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Abstract. The current study examined the links between viewing female and male sexualized Instagram images (SII) and body image concerns within the three-step process of self-objectification among adolescents aged 13–18 years from Germany ( N = 300, 61% female). Participants completed measures of SII use, thin- and muscular-ideal internalization, valuing appearance over competence, and body surveillance. Structural equation modeling revealed that SII use was associated with body image concerns for boys and girls via different routes. Specifically, female SII use was indirectly associated with higher body surveillance via thin-ideal internalization and subsequent valuing appearance over competence for girls. For both girls and boys, male SII use was indirectly linked to higher body surveillance via muscular-ideal internalization. Implications for the three-step model of self-objectification by sexualized social media are discussed.

Objectification theory posits that living in a culture that relentlessly sexualizes the female body results in an increased risk for women to become sexually objectified, such that women become valued for their physical bodies and sexual features (e.g., breasts) more so than the qualities that define them as a person (e.g., mind and personality) (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Nussbaum, 1995). Moreover, objectification has implications for how we view women, as research shows that when participants focus on the appearance of a sexualized woman, they ascribe to her fewer human attributes (e.g., warmth, competence, and morality) and less human nature than a non-sexualized woman (Heflick & Goldenberg, 2009; Heflick et al., 2011). As such, sexually objectified women become viewed as less than fully human. Research has extensively examined this question as it relates to sexualized and non-sexualized female targets (Heflick et al., 2011) and found continuous support for it (Bernard et al., 2018). Further, this link has been expanded upon to show that when sexualized women are seen as less than human, this then gives way to a myriad of negative consequences or unfair treatment directed toward them (Loughnan et al., 2013; Rudman et al., 1975; Saez et al., 2022). This body of research however has largely overlooked one group of women: pregnant women. Women’s pregnant bodies have been found to be threatening on account of their creatureliness (Morris et al., 2014; Goldenberg et al., 2007), and this concern has been found to play a role in the objectification of women’s bodies (Morris et al., 2014; Roberts et al., 2002). Given the recent increase in the sexualization of pregnant women in western media (Jolly, 2019) and the repeated documentation of the unfair treatment of pregnant women (Vedam et al., 2019) the current study has been established to investigate how the sexualization of a woman gives way to unfair treatment directed toward her through her dehumanization and how this relationship may vary as a function of her pregnancy status.

Findings consistently illustrate the negative association between women’s sexual objectification and their sexual functioning. At the same time, some scholars argue that sexualized self-presentation may be a way to embrace one’s sexuality and may signify empowerment. To date, no studies have explicitly explored the potential differential contributions of self-objectification and self-sexualization to multiple aspects of women’s sexual agency. Towards this end, we surveyed 556 undergraduate women to examine how body surveillance, self-objectification, and self-sexualization differentially predict women’s sexual assertiveness, sexual satisfaction, feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure, condom use self-efficacy, and sexual esteem. Path analysis demonstrated consistent negative links between body surveillance, one behavioral manifestation of self-objectification, and sexual agency outcomes, but revealed both negative and positive links between measures of sexualization and sexual agency. This complex set of associations highlights the value of studying self-objectification and self-sexualization both in tandem and separately, so that researchers can develop a better understanding of the implications of each for women’s sexual agency.

Does wearing makeup benefit women by changing how they perceive themselves, and are the perceptions that others make of makeup wearers positive, or negative? In two pre-registered experiments, we investigated the effects of makeup on women's self-perceived traits, and others’ objectifying perceptions of them. In Experiment 1, 229 women imagined one of four scenarios (e.g., a romantic date). Half applied makeup for that scenario before rating their self-perceived agency, humanness, romantic competitiveness towards other women and reactions to partner jealousy. Results showed little evidence that applying makeup affected women's self-perceived traits. In Experiment 2, 844 participants rated images of women's faces from Experiment 1 on their mental capacity and moral status. Women wearing more makeup were attributed less mental capacity and moral status, with attributions mediated by perceptions that heavier makeup-wearers have more sex and are more physically attractive. Findings suggest that although women experience cultural pressure to wear makeup, negative stereotypes of makeup-wearers may lead to detrimental perceptions of women.

