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During 1979-2022, Cameroon recorded 32 laboratory-confirmed mpox cases among 137 suspected mpox cases identified by the national surveillance network. The highest positivity rate occurred in 2022, indicating potential mpox re-emergence in Cameroon. Both clade I (n = 12) and clade II (n = 18) monkeypox virus (MPXV) were reported, a unique feature of mpox in Cameroon. The overall case-fatality ratio of 2.2% was associated with clade II. We found mpox occurred only in the forested southern part of the country, and MPXV phylogeographic structure revealed a clear geographic separation among concurrent circulating clades. Clade I originated from eastern regions close to neighboring mpox-endemic countries in Central Africa; clade II was prevalent in western regions close to West Africa. Our findings suggest that MPXV re-emerged after a 30-year lapse and might arise from different viral reservoirs unique to ecosystems in eastern and western rainforests of Cameroon.

The urban mosquito species Aedes aegypti is the main vector of arboviruses worldwide. Mosquito control with insecticides is the most prevalent method for preventing transmission in the absence of effective vaccines and available treatments; however, the extensive use of insecticides has led to the development of resistance in mosquito populations throughout the world, and the number of epidemics caused by arboviruses has increased. Three mosquito lines with different resistance profiles to deltamethrin were isolated in French Guiana, including one with the I1016 knock-down resistant allele. Significant differences were observed in the cumulative proportion of mosquitoes with a disseminated chikungunya virus infection over time across these lines. In addition, some genes related to resistance (CYP6BB2, CYP6N12, GST2, trypsin) were variably overexpressed in the midgut at 7 days after an infectious bloodmeal in these three lines. Our work shows that vector competence for chikungunya virus varied between Ae. aegypti laboratory lines with different deltamethrin resistance profiles. More accurate verification of the functional association between insecticide resistance and vector competence remains to be demonstrated., (© 2022 Royal Entomological Society.)

Objective: The main objective of the MACOMBA (Maternity and Control of Malaria-HIV co-infection in Bangui) trial was to show that cotrimoxazole (CTX) is more effective than sulphadoxine-pyremethamine-IPTp (IPTp-SP) to prevent placental malaria infection (primary end point) among HIV-positive pregnant women with a CD4+ count ≥350 cells/mm 3 in Bangui, CAR., Methods: MACOMBA is a multicentre, open-label randomised trial conducted in four maternity hospitals in Bangui. Between 2013 and 2017, 193 women were randomised and 112 (59 and 53 in CTX and IPTp-SP arms, respectively) were assessed for placental infection defined by microscopic parasitaemia or PCR., Results: Thirteen women had a placental infection: five in the CTX arm (one by microscopic placental parasitaemia and four by PCR) and eight by PCR in the SP-IPTp (8.5% vs. 15.1%, p = 0.28). The percentage of newborns with low birthweight (<2500 g) did not differ statistically between the two arms. Self-reported compliance to CTX prophylaxis was good. There was a low overall rate of adverse events in both arms., Conclusion: Although our results do not allow us to conclude that CTX is more effective, drug safety and good compliance among women with this treatment favour its widespread use among HIV-infected pregnant women, as currently recommended by WHO., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Monkeypox is an emerging infectious disease, which has a clinical presentation similar to smallpox. In the two past decades, Central Africa has seen an increase in the frequency of cases, with many monkeypox virus (MPXV) isolates detected in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the Central African Republic (CAR). To date, no complete MPXV viral genome has been published from the human cases identified in the CAR. The objective of this study was to sequence the full genome of 10 MPXV isolates collected during the CAR epidemics between 2001 and 2018 in order to determine their phylogenetic relationships among MPXV lineages previously described in Central Africa and West Africa. Our phylogenetic results indicate that the 10 CAR isolates belong to three lineages closely related to those found in DRC. The phylogenetic pattern shows that all of them emerged in the rainforest block of the Congo Basin. Since most human index cases in CAR occurred at the northern edge of western and eastern rainforests, transmissions from wild animals living in the rainforest is the most probable hypothesis. In addition, molecular dating estimates suggest that periods of intense political instability resulting in population movements within the country often associated also with increased poverty may have led to more frequent contact with host wild animals. The CAR socio-economic situation, armed conflicts and ecological disturbances will likely incite populations to interact more and more with wild animals and thus increase the risk of zoonotic spillover.

Background: Infection by hepatitis E virus (HEV) can cause a high burden of morbidity and mortality in countries with poor access to clean water and sanitation. Our study aimed to investigate the situation of HEV infections in the Central African Republic (CAR)., Methods: A retrospective analysis of the blood samples and notification forms collected through the national yellow fever (YF) surveillance program, but for which a diagnosis of YF was discarded, was carried out using an anti-HEV IgM ELISA and a HEV-specific RT-PCR., Results: Of 2883 YF-negative samples collected between January 2008 and December 2012, 745 (~ 26%) tested positive by at least either of the 2 tests used to confirm HEV cases. The results revealed that the CAR was hit by a large HEV outbreak in 2008 and 2009. The results also showed a clear seasonal pattern with correlation between HEV incidence and rainfall in Bangui. A phylogenetic analysis showed that the circulating strains belonged to genotypes 1e and 2b., Conclusions: Overall, this study provides further evidences that HEV can be a significant cause of acute febrile jaundice, particularly among adults during rainy season or flood, in a country from Sub-Saharan Africa.

Background: Since the identification of Zika virus (ZIKV) in Brazil in May 2015, the virus has spread throughout the Americas. However, ZIKV burden in the general population in affected countries remains unknown., Methods: We conducted a general population survey in the different communities of French Guiana through individual interviews and serologic survey during June-October 2017. All serum samples were tested for anti-ZIKV immunoglobulin G antibodies using a recombinant antigen-based SGERPAxMap microsphere immunoassay, and some of them were further evaluated through anti-ZIKV microneutralization tests., Results: The overall seroprevalence was estimated at 23.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 20.9%-25.9%) among 2697 participants, varying from 0% to 45.6% according to municipalities. ZIKV circulated in a large majority of French Guiana but not in the most isolated forest areas. The proportion of reported symptomatic Zika infection was estimated at 25.5% (95% CI, 20.3%-31.4%) in individuals who tested positive for ZIKV., Conclusions: This study described a large-scale representative ZIKV seroprevalence study in South America from the recent 2015-2016 Zika epidemic. Our findings reveal that the majority of the population remains susceptible to ZIKV, which could potentially allow future reintroductions of the virus., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society of America.)

