began in an atmosphere of conflict.

The concept span of control has been interpreted so widely over the past years that in its present form its use as a means of communicating information among scholars has become severely impaired. This article argues that it is a useful concept for measuring the closeness of contact between a superior and his subordinates, Data are presented which demonstrate that different operational definitions of the term will produce not only greatly different mean values of the span of control, but also different correlation coefficients with other important structural variables. A new operational measure is proposed in order to develop a common language of measurement that will facilitate an understanding of organizational structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship of the sex of department heads to climate as perceived by teachers was examined in 10 senior high schools. It was assumed that teachers' attitudes toward male and female department heads would be manifested in a measure of climate. The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) was the major instrument used in the investigation, along with measures of sense of power of the department head and ratings of department heads on aggressiveness, suggestibility, and knowledge of professional information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review of the research on reward systems, job design, leadership, selection and training shows that the existing normative organization theory fails to deal adequately with the significant individual differences in persons' responses to organizational policies and practices. An effective organization theory has to suggest an organization design that will treat individuals differently with respect to rewards, job design, leadership, selection and training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a theory and framework of "levels of psychological existence," developed by Professor Oare Graves, the authors analyze the problem of disparate values in organization, rounding out their research with a standardized questionnaire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public employee strikes constitute one of the most heated topics of debate in the labor relations field, or indeed, in any area of public policy. While the legitimacy of unionization and collective bargaining by public employees has been gaining increased recognition, both the wisdom and propriety of strikes in the public sector are still very much open to question. "The Law" (statutes, court decisions, opinions of Attorneys General) seems quite clear and all-but-uniform on the basic point strikes by public employees are illegal. Yet such strikes do in fact occur, sometimes with union sanction. And leaden in otherwise-responsible, national professional organizations can make statements during organizing campaigns to the effect that they know strikes are illegal, so they would use a strike only as a last resort. Furthermore, even where the illegality of the strike seems crystal-clear under the applicable state statute, experience shows that local (elected) judges may be reluctant to issue injunctive relief at the insistence of the public-employer unit involved. The public-employer unit will probably find the courts not much willing to impose the draconian civil and criminal measures provided for in some statutes, and will itself probably be reluctant also, for similar political and practical reasons, to impose the ultimate sanction-dismissal.

Is management wasting a large portion of its payroll in unnecessary payments? Is it time to evaluate incentive systems for salaried employees in broader terms than cash payments alone? A first step is to find out how important "fringe benefits" or nonsalary compensation plans are in the minds of employees. The author reports on a study carried out to answer this and related questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on legal developments in marketing relative to the regulation of monopolistic methods. In regard to market control, the article discusses Newburgh Moire Company, Inc. v. Superior Moire Company, Inc. as it relates to multiple licensing accompanied by price fixing and antitrust laws. The article explains the legal history behind the decision. In regard to collusive practices, the article discusses Davis Pleating and Button Company v. The California Sportswear and Dress Association, Inc., et al. as it relates to labor unions, antitrust law, and nonlabor organizations.

The article discusses the importance of measuring productivity in distribution. The author believes measuring productivity in distribution is important because it can help in wage negotiations and help maintain a certain work ethic. The author says that to be effective, measures should compare the same task against itself at different times, different ways of doing the same task, and compare different tasks. He feels that existing methods are lacking and presents some new directions for measuring productivity, including indirect input and output, optimum scales of operation, minimizing movement through "distributive space," minimizing the number of transactions, maximizing routine in exchange, reducing the imperfection of markets, and analyzing the dispersion market.

The article presents the results of a survey conducted among presidents of small manufacturing firms in Virginia about problems facing their firms. The questionnaire was mailed to 300 companies, 92 of which were returned. The results found that most of the presidents think that superior subordinate relations is the single most important problem facing their firm. The respondents cited poor employee motivation and training as contributing factors to poor quality control and faulty design problems. According to the survey, presidents also expressed frustration on their failure to find ways to effectively manage their companies within the legal framework of their union contracts.

The article describes some characteristics of the firm, employees and community that influence union organizations in the U.S. According to the author, there are characteristics of the particular firm, community, and employees which greatly influence union election results, including age, race, sex, length of service and education. The author says these are some of the major factors that affect an employee's decision to vote for a union. He also states that an employee's need for acceptance is related to the size, previous experience with the union, and other characteristics of the community. The author believes there is less chance of having an employee vote for a union in a smaller community without previous experience with collective bargaining.