As a consequence of exposure to sexualized messages, girls and women may internalize the belief that sexual attractiveness to men is an important aspect of their identity. Whereas research on internalized sexualization has mainly focused on its consequences for girls’ well-being and academic outcomes, the present study (N = 222, women, aged 20 to 29) examined whether internalized sexualization is related to sexist attitudes and tolerance of sexual harassment among young women. It also analyzed internalized sexualization’ links to women’s views of notorious sexual abuse allegations in the so-called Weinstein scandal and attitudes towards the #MeToo movement, a campaign aimed at combatting sexual harassment and sexual assault. The study was conducted in Italy, a context characterized by pervasive sexualized messages and diffuse criticism against the #MeToo movement. The findings showed that internalized sexualization was associated with stronger endorsement of sexist attitudes and higher acceptance of sexual harassment myths, which worked as sequential mediators of skepticism towards sexual abuse allegations in the Weinstein scandals. Endorsement of sexist attitudes mediated the relation between internalized sexualization and negative attitudes towards the #MeToo movement. This study extends the knowledge on the correlates of sexualization, suggesting that women’s internalization of the belief that they should be sexually attractive to men might contribute to reinforce ideologies and attitudes that perpetrate women’s mistreatment while diminishing support for social activism on women’s behalf.

Media images often present one idealized type of woman: she is thin, sexualized, and White. Although research has shown that there are stereotypes associated with sexualized women, known research has not addressed whether these stereotypes vary based on other characteristics such as body type and race. The current study aimed to examine the stereotypes associated with women who varied in sexualization, as well as body size and race, and whether participants’ characteristics moderated these stereotypes. U.S. college-aged students (n = 500: 101 men, 393 women, 6 unknown) completed measures of gender stereotypes and rated the attributes of women who varied in sexualization (sexualized vs. non-sexualized clothing), body size (thin vs. plus-sized), and race (Black vs. White). Results suggest that body size is more salient than sexualization and stereotypes about sexualized women are differentially applied to White and Black women. Additionally, participants’ gender and race moderated stereotype ratings. Lastly, viewing sexualized images was related to higher endorsement of sexualized gender stereotypes, but only in women. Taken together our results highlight that research on sexualization should address important intersectional components, such as race and body size. We also discuss broader implications of our results on lessening stereotyping and weight stigma.

Alcohol consumption is on the rise among U.S. women, especially college women, despite the negative consequences that uniquely and disproportionately affect them. The current work integrates objectification theory and related research with literature on drinking motivations to explore how women’s experiences living in a culture that constantly objectifies the female body is associated with women’s consumption of alcohol. Among a sample of 539 female U.S. college students, the present study examined how differentially valenced responses to interpersonal sexual objectification (enjoyment of sexualization or body shame) contribute to distinct drinking motivations and outcomes. Results showed general support for the proposed serial mediational model. The link between sexual objectification and drinking frequency was mediated by self-objectification, enjoyment of sexualization, and drinking for enhancement, social and conformity motives, and by self-objectification, body shame, and the conformity motive. Finally, sexual objectification was related to drinking quantity through self-objectification, enjoyment of sexualization, and the enhancement drinking motive. These findings suggest that objectification experiences and resulting negative and positive inner states are important predictors of alcohol consumption. The integration of objectification theory with drinking motives sheds light on additional negative consequences associated with women living in a patriarchal society, including increased alcohol use. This model, if confirmed by future research, may provide promising avenues for reducing women’s drinking and thus minimizing the negative consequences they experience from alcohol.

This study seeks a deeper understanding of the associations between early adolescents’ encounter with sexualizing messages, both through media and peers, and self-sexualization (i.e., performing se...