Vector-borne viruses are becoming increasingly important from a public health standpoint with the emergence or reemergence of viruses and extension of the areas at risk. Here, we report the whole-genome sequences of two alphaviruses, namely, one Igbo-Ora virus and one Babanki virus, that were isolated several decades ago in Africa from human serum., (Copyright © 2019 Tricou et al.)

Background: French Guiana, a French overseas department located in South America between Brazil and Surinam, is the only European territory geographically located in the Amazonian forest complex and is considered endemic for yellow fever (YF). In the context of the emergent threat of YF in Latin America, we conducted a large household cross-sectional survey from June to October 2017 to estimate vaccination coverage in the population and to determine associations with sociodemographic and geographical characteristics., Methodology/principal Findings: In total, 1,415 households and 2,697 individuals were included from the 22 municipalities of French Guiana. YF vaccination coverage was estimated at 95.0% (95% CI: 93.4-96.2) in the entire territory but was spatially heterogeneous, with the lowest levels estimated in the western part of the territory along the Surinamese cross-border region, particularly in children under 16 years who were not enrolled in school, immigrant adults and disadvantaged populations with low socioeconomic indexes., Conclusions/significance: Despite the good vaccination coverage against YF in the general population of French Guiana resulting from the compulsory nature of YF vaccination for residents and travelers, there is an urgent need to improve vaccination coverage in vulnerable populations living in the northwestern part of the territory to limit the risk of transmission in the context of the emerging YF threat in South America. Despite the relative rarity of YF and the significant number of infectious and tropical diseases in French Guiana, clinicians should adopt a high index of suspicion for YF, particularly in vulnerable and at-risk populations., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist

Tataguine virus (TATV) is an orthobunyavirus that causes febrile illnesses in Africa. Here, we report the complete genome sequences of TATV strain HB72P583, isolated in the Central African Republic in 1972. Several genetic variations were detected in the small (S), medium (M), and large (L) segments relative to a TATV strain isolated in Nigeria in 1966.

HTLV-1 infection is considered as highly endemic in central Africa. Thirty years ago, a first epidemiological study was performed in Gabon, central Africa, and revealed that the prevalence varied from 5.0 to 10.5%. To evaluate current distribution of HTLVs in Gabon, 4.381 samples were collected from rural population living in 220 villages distributed within the 9 provinces of country. HTLVs prevalence was determined using two ELISA tests and positive results were confirmed by Western Blot. The overall HTLV-1 seroprevalence was of 7.3% among the rural Gabonese population; with 5.4% for men and 9.0% for women. Prevalence of HTLV-1 differed by province, ranging from 2.3% to 12.5% into the rain forest. Being a woman older than 51 years represented a high risk for HTLV-1 acquisition. Hospitalization, operation/surgery, transfusion and medical abortion or fever, arthritis and abdominal pain are also significant risk factors. In addition, 0.1% of samples were found as HTLV-2 positive, while 12.0% had an indeterminate HTLV serological pattern. HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 were not found. Phylogenetic analysis was performed on 87 samples and demonstrated that HTLV-1 present in Gabon belongs mostly to subtype B, however the rare subtype D was also found. Altogether, our results demonstrate that almost thirty years after the first epidemiological study prevention of HTLVs infection is still an issue in Gabon., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: Arboviral infections are a public health concern and an escalating problem worldwide. Estimating the burden of these diseases represents a major challenge that is complicated by the large number of unapparent infections, especially those of dengue fever. Serological surveys are thus required to identify the distribution of these diseases and measure their impact. Therefore, we undertook a scoping review of the literature to describe and summarize epidemiological practices, findings and insights related to seroprevalence studies of dengue, chikungunya and Zika virus, which have rapidly expanded across the globe in recent years., Methodology/principal Findings: Relevant studies were retrieved through a literature search of MEDLINE, WHOLIS, Lilacs, SciELO and Scopus (2000 to 2018). In total, 1389 publications were identified. Studies addressing the seroprevalence of dengue, chikungunya and/or Zika written in English or French and meeting the inclusion and exclusion criteria were included. In total, 147 studies were included, from which 185 data points were retrieved, as some studies used several different samples. Most of the studies were exclusively conducted on dengue (66.5%), but 16% were exclusively conducted on chikungunya, and 7 were exclusively conducted on Zika; the remainder were conducted on multiple arboviruses. A wide range of designs were applied, but most studies were conducted in the general population (39%) and in households (41%). Although several assays were used, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were the predominant test used (77%). The temporal distribution of chikungunya studies followed the virus during its rapid expansion since 2004. The results revealed heterogeneity of arboviruses seroprevalence between continents and within a given country for dengue, chikungunya and Zika viruses, ranging from 0 to 100%, 76% and 73% respectively., Conclusions/significance: Serological surveys provide the most direct measurement for defining the immunity landscape for infectious diseases, but the methodology remains difficult to implement. Overall, dengue, chikungunya and Zika serosurveys followed the expansion of these arboviruses, but there remain gaps in their geographic distribution. This review addresses the challenges for researchers regarding study design biases. Moreover, the development of reliable, rapid and affordable diagnosis tools represents a significant issue concerning the ability of seroprevalence surveys to differentiate infections when multiple viruses co-circulate., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction: Since the identification of ZIKV in Brazil in May 2015, the virus has spread extensively throughout the Americas. Cases of ZIKV infection have been reported in Suriname since October 2, 2015., Methods: A laboratory-based surveillance system was quickly implemented according to previous experience with the emergence of chikungunya. General practitioners and public health centers located in different districts of Suriname were asked to send blood samples from suspicious cases to Academic Hospital for molecular diagnosis of Zika virus infection. We investigated Zika-related laboratory data collected during surveillance and response activities to provide the first outbreak report in Suriname in terms of time, location and person., Results: A total of 791 molecularly confirmed cases were reported during a 48-week interval from October 2015 to August 2016. The majority of ZIKV-positive cases involved women between 20 and 39 years of age, reflecting concern about Zika infection during pregnancy. The outbreak peaked in mid-January and gradually spread from the district of Paramaribo to western coastal areas., Discussion: This report provides a simple and comprehensive description of the outbreak in Suriname and demonstrates the utility of laboratory data to highlight the spatiotemporal dynamics of the outbreak in that country.