This paper discusses interorganizational linking mechanisms forming part of the micro-structure of government- industry contracting efforts. It analyzes models of buyer-seller relations under the uncertainties and cross-organizational interactions manifest in research and development. Alternative adaptations of project managerial modes are delineated and a tendency for project management to evolve toward "shared leadership" forms is posited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Project management in functional organizations provides a fertile field for much-needed reexamination of the presumption of dysfunctional conflict when managers and employed professionals interact in organizations. Systematic analysis must indentify the foundations of human conflict and determine the extent to which the implications of such conflict for organizational behavior are functional or dysfunctional. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study attempts to determine whether differences exist in the perception of the first-level manager's authority as seen by the first-level manager and his immediate superior. It also attempts to relate the differences that are observed to some general factors which might suggest variables or obstacles that inhibit the communication process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Managerial behavior in organizations probably is affected by influences from external organizations in the environment. It is hypothesized that the extent of external influence from specific organizations is related to the degree to which the focal organization is interdependent with the external organization. Data from 141 Israeli managers tend to support the principal hypothesis. Firms that sell relatively more to the government perceive themselves as influenced more by governmental demands; firms that are in relatively poorer financial conditions are influenced more by both the government and banks. Managers tend to report spending more time with external organizations to the extent that the firm is interdependent with them. Also, managers who tend to rank external, government-controlled factors as being more important to organizational success are more likely to rank the importance of having political connections as being more important for a manager. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A case study designed to examine the degree of congruence in management attitudes and socioeconomic background factors between executive superiors and executive subordinates, tested the hypothesis that the greater the correlation the greater the probability of promotion. Those subordinates being promoted did not necessarily share common background and attitudes with superiors but, perceptually, were significantly more aware of their superiors' views than were those not considered for promotion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article deals with the knowledge utilization process in management and organization and relates the concepts of knowledge flow to management education and development. Primary attention is given to the processes through which the knowledge development, application, and ultimate consumption subsystems are linked to one another within the entire knowledge flow system of administrative science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study of 142 managerial dyads in four industrial settings, the accuracy of the subordinate's perceptions of what his superior expects of him and the extent to which the subordinate complies to those expectations were significantly related to: (1) job satisfaction expressed by the subordinate and (2) his performance evaluated by his superior. However, the relationships which involved compliance were of significantly greater magnitude than those involving role accuracy. Both role accuracy and compliance were found to be "necessary" but not "sufficient" conditions for high evaluation of performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on how least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire scores of leaders and followers can affect industrial relations. LPC scores are used to measure leadership styles such as autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire. However, past research did not clearly define the impact of LPC scores on superior-subordinate relations in particular situations. This study focuses on job satisfaction and organizational climate based on high and low scoring superiors and subordinates, and performance ratings based on LPC scores. The author makes conclusions based on the study results.

This paper reports on the results of a study of the attitudes of international chief executives toward supervisory values and practices. As such, this paper is part of a larger study of the attitudes of international chief executives toward education and management education, business responsibility, and labor-management relations and supervision. Questionnaires were set to 571 top executives throughout the world to test the role of culture in explaining the attitudinal responses of the responding population. Usable replies were received from 177 top executives (or 31 percent of the sample chosen). Statistically significant differences were found for the five cultural groupings in five of the eight questions dealing with supervisory values and practices. Furthermore, the confidence level was greater than 0.001 in four of the five significant questions. The results were also tested with other demographic characteristics. Only in the cases of (a) ownership of firm by chief executive, and (b) size of company were there significant differences in at least one-half of the questions. The results of the analysis of variance tests supported the hypothesis that culture plays an important role in explaining the differences in attitudinal responses by the chief executives. The value of the findings rests with the need of international firms to recognize the limitations of any universal managerial philosophy at the present time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study contributes to the growing evidence relevant to the "laboratory approach" to organization development (OD). A pilot study revealed major changes in the climate of a small organization unit following exposure to a learning design derived from the laboratory approach. This replication applies the design in a more complex organization and yields a similar pattern of changes in climate which are smaller in magnitude. The results seem to reflect the consistent power of the design, as moderated by the harsh environment within which the present target units of organization existed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]