A growing body of research has demonstrated negative effects of sexualization in the media on adolescents’ body image, but longitudinal studies and research including interactive and social media are scarce. The current study explored the longitudinal associations of adolescents’ use of sexualized video games (SVG) and sexualized Instagram images (SII) with body image concerns. Specifically, our study examined relations between adolescents’ SVG and SII use and appearance comparisons, thin- and muscular-ideal internalization, valuing appearance over competence, and body surveillance. A sample of 660 German adolescents (327 female, 333 male; Mage = 15.09 years) participated in two waves with an interval of 6 months. A structural equation model showed that SVG and SII use at Time 1 predicted body surveillance indirectly via valuing appearance over competence at Time 2. Furthermore, SVG and SII use indirectly predicted both thin- and muscular-ideal internalization through appearance comparisons at Time 1. In turn, thin-ideal internalization at Time 1 predicted body surveillance indirectly via valuing appearance over competence at Time 2. The results indicate that sexualization in video games and on Instagram can play an important role in increasing body image concerns among adolescents. We discuss the findings with respect to objectification theory and the predictive value of including appearance comparisons in models explaining the relation between sexualized media and self-objectification.

Using an experimental methodology, the present study investigated college students’ attitudes toward media images of female athletes. We are particularly focused on how viewers perceive media images of female athletes that have both an appearance and athleticism focus, such as those found in ESPN’s The Body Issue. An aim of our study was to assess viewers’ attitudes toward these images that are not purely objectified, thereby contributing to the objectification literature and providing empirical data relevant to theorizing on the social impact of these images. U.S. college students (n = 563) viewed one of four types of images of the same athletes including: (a) sexualized athletes, (b) sexualized performance athletes (in which both athleticism and sexualization are present), (c) sport performance athletes (in which athletes are depicted playing their sport), or (d) non-sexualized athletes. They then rated the athletes’ competence, esteem, and sexual appeal. Overall, sexualized performance athletes were rated more positively than sexualized athletes, but less positively than sport performance athletes. These results have implications for advocacy efforts calling for more media coverage in which women are depicted as athletes rather than as sexual objects.

Although objectification is a common experience for women (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), little is understood about how women perceive sources of objectifying commentary and behaviors. The current work provides a novel integration of objectification and consistency theories to understand how valence of sexual objectification and women’s feelings about sexual attention interact to predict perceptions of objectifying sources. In two online vignette studies with 121 and 110 U.S. women recruited through MTurk, female participants were asked to recall an experience of complimentary or critical objectification and report perceptions of source warmth, approach behavioral intentions, perceived overlap between the self and the source, and enjoyment of sexualization. Consistent with hypotheses, regression analyses revealed that reporting experiences of complimentary objectification led to more positive source perceptions among women who reported that they enjoy being sexualized relative to reporting experiences of critical objectification. Furthermore, path analyses revealed that self-other overlap emerged as a mechanism of women’s more positive source perceptions, with a significant indirect effect of self-other overlap emerging for the link between enjoyment of sexualization and warmth and approach in the complimentary objectification condition. The effects were replicated across two studies. The discussion centers on how understanding women’s objectifying source perceptions could illuminate when interpersonal objectification will lead to more experiences of objectification or women’s internalization of objectifying self-perceptions.

Recent research has examined the sexualization–objectification link (i.e. whether sexualized individuals are appraised as if they were objects rather than persons). This research has found that sexualized individuals are more likely to be processed and categorized as if they were objects and are also perceived as possessing fewer humanlike traits than nonsexualized individuals. In addition, sexualization prompts negative behaviors such as social exclusion. Altogether, these findings shed light on mechanisms that might underlie violence toward sexualized individuals., info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Despite nearly equal Instagram use rates between men and women, research on the effects of Instagram use on body image has mainly focused on women, and continued research on visual social media is warranted. To fill this gap, we conducted a 2 (image muscularity; high vs. low) × 2 (image sexualization; high vs. low) + 1 (control) between-subjects online experiment among 133 young adult men. Among all participants, we examined the moderating effect of sexual orientation, hypermasculinity, and trait appearance-related social comparison. We considered internalized homophobia among men who did not identify as exclusively heterosexual. Results demonstrated no main or interaction effects of condition on intention to exercise. There was a small but significant main effect of condition on state body image, with scores significantly lower in the muscular/nonsexualized condition in comparison to the control. Further, the effect of exposure to muscular Instagram images was stronger among men higher in trait appearance-related social comparison and among nonheterosexual men higher in internalized homophobia. These results suggest that similar to findings among women, exposure to certain types of Instagram images can have small, negative body image effects on men, which are conditional on individual differences.