Background: French Guiana is a territory that has a decades-long history of dengue outbreaks and more recently, in 2014, a chikungunya outbreak. Zika virus (ZIKV) emerged in late 2015 and subsequently led to an important outbreak., Methodology/principal Findings: A cross-sectional phone survey was conducted among the general population during the outbreak in June 2016 with a total of 1,129 individuals interviewed to assess perceptions, knowledge and behaviors regarding zika infection. The population seemed aware of zika, and perceived the infection as a more serious health threat than other common mosquito-borne diseases. Furthermore, both the perceptions and behaviors related to zika and its prevention were found to vary considerably among different social groups, geographic areas and gender; less educated female participants were found to perceive the disease as more worrisome and were less likely to adopt protective behaviors. Moreover, female population has been particularly responsive to awareness campaigns and rapidly understood the extent of risks associated with ZIKV infection., Conclusions/significance: These results revealed that ZIKV appeared at the time of the survey as a new health threat that concerns the public more than chikungunya and dengue fever with differences observed among subgroups of population. These results have implications for the development of multifaceted infection control programs, including strategies for prevention and awareness, helping the population to develop an accurate perception of the threat they are facing and encouraging behavior changes.

An outbreak of familial monkeypox occurred in the Central African Republic in 2015/2016 by 3 transmission modes: familial, health care-related, and transport-related. Ten people (3 children and 7 adults) were infected. Most presented with cutaneous lesions and fever, and 2 children died. The viral strain responsible was a Zaire genotype strain.

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection has been associated with complications during pregnancy. Although the presence of symptoms might be a risk factor for complication, the proportion of ZIKV-infected pregnant women with symptoms remains unknown. Following the emergence of ZIKV in French Guiana, all pregnancies in the territory were monitored by RT-PCR and/or detection of ZIKV antibodies. Follow-up data collected during pregnancy monitoring interviews were analysed from 1 February to 1 June 2016. We enrolled 3,050 pregnant women aged 14-48 years and 573 (19%) had laboratory-confirmed ZIKV infection. Rash, arthralgia, myalgia and conjunctival hyperaemia were more frequently observed in ZIKV-positive women; 23% of them (95% confidence interval (CI): 20-27) had at least one symptom compatible with ZIKV infection. Women 30 years and older were significantly more likely to have symptoms than younger women (28% vs 20%). The proportion of symptomatic infections varied from 17% in the remote interior to 35% in the urbanised population near the coast (adjusted risk ratio: 1.6; 95% CI: 1.4-1.9.). These estimates put findings on cohorts of symptomatic ZIKV-positive pregnant women into the wider context of an epidemic with mainly asymptomatic infections. The proportion of symptomatic ZIKV infections appears to vary substantially between populations.

Background: Influenza-like illness (ILI) is an important public health problem worldwide. In the Central African Republic, acute infectious diseases are the commonest reason for consultation. The Institut Pasteur of Bangui set up a surveillance network in 2008 to monitor the circulation of influenza viruses. We report the results of use of this surveillance system during the period 2010-2015., Methods: The first surveillance centre covered Bangui, the capital of the country, and neighbouring areas and epidemiological data on syndromes similar to ILI. Throat and nasopharyngeal swab samples are transmitted weekly to the Institut Pasteur of Bangui, where real-time and multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction are used to detect and subtype influenza A (H1N1 and H3N2) and B viruses. The demographic characteristics of all patients and of positive cases according to age and the seasonal patterns of influenza virus circulation were analysed., Results: Between January 2010 and December 2015, 5385 throat swabs were collected; 454 (8.4%) of the samples were positive. Of these, 450 yielded at least one influenza virus and four showed co-infections. Children under the age of 5 years were the most frequently infected (257/450, 57.1%), with irregular peaks of ILI. Influenza B predominated (56.2%; n  = 201), with 39.0% H3N2 and 16.7%H1N1pdm09. Influenza viruses were detected mainly in the rainy season (July-December)., Conclusion: The sentinel surveillance site is yielding important information about the seasonality and age pattern of circulating influenza virus. Nationwide distribution of sentinel sites is warranted.

With the Zika virus outbreak in South America starting in 2015 and its potential to cause malformation of the fetus in infected women, the need for diagnostic methods became obvious. Until now, only limited data are available on the diagnostic performance of commercial kits. Here, we present data comparing the RealStar ® Zika Virus RT-PCR Kit 1.0 for detection of Zika virus from 208 serum and urine samples collected in French Guiana with a reference method. Of these, 114 samples tested positive with the RealStar ® Kit and 111 with the reference method.