Passive consumption of sexually objectifying content on social networking sites (SNS) has been shown to result in lowered body satisfaction and self-esteem, particularly in women. However, deliberate evaluations of sexually objectifying social media content are scarce. Furthermore, associations between self-objectification and active use of SNS in terms of posting behavior have not been shown so far. The present study asked N = 916 participants to rate 28 Instagram screenshots on three dimensions, namely, whether the given photos were perceived as sexually revealing, appropriate, and attractive. The ratings were related to sexist attitudes, enjoyment of sexualization, and posting behavior of the participants. Sexism was negatively associated with the perceived appropriateness of the presented Instagram photos in women. Furthermore, there were substantial correlations between appropriateness and attractiveness evaluations of the presented photos and the self-sexualizing posting behavior and enjoyment of sexualization of female users. Only inconsistent effects could be found in men. Greater appreciation of objectification seems to go along with self-objectifying behavior, which may be due to an altered perception of what can be considered as sexually revealing. Although effects seem to be smaller in men, future research should also focus on male enjoyment of sexualization, which unfortunately was not considered in the present study.

At present, there have been a number of studies examining the sexualization of female characters in various media. However, most studies to date have not clearly delineated whether sexualized images or the presence of assertive versus passive female characters influences negative attitudes toward women in viewers, as well as female viewer anxiety. The present study investigated whether the inclusion of powerful female characters in movies with sexualized content influences both male and female viewers’ attitudes towards women as well as anxiety responses of female reviewers. Participants included 134 undergraduate students attending a private liberal arts university in the southern region of the United States. Participants were randomized to watch one of three movie conditions: first, movies that involve strong female lead characters, but which also include sexualized characters, Second, movies that involve strong female lead characters without sexualization and third, movies that involve sexualized female characters without strong portrayals (i.e. damsels in distress). Participants were measured on attitudes toward women, rape myth acceptance and anxiety. Results indicated little support for the view that sexualized media impacted viewers’ attitudes toward women, rape myth acceptance or anxiety.

Concerns about sexualization of Halloween costumes appear frequently in the lay press, but systematic investigation of such costumes or the ads in which they appear is relatively rare. We coded a randomly selected sample of 1001 advertisements for child, teen, and adult Halloween costumes for 13 different markers of sexualization that we combined into overall scores for costume sexualization, model sexualization, and hypersexualization. We found that ratings of model characteristics and costume were significantly more sexualized when the model was adult and female. Significant interactions indicated that model characteristics and costumes of male models were low in sexualization regardless of age, whereas model characteristics and costumes featuring female models were rated more sexualized than those for male models, even for child models, and sexualization ratings increased with age. A measure of hypersexualization (combining costume and model characteristic ratings and adding text sexualization) showed that hypersexualization is highest in advertisements featuring female and adult models while being low for male models across all three age groups. However, hypersexualization ratings were not significantly different for teen and adult women, indicating some compression of sexualization into adolescence. Our results could be used by parents, educators, or counselors interested in media literacy.

This study investigates responses to, consequences of, and resistance against objectification from the perspectives of sexual minority women in the United States. Data from 5 focus groups with 33 sexual minority women were analyzed using thematic analysis. Results revealed 13 themes and 49 subthemes. First, sexual minority women's responses to objectification included those described in prior research with heterosexual women, as well as novel responses not routinely assessed in prior research (e.g., critical examination), and the complex co-occurrence of responses (e.g., indignation and internalization). Second, participants identified deleterious consequences that were consistent with prior theory and research as well as consequences that reflected resilience and growth from working through objectification. Finally, participants articulated personal, relational, and identity-related forms of resistance against objectification. Sexual and gender identity processes were interwoven with resistance. These results highlight how centering sexual minority women's experiences can both corroborate and advance prior understanding of responses to and consequences of objectification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

We investigated the relationship of self-sexualization to self-objectification, weight concerns, self-efficacy, academic outcomes, and career aspirations among preadolescent girls. Participants were 89 six- to nine-year-old girls; parental reports were also obtained. Two thirds of girls showed signs of self-sexualization by choosing a sexualized doll over a nonsexualized doll as who they preferred to look like and/or who they currently look like. Girls who self-sexualized reported higher self-objectification and weight concerns than girls who did not self-sexualize. Self-sexualization was unrelated to social, emotional, and academic self-efficacy and to girls’ career confidence and interest. However, parents of girls who self-sexualized reported their daughters had lower academic performance and enjoyed school less compared to girls who did not self-sexualize. Additionally, parents of girls who self-sexualized had lower academic expectations for their daughters. It is possible that in preadolescence self-sexualization affects girls’ body cognitions and parental expectations without (yet) affecting self-efficacy or academic goals.

Peer sexual harassment (PSH) occurs frequently and across contexts during adolescence. The current study examined the relations among PSH in school, psychological distress, sexual experimentation, and sexual risk-taking in a sample of African American middle and high school girls. Results indicate that negative body appraisals mediated the relationship between PSH and psychological distress, suggesting that PSH is one way to operationalize interpersonal sexualization and sexual objectification. PSH was directly associated with sexual experimentation, but the association between PSH and sexual experimentation was not mediated by negative body appraisals. Neither PSH nor negative body appraisals were related to sexual risk-taking. This suggests that frequent exposure to high levels of sexualization and sexual objectification, in the form of PSH, is associated with more psychological distress and sexual experimentation, but not with sexual risk-taking, regardless of how girls feel about their bodies.

Youth in Western countries are exposed to many messages that sexualize women. We selectively review the literature on sexualization with the goal of clarifying and integrating theories, constructs, and models of the pathways and mechanisms via which exposure to such messages may affect youth. In the first section of the article, we define sexualization and discuss historical change concerning the construct. In the second section, we highlight the role that core values concerning sexuality and gender play in designing and interpreting research on sexualization. In the third section, we provide a conceptual analysis of the various psychological constructs related to sexualization, noting their roots in particular theories. In the fourth section, we discuss developmental issues and, in fifth and sixth sections, we present conceptual models of the antecedents and consequences of believing that sexual attractiveness to men is an important aspect of the female gender role among girls and boys, respectively.

An emerging literature suggests that females are more likely than males to take and post selfies and that such selfies tend to both conform to and legitimize the sexualization of femininity. It has been found that key predictors of selfie behaviors are narcissistic personality traits and that taking a higher number of selfies may, in turn, put young people at risk of engaging in negative social interactions online. No studies to date have investigated the mediating effects of selfies and, moreover, selfies that are taken with the intention of to appear physically attractive (i.e., sexualized selfies), on the relationship between narcissism and cyber behaviors. The following study examined selfie taking among a group of 262 adolescent girls (aged 13–16). Results of a path model found a serial mediation effect, indicating that exploitativeness was associated with increased selfie taking, which increased sexualized selfie taking and in turn increased cyber aggression and victimization. In contrast, contingent self-esteem was associated with taking sexualized selfies (with indirect positive effects on cyber behaviors). Results of this model also show that the effect of taking selfies on cyber behaviors is fully mediated by taking sexualized selfies. These findings are discussed in relation to the characteristics of the online environment and the risks of young women’s sexualized online self-presentations.

Sexualized gender stereotypes (SGS) include the belief that girls should singularly prioritize their sexualized attractiveness for the attention and approval of boys. By elementary school, boys and girls perceive girls’ sexualized attractiveness to be incompatible with intelligence and competence. In the current 2-year study, we examined whether girls’ higher SGS endorsement in seventh grade predicted a diminished mastery goal orientation and lower perceptions of academic ability in eighth grade and whether this was moderated by gender typicality and self-monitoring. Cross-lagged panel analyses tested whether earlier academic attitudes better predicted later SGS endorsement than the inverse. The study included 77 girls in the final sample from four public middle schools ( MageT1 = 12.4, SD = .57). The sample was ethnically diverse (45% identified as White, 21% as Latinx, 19% as Black/African American, and 14% as multiracial). Girls’ greater endorsement of SGS in the seventh grade predicted lower academic self-efficacy later, controlling for age, academic ability, and earlier levels of academic attitudes. Highlighting a likely feedback loop, earlier academic self-efficacy equally predicted later SGS endorsement. For highly gender-typical girls, greater SGS endorsement also predicted lower mastery goal orientation over time.