Background: In sub-tropical countries, infectious diseases remain one of the main causes of mortality. Because of their lack of active immunity, pregnant women and their unborn children represent the most susceptible people. In Gabon, data on infectious diseases of pregnant women such as syphilis and rubella are either scarce or very old. Few studies have assessed T. gondii infection during pregnancy in the country. Here, we evaluate seroprevalence of HIV, HTVL-1, syphilis and T. gondii and rubella infection during antenatal care among women living in Franceville, Gabon., Methods: A retrospective study was conducted on data collected from May 2007 to July 2010. After signing an informed written consent form, all pregnant women consulting in two hospitals of Franceville (Gabon) and in offices of maternity and childbirth health centers were included. Demographic and clinical data were collected. Serum samples were collected and analysed using immunological assays relevant for HIV (Genscreen HIV-1 version 2, Bio-Rad®, Marne la Roquette, France).HTLV-1 (Vironostika HTLV-1, Biomérieux®, Marcy l'Etoile, France), T. pallidum (TPHA/VDRL), BIOLABO®SA), rubella virus (Vidas Biomerieux®, Marcy l'Etoile, France) and T. gondii (Vidas Biomerieux®, Marcy l'Etoile, France) diagnoses were performed. Data analysis was done using the Stat view 5.0 software., Results: A total of 973 pregnant women were assessed. The mean age was 25.84 ± 6.9 years, with a minimum age of 14.0 years and a maximum of 45.0 years. Women from 26 to 45 years old and unemployed women were the most prevalent: 41.93% and 77.18%, respectively. The prevalence of studied infectious diseases were 2.50% for syphilis, 2.88% for HTLV-1, 4.00% for HIV with no significant difference between them (p = 0.1). Seropositivity against rubella was higher (87.56%, n = 852) than seropositivity against T. gondii (57.35%, n = 557), (p < 0.0001). Only 5 (0.51%) co-infection cases were found: 2 co-infected with HIVand T. pallidum, 2 co-infected with HIV and HTLV-1, and one co-infected with T. pallidum and HTLV-1. Sixty-two pregnant women were seronegative against toxoplasmosis and rubella (6.37%)., Conclusion: High levels of seropositivity against T. gondii and the rubella virus were observed. The prevalence of T. pallidum and HTLV-1 were lowest but HIV prevalence in young women was worrying.

Rhabdoviridae is one of the most diversified families of RNA viruses whose members infect a wide range of plants, animals, and arthropods. The members of this family are classified into 13 genera and >150 unassigned viruses. Here, we sequenced the complete genome of a rhabdovirus belonging to the Hart Park serogroup, the Kamese virus (KAMV), isolated in 1977 from Culex pruina in the Central African Republic. The genomic sequence showed an organization typical of rhabdoviruses with additional genes in the P-M and G-L intergenic regions, as already reported for the Hart Park serogroup. Our Kamese strain (ArB9074) had 98% and 78.8% nucleotide sequence similarity with the prototypes of the KAMV and Mossuril virus isolated in Uganda and Mozambique in two different Culex species, respectively. Moreover, the protein sequences had 98-100% amino acid similarity with the prototype of the KAMV, except for an additional gene (U3) that showed a divergence of 6%. These molecular data show that our strain of the KAMV is genetically close to the Culex annuliorus strain that was circulating in Uganda in 1967. However, this study suggests the need to improve our knowledge of the KAMV to better understand its behavior, its life cycle, and its potential reservoirs.

Background: Major chikungunya outbreaks have affected several Central African countries during the past decade. The chikungunya virus (CHIKV) was isolated from humans and sylvan mosquitoes in the Central African Republic (CAR) during the 1970 and 1980s but has not been found recently, despite the presence of Aedes albopictus since 2010. The risk of a massive chikungunya epidemic is therefore potentially high, as the human populations are immunologically naïve and because of the presence of the mosquito vector. In order to estimate the risk of a large outbreak, we assessed the vector competence of local Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus populations for ancient local strains of CHIKV in CAR. Mosquitoes were orally infected with the virus, and its presence in mosquito saliva was analysed 7 and 14 days post-infection (dpi) by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction., Results: The two species had similar infection rates at 7 and 14 days, and the dissemination rate of both vectors was ≥ 80% at 14 dpi. Only females followed up to 14 dpi had CHKV in their saliva., Conclusion: These results confirm the risk of transmission of enzootic CHIKV by anthropophilic vectors such as Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus.

Some arboviruses threaten human global health with potentially explosive emergence. Analysis of whole-genome sequences of decades-old isolates might contribute to the understanding of the complex dynamics which drive their circulation and emergence. Here, we report the whole-genome sequences of two Chikungunya viruses isolated in the Central African Republic in the 1970s and 1980s., (Copyright © 2017 Tricou et al.)

Background: Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus are the main epidemic vectors of dengue, chikungunya and Zika viruses worldwide. Their control during epidemics relies mainly on control of larvae and adults with insecticides. Unfortunately, loss of susceptibility of both species to several insecticide classes limits the efficacy of interventions. In Africa, where Aedes-borne viruses are of growing concern, few data are available on resistance to insecticides. To fill this gap, we assessed the susceptibility to insecticides of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus populations in the Central African Republic (CAR) and studied the mechanisms of resistance., Methods: Immature stages were sampled between June and September 2014 in six locations in Bangui (the capital of CAR) for larval and adult bioassays according to WHO standard procedures. We also characterized DDT- and pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes molecularly and biochemically, including tests for the activities of nonspecific esterases (α and β), mixed-function oxidases, insensitive acetylcholinesterase and glutathione S-transferases., Results: Larval bioassays, carried out to determine the lethal concentrations (LC 50 and LC 95 ) and resistance ratios (RR 50 and RR 95 ), suggested that both vector species were susceptible to Bacillus thuringiensis var. israeliensis and to temephos. Bioassays of adults showed susceptibility to propoxur and fenitrothion, except for one Ae. albopictus population that was suspected to be resistant to fenithrothion. None of the Ae. aegypti populations was fully susceptible to DDT. Ae. albopictus presented a similar profile to Ae. aegypti but with a lower mortality rate (41%). Possible resistance to deltamethrin was observed among Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, although some were susceptible. No kdr mutations were detected in either species; however, the activity of detoxifying enzymes was higher in most populations than in the susceptible Ae. aegypti strain, confirming decreased susceptibility to DDT and deltamethrin., Conclusion: These findings suggested that regular, continuous monitoring of resistance is necessary in order to select the most effective adulticides for arbovirus control in Bangui.