Exposure to sexual objectification is an everyday experience for many women, yet little is known about its emotional consequences. Fredrickson and Roberts' (1997) objectification theory proposed a within-person process, wherein exposure to sexual objectification causes women to adopt a third-person perspective on their bodies, labeled self-objectification, which has harmful downstream consequences for their emotional well-being. However, previous studies have only tested this model at the between-person level, making them unreliable sources of inference about the proposed intraindividual psychological consequences of objectification. Here, we report the results of Bayesian multilevel structural equation models that simultaneously tested Fredrickson and Roberts' (1997) predictions both within and between persons, using data from 3 ecological momentary assessment (EMA) studies of women's (N = 268) experiences of sexual objectification in daily life. Our findings support the predicted within-person indirect effect of exposure to sexual objectification on increases in negative and self-conscious emotions via self-objectification. However, lagged analyses suggest that the within-person indirect emotional consequences of exposure to sexual objectification may be relatively fleeting. Our findings advance research on sexual objectification by providing the first comprehensive test of the within-person process proposed by Fredrickson and Roberts' (1997) objectification theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

In Western society sex appeal has become greatly valued and young women actively and publically expose their sexualities in a variety of ways. Those women who embrace and participate in the hyper-sexualized cultural trend are called self-sexualizers. Despite the growing number of empirical studies related to self-sexualization, there is lack of consensus around a definition of self-sexualization among researchers. The concept of self-sexualization needs to be clarified and explained. The primary purpose of this examination is to address the self-sexualizing phenomenon and to define self-sexualization by building upon previous researchers’ approaches. In this research, self-sexualization is defined as the voluntary imposition of sexualization to the self. We adapted the four aspects of sexualization presented in a task force report issued by the American Psychological Association in 2007 to propose the four conditions of self-sexualization. (1) The first condition of self-sexualization is favoring sexual self-objectification. (2) The second condition is relating sexual desirability to self-esteem. (3) The third condition is equating physical attractiveness with being sexy. (4) The last condition is contextualizing sexual boundaries. Description of each condition and related concepts are discussed.

Free online sexually explicit materials have become the major way for pornography viewers to consume pornographic materials. Most previous content analytic studies have focused on aggression and degradation behaviors in sexually explicit materials. Fewer studies have focused on the prevalence of depictions of individual sexual behaviors, overlooking that pornographic materials not only show viewers individual sexual behaviors but also provide sexual scripts, which contain a series of co-occurring sexual behaviors. Using the network analysis method, the current study examined the co-occurrence patterns of a large number of sexual behaviors depicted in free online sexually explicit materials. The study has revealed the primary sexual script depicted in popular online sexually explicit materials and predicted the potential effects of such a script.

Introduction Puberty is a critical biopsychosocial event that has long-term consequences for adolescents' behavior and well-being. Research has shown that developing earlier than one's peers may worsen adolescent girls' body image, in part due to weight redistribution and increases in adiposity resulting from pubertal development. However, research has yet to examine if pubertal timing is associated with girls' body beliefs related to self-objectification, self-sexualization, and positive body image beyond the adolescent years. We address that issue here. Methods Participants were 287 undergraduate White women (Mage = 18.62, SDage = 0.93) from the United States who completed surveys containing a retrospective report of pubertal timing and several scales assessing their current body beliefs. Results Regression analyses demonstrated that earlier pubertal timing was linked to greater body surveillance, greater sex appeal self-worth, and less body appreciation, but not to body shame or enjoyment of sexualization, which were negatively related to age. Conclusions This study provides preliminary evidence that pubertal timing has downstream consequences for a variety of women's body beliefs. However, older women reported less body shame and less enjoyment of sexualization than younger women, suggesting possible age (and not puberty-) related developmental