Background: Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) causes a viral zoonosis, with discontinuous epizootics and sporadic epidemics, essentially in East Africa. Infection with this virus causes severe illness and abortion in sheep, goats, and cattle as well as other domestic animals. Humans can also be exposed through close contact with infectious tissues or by bites from infected mosquitoes, primarily of the Aedes and Culex genuses. Although the cycle of RVFV infection in savannah regions is well documented, its distribution in forest areas in central Africa has been poorly investigated., Methodology/principal Findings: To evaluate current circulation of RVFV among livestock and humans living in the Central African Republic (CAR), blood samples were collected from sheep, cattle, and goats and from people at risk, such as stock breeders and workers in slaughterhouses and livestock markets. The samples were tested for anti-RVFV immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies. We also sequenced the complete genomes of two local strains, one isolated in 1969 from mosquitoes and one isolated in 1985 from humans living in forested areas. The 1271 animals sampled comprised 727 cattle, 325 sheep, and 219 goats at three sites. The overall seroprevalence of anti-RVFV IgM antibodies was 1.9% and that of IgG antibodies was 8.6%. IgM antibodies were found only during the rainy season, but the frequency of IgG antibodies did not differ significantly by season. No evidence of recent RVFV infection was found in 335 people considered at risk; however, 16.7% had evidence of past infection. Comparison of the nucleotide sequences of the strains isolated in the CAR with those isolated in other African countries showed that they belonged to the East/Central African cluster., Conclusion and Significance: This study confirms current circulation of RVFV in CAR. Further studies are needed to determine the potential vectors involved and the virus reservoirs., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Molecular screening of 300 at-risk people from Central Africa identified 2 human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-4-infected individuals. A zoonotic origin of infection was suggested, as both individuals reported being severely bitten by a gorilla during hunting activities. One strain was highly divergent and was designated as the HTLV-4 subtype-b prototype., (© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, e-mail journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: New sequencing technologies have opened the way to the discovery and the characterization of pathogenic viruses in clinical samples. However, the use of these new methods can require an amplification of viral RNA prior to the sequencing. Among all the available methods, the procedure based on the use of Phi29 polymerase produces a huge amount of amplified DNA. However, its major disadvantage is to generate a large number of chimeric sequences which can affect the assembly step. The pre-process method proposed in this study strongly limits the negative impact of chimeric reads in order to obtain the full-length of viral genomes., Findings: Three different assembly softwares (ABySS, Ray and SPAdes) were tested for their ability to correctly assemble the full-length of viral genomes. Although in all cases, our pre-processed method improved genome assembly, only its combination with the use of SPAdes allowed us to obtain the full-length of the viral genomes tested in one contig., Conclusions: The proposed pipeline is able to overcome drawbacks due to the generation of chimeric reads during the amplification of viral RNA which considerably improves the assembling of full-length viral genomes.

Background: In many African countries malaria has declined sharply due to a synergy of actions marked by the introduction of vector control strategies, but the disease remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Central African Republic (CAR). An entomological study was initiated with the aim to characterize the malaria vectors in Bangui, the capital of CAR, and determine their vector competence., Methods: A cross-sectional entomological study was conducted in 15 sites of the district of Bangui, the capital of CAR, in September-October 2013 and a second collection was done in four of those sites between November and December 2013. Mosquitoes were collected by human landing catch (HLC) indoors and outdoors and by pyrethrum spray catch of indoor-resting mosquitoes. Mosquitoes were analysed for species and multiple other attributes, including the presence of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein or DNA, blood meal source, 2La inversion karyotype, and the L1014F kdr insecticide resistance mutation., Results: Overall, 1292 anophelines were analysed, revealing a predominance of Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus, with a small fraction of Anopheles coluzzii. Molecular typing of the An. gambiae complex species showed that An. gambiae was predominant (95.7 %) as compared to An. coluzzii (2.1 %), and Anopheles arabiensis was not present. In some areas the involvement of secondary vectors, such as Anopheles coustani, expands the risk of infection. By HLC sampling, An. funestus displayed a stronger endophilic preference than mosquitoes from the An. gambiae sister taxa, with a mean indoor-capture rate of 54.3 % and 67.58 % for An. gambiae sister taxa and An. funestus, respectively. Human biting rates were measured overall for each of the species with 28 or 29 bites/person/night, respectively. Both vectors displayed a strong human feeding preference as determined by blood meal source, which was not different between the different sampling sites. An. coustani appears to be highly exophilic, with 92 % of HLC samples captured outdoors. The mean CSP rate in head-thorax sections of all Anopheles was 5.09 %, and was higher in An. gambiae s.l. (7.4 %) than in An. funestus (3.3 %). CSP-positive An. coustani were also detected in outdoor HLC samples. In the mosquitoes of the An. gambiae sister taxa the kdr-w mutant allele was nearly fixed, with 92.3 % resistant homozygotes, and no susceptible homozygotes detected., Conclusions: This study collected data on anopheline populations in CAR, behaviour of vectors and transmission levels. Further studies should investigate the biting behaviour and susceptibility status of the anophelines to different insecticides to allow the establishment of appropriate vector control based on practical entomological knowledge.

Background: In the Central African Republic, malaria is a major public health problem and the leading cause of death among children. This disease appears to be hyperendemic but no substantial entomological data, including data on Anopheles spp. susceptibility to insecticides, is available. This study evaluates, for the first time in the CAR, the status of insecticide resistance in the Anopheles funestus population, the second major vector of malaria in Africa., Methods: WHO standard bioassay susceptibility tests were performed on the An. funestus population using F1 generation from gravid females mosquitoes (F0) collected by manual aspirator sampling of households in Gbanikola, Bangui in October 2014 to assess: (i) An. funestus susceptibility to bendiocarb, malathion, permethrin, lamda-cyhalothrin, deltamethrin and DDT, and (ii) the effect of pre-exposure to the piperonyl butoxide (PBO) synergist on insecticide susceptibility. Additional tests were conducted to investigate metabolic resistance status (cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, glutathione S-transferases, and esterases)., Results: A high phenotypic resistance of An. funestus population to malathion, DDT and pyrethroids was observed with a mortality rate ranging from 23 to 74%. For the pyrethroid groups, the mortality rate was 35, 31 and 23% for lambda-cyhalothrin, deltamethrin, and permethrin, respectively. In contrast a 100% mortality rate to bendiocarb was recorded. Knockdown time (KDT) was long for all pyrethroids, DDT and malathion with KDT50 higher than 50 min. Pre-exposure of An. funestus to PBO synergist significantly restored susceptibility to all pyrethroids (Fisher's exact test P <0.0001) but not in DDT (Fisher's exact test P = 0.724). Data from biochemical tests suggest the involvement of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, esterases and glutatione S-transferases in the resistance of An. funestus population from Gbanikola (Wilcoxon test P <0.05)., Conclusion: Evidence of biochemical resistance to insecticide was detected in An. funestus population from the district of Gbanikola, Bangui. This study suggests that detoxifying enzymes are involved in insecticide resistance of An. funestus. However, despite disruptive violence, further research is urgently needed to assess the insecticide susceptibility status of An. funestus population in all CAR regions; insecticide resistance could rapidly compromise the success of malaria control programs.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis delta virus (HDV) occur worldwide and are prevalent in both urban and remote rural communities. In a remote village in Gabon, central Africa, we observed a high prevalence of HBsAg carriage and HDV infection, particularly in children and adolescents. The prevalence of HBsAg differed significantly by gender and age, females being more likely than males to carry the HBsAg during the first 10 years of life, while the prevalence was higher among males than females aged 11-20 years. We also characterised HBV and HDV strains circulating in the village. The principal HBV strains belonged to genotype HBV-E and subgenotype QS-A3. Complete genome analysis revealed for the first time the presence of the HBV-D genotype in Gabon, in the form of an HBV-D/E recombinant. Molecular analysis of HDV strains and their complete genomic characterisation revealed two distinct groups within the dominant HDV clade 8. Molecular analysis of HBV and HDV strains did not reveal vertical transmission within the families studied but rather horizontal, intrafamilial transmission among children aged 0-10 years. Our findings indicate that HBV is transmitted in early childhood by body fluids rather than by sexual contact. Health education adapted to the different age groups might therefore help to reduce HBV transmission. Young children should be vaccinated to control HBV infection in areas of extremely high prevalence., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Although rabies represents an important public health threat, it is still a neglected disease in Asia and Africa where it causes tens of thousands of deaths annually despite available human and animal vaccines. In the Central African Republic (CAR), an endemic country for rabies, this disease remains poorly investigated., Methods: To evaluate the extent of the threat that rabies poses in the CAR, we analyzed data for 2012 from the National Reference Laboratory for Rabies, where laboratory confirmation was performed by immunofluorescence and PCR for both animal and human suspected cases, and data from the only anti-rabies dispensary of the country and only place where post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is available. Both are located in Bangui, the capital of the CAR. For positive samples, a portion of the N gene was amplified and sequenced to determine the molecular epidemiology of circulating strains., Results: In 2012, 966 exposed persons visited the anti-rabies dispensary and 632 received a post-exposure rabies vaccination. More than 90% of the exposed persons were from Bangui and its suburbs and almost 60% of them were under 15-years of age. No rabies-related human death was confirmed. Of the 82 samples from suspected rabid dogs tested, 69 were confirmed positive. Most of the rabid dogs were owned although unvaccinated. There was a strong spatiotemporal correlation within Bangui and within the country between reported human exposures and detection of rabid dogs (P<0.001). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that three variants belonging to Africa I and II lineages actively circulated in 2012., Conclusions: These data indicate that canine rabies was endemic in the CAR in 2012 and had a detrimental impact on human health as shown by the hundreds of exposed persons who received PEP. Implementation of effective public health interventions including mass dog vaccination and improvement of the surveillance and the access to PEP are urgently needed in this country.

The Bunyaviridae family is currently composed of five genera, including Phlebovirus, in which several phleboviruses are associated with human diseases. Using high-throughput sequencing, we obtained and characterized one complete genome of the Arumowot virus (AMTV) isolated in 1978 from Turdus libonyanus, the Kurrichane Thrush, in the Central African Republic (CAR). The genomic segment of the new strain of AMTV isolated in the CAR had 75.4-83.5% sequence similarity and 82-98.4% amino acid similarity to the prototype sequence of AMTV. The different conserved proteins of the small (S) and large (L) segments (Nc, NSP, and RNA polymerase) showed close similarity at the amino acid level, whereas the polyprotein of the medium (M) segment was highly divergent, with 18% and 37.7%, respectively, for the prototype sequence of AMTV and the Odrenisrou virus (ODRV) isolated from Culex (Cx.) albiventris mosquitoes in the Tai forest, Ivory Coast. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the sequence homology analysis and indicated that AMTV-CAR clustered into the Salehabad virus antigenic complex. The two closest viruses were the prototype sequences of AMTV originally isolated from Cx. antennatus mosquitoes and ODRV. These molecular data suggest the need for a deep genetic characterization of the diversity of this viral species to enhance its detection in the Central African region and to understand better its behavior and life cycle so that its potential spread to the human population can be prevented.

Objectives: Little is known about cannabis use in hunter-gatherers. Therefore, we investigated cannabis use in the Aka, a population of foragers of the Congo Basin. Because cannabis contains anthelminthic compounds, and the Aka have a high prevalence of helminthiasis, we also tested the hypothesis that cannabis use might be an unconscious form of self-medication against helminths., Methods: We collected self- and peer-reports of cannabis use from all adult Aka in the Lobaye district of the Central African Republic (n = 379). Because female cannabis use was low, we restricted sample collection to men. Using an immunoassay for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-11-oic acid (THCA), a urinary biomarker of recent cannabis consumption, we validated cannabis use in men currently residing in camps near a logging road (n = 62). We also collected stool samples to assay worm burden. A longitudinal reinfection study was conducted among a subsample of the male participants (n = 23) who had been treated with a commercial anthelmintic 1 year ago., Results: The prevalence of self- and peer-reported cannabis use was 70.9% among men and 6.1% among women, for a total prevalence of 38.6%. Using a 50 ng/ml threshold for THCA, 67.7% of men used cannabis. Cannabis users were significantly younger and had less material wealth than the non-cannabis users. There were significant negative associations between THCA levels and worm burden, and reinfection with helminths 1 year after treatment with a commercial anthelmintic., Conclusions: The prevalence of cannabis use among adult Aka men was high when compared to most global populations. THCA levels were negatively correlated with parasite infection and reinfection, supporting the self-medication hypothesis., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Unlabelled: Simian foamy virus (SFV) is a ubiquitous retrovirus in nonhuman primates (NHPs) that can be transmitted to humans, mostly through severe bites. In the past few years, our laboratory has identified more than 50 hunters from central Africa infected with zoonotic SFVs. Analysis of the complete sequences of five SFVs obtained from these individuals revealed that env was the most variable gene. Furthermore, recombinant SFV strains, some of which involve sequences in the env gene, were recently identified. Here, we investigated the variability of the env genes of zoonotic SFV strains and searched for possible recombinants. We sequenced the complete env gene or its surface glycoprotein region (SU) from DNA amplified from the blood of (i) a series of 40 individuals from Cameroon or Gabon infected with a gorilla or chimpanzee foamy virus (FV) strain and (ii) 1 gorilla and 3 infected chimpanzees living in the same areas as these hunters. Phylogenetic analyses revealed the existence of two env variants among both the gorilla and chimpanzee FV strains that were present in zoonotic and NHP strains. These variants differ greatly (>30% variability) in a 753-bp-long region located in the receptor-binding domain of SU, whereas the rest of the gene is very conserved. Although the organizations of the Env protein sequences are similar, the potential glycosylation patterns differ between variants. Analysis of recombination suggests that the variants emerged through recombination between different strains, although all parental strains could not be identified., Importance: SFV infection in humans is a great example of a zoonotic retroviral infection that has not spread among human populations, in contrast to human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs) and human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs). Recombination was a major mechanism leading to the emergence of HIV. Here, we show that two SFV molecular envelope gene variants circulate among ape populations in Central Africa and that both can be transmitted to humans. These variants differ greatly in the SU region that corresponds to the part of the Env protein in contact with the environment. These variants may have emerged through recombination between SFV strains infecting different NHP species., (Copyright © 2015, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.)

Non-human primates (NHPs) often live in inaccessible areas, have cryptic behaviors, and are difficult to follow in the wild. Here, we present a study on the spread of the simian T-lymphotropic Virus Type 1 (STLV-1), the simian counterpart of the human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) in a semi-captive mandrill colony. This study combines 28 years of longitudinal monitoring, including behavioral data, with a dynamic mathematical model and Bayesian inference. Three transmission modes were suspected: aggressive, sexual and familial. Our results show that among males, STLV-1 transmission occurs preferentially via aggression. Because of their impressive aggressive behavior male mandrills can easily transmit the virus during fights. On the contrary, sexual activity seems to have little effect. Thus transmission appears to occur primarily via male-male and female-female contact. In addition, for young mandrills, familial transmission appears to play an important role in virus spread., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an alphavirus transmitted by the bite of mosquito vectors. Over the past 10 years, the virus has gained mutations that enhance its transmissibility by the Aedes albopictus vector, resulting in massive outbreaks in the Indian Ocean, Asia and Central Africa. Recent introduction of competent A. albopictus vectors into the Central African Republic (CAR) pose a threat of a Chikungunya fever (CHIKF) epidemic in this region. We undertook this study to assess the genetic diversity and background of CHIKV strains isolated in the CAR between 1975 and 1984 and also to estimate the ability of local strains to adapt to A. albopictus. Our results suggest that, local CHIKV strains have a genetic background compatible with quick adaptation to A. albopictus, as previously observed in other Central African countries. Intense surveillance of the human and vector populations is necessary to prevent or anticipate the emergence of a massive CHIKF epidemic in the CAR., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Aedes albopictus, a mosquito native to Asia, has invaded all five continents during the past three decades. It was reported in central Africa in the 2000s, first in Cameroon, and, since then, has colonised almost all countries of the region. The species, originally considered a secondary vector of dengue viruses, has been showed to play a major role in transmission of chikungunya virus in numerous countries, including in the central African region. We review the current spread of Ae. albopictus in central Africa, its larval ecology and its impact on indigenous species such as Ae. aegypti. We explore the potential of Ae. albopictus to affect the epidemiology of emerging or re-emerging arboviruses and discuss the conventional means for its control, while emphasizing the importance of data on its susceptibility to insecticides to cope with potential outbreaks.

The early stage of viral infection is often followed by an important increase of viral load and is generally considered to be the most at risk for pathogen transmission. Most methods quantifying the relative importance of the different stages of infection were developed for studies aimed at measuring HIV transmission in Humans. However, they cannot be transposed to animal populations in which less information is available. Here we propose a general method to quantify the importance of the early and late stages of the infection on micro-organism transmission from field studies. The method is based on a state space dynamical model parameterized using Bayesian inference. It is illustrated by a 28 years dataset in mandrills infected by Simian Immunodeficiency Virus type-1 (SIV-1) and the Simian T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus type-1 (STLV-1). For both viruses we show that transmission is predominant during the early stage of the infection (transmission ratio for SIV-1: 1.16 [0.0009; 18.15] and 9.92 [0.03; 83.8] for STLV-1). However, in terms of basic reproductive number (R0 ), which quantifies the weight of both stages in the spread of the virus, the results suggest that the epidemics of SIV-1 and STLV-1 are mainly driven by late transmissions in this population., (© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Of 78 Gabonese individuals who had received bites from nonhuman primates (NHPs) while hunting, 7 were infected with human T lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1). Five had been bitten by gorillas and were infected with subtype B strains; however, a 12-year-old girl who was severely bitten by a Cercopithecus nictitans was infected with a subtype D strain that was closely related to the simian T lymphotropic virus (STLV-1) that infects this monkey species. Her mother was infected with a subtype B strain. These data confirm that hunters in Africa can be infected by HTLV-1 that is closely related to the strains circulating among local NHP game. Our findings strongly suggest that a severe bite represent a risk factor for STLV-1 acquisition., (© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging pathogen belonging to the Spondweni serocomplex within the genus Flavivirus. It has been isolated from several mosquito species. Two lineages of ZIKV have been defined by polyprotein homology. Using high-throughput sequencing, we obtained and characterized three complete genomes of ZIKV isolated between 1976 and 1980 in the Central African Republic. The three viruses were isolated from two species of mosquito, Aedes africanus and Ae. opok. Two sequences from Ae. africanus had 99.9% nucleotide sequence identity and 100% amino acid identity, whereas the complete genome obtained from Ae. opok had 98.3% nucleotide identity and 99.4% amino acid identity with the other two genomes. Phylogenetic analysis based on the amino acid sequence of the polyprotein showed that the three ZIKV strains clustered together but diverged from all other ZIKV strains. Our molecular data suggest that a different subtype of West African ZIKV strains circulated in Aedes species in Central Africa.

Arboviral diseases are a major threat to human and animal health today. Analysis of whole-genome sequences of decades-old arboviral strains may bring new insights into the viral evolution that might have facilitated outbreaks. Here, we report the whole-genome sequences of two Middelburg viruses isolated several decades ago in the Central African Republic., (Copyright © 2014 Tricou et al.)

To validate the feasibility of using next-generation sequencing in an African context, the complete genome of a rabies virus isolated from a human patient was obtained by high-throughput sequencing after virus isolation in mice and random unbiased amplification. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that this virus belongs to the Africa II clade., (Copyright © 2014 Tricou et al.)

During January 2007-July 2012, a total of 3,220 suspected yellow fever cases were reported in the Central African Republic; 55 were confirmed and 11 case-patients died. Mean delay between onset of jaundice and case confirmation was 16.6 days. Delay between disease onset and blood collection could be reduced by increasing awareness of the population.

Mandrills are naturally infected with simian T-cell leukaemia virus type 1 (STLV-1) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)mnd. In humans, dual infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) may worsen their clinical outcome. We evaluated the effect of co-infection in mandrills on viral burden, changes in T-cell subsets and clinical outcome. The SIV viral load was higher in SIV-infected mandrills than in co-infected animals, whereas the STLV-1 proviral load was higher in co-infected than in mono-infected groups. Dually infected mandrills had a statistically significantly lower CD4+ T-cell count, a lower proportion of naive CD8+ T cells and a higher proportion of central memory cells. CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells from SIV-infected animals had a lower percentage of Ki67 than those from the other groups. Co-infected monkeys had higher percentages of activated CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Two co-infected mandrills with high immune activation and clonal integration of STLV provirus showed pathological manifestations (infective dermatitis and generalised scabies) rarely encountered in nonhuman primates., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The invasive Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) was first reported in central Africa in 2000, in Cameroon, with the indigenous mosquito species Ae. aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Today, this invasive species is present in almost all countries of the region, including the Central African Republic (CAR), where it was first recorded in 2009. As invasive species of mosquitoes can affect the distribution of native species, resulting in new patterns of vectors and concomitant risk for disease, we undertook a comparative study early and late in the wet season in the capital and the main cities of CAR to document infestation and the ecological preferences of the two species. In addition, we determined the probable geographical origin of invasive populations of Ae. albopictus with two mitochondrial DNA genes, COI and ND5. Analysis revealed that Ae. aegypti was more abundant earlier in the wet season and Ae. albopictus in the late wet season. Used tyres were the most heavily colonized productive larval habitats for both species in both seasons. The invasive species Ae. albopictus predominated over the resident species at all sites in which the two species were sympatric. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed broad low genetic diversity, confirming recent introduction of Ae. albopictus in CAR. Phylogeographical analysis based on COI polymorphism indicated that the Ae. albopictus haplotype in the CAR population segregated into two lineages, suggesting multiple sources of Ae. albopictus. These data may have important implications for vector control strategies in central Africa.

Background: Co-infection with malaria parasite and HIV is an emerging public health problem in tropical areas, particularly in pregnant women, and management of the concurrent effects of these two infections is challenging. Co-trimoxazole is a sulfamide preparation used to prevent opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients, and many studies have reported that it has significant activity against malaria. As the efficacy of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) against malaria is decreasing, co-trimoxazole might be an alternative for preventing malaria among HIV-infected populations. The aim of this study is to compare the effectiveness of SP-IPT, which is recommended for the prevention of malaria during pregnancy in the Central African Republic, with that of a daily dose of co-trimoxazole against P. falciparum infections among HIV-infected pregnant women in Bangui, the capital of the Central African Republic., Methods/design: The MACOMBA study (MAternity and COntrol of Malaria-HIV co-infection in BAngui) is a multicentre open-label randomized clinical trial conducted at four maternity hospitals in Bangui. All HIV-infected pregnant women presenting for an antenatal clinic visit between the weeks 16 and 28 of amenorrhoea, with a CD4 count of more than 350 cells/mm3, will be eligible. All the women will provide written consent before being enrolled in the study and will then be randomly allocated to either SP-IPT (25 mg of sulfadoxine and 1.25 mg of pyrimethamine) or daily co-trimoxazole doses (960 mg per dose). The primary end-point is the placental malaria parasitaemia rate at delivery. Other main outcome measures include the number of malaria episodes during pregnancy, safety, and treatment compliance. Furthermore, the frequency of molecular resistance markers dhfr and dhps will be measured., Discussion: In this trial, we seek to confirm whether co-trimoxazole is operationally suitable to replace SP-IPT in order to prevent malaria among pregnant women infected with HIV in the Central African Republic., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01746199.

It is now known that all human retroviruses have a non-human primate counterpart. It has been reported that the presence of these retroviruses in humans is the result of interspecies transmission. Several authors have described the passage of a simian retrovirus, simian foamy virus (SFV), from primates to humans. To better understand this retroviral "zoonosis" in natural settings, we evaluated the presence of SFV in both captive and wild non-human primates and in humans at high risk, such as hunters and people bitten by a non-human primate, in Gabon, central Africa. A high prevalence of SFV was found in blood samples from non-human primates and in bush meat collected across the country. Mandrills were found to be highly infected with two distinct strains of SFV, depending on their geographical location. Furthermore, samples collected from hunters and non-human primate laboratory workers showed clear, extensive cross-species transmission of SFV. People who had been bitten by mandrills, gorillas and chimpanzees had persistent SFV infection with low genetic drift. Thus, SFV is presumed to be transmitted from non-human primates mainly through severe bites, involving contact between infected saliva and blood. In this review, we summarize and discuss our five-year observations on the prevalence and dissemination of SFV in humans and non-human primates in Gabon.

Active surveillance in health care centers in Gabon during 2009-2011 detected 72 clinical cases of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 (pH1N1). We found that pH1N1 virus was introduced in mid-2009 but spread throughout the country in 2010. Thus, Gabon was also affected by pH1N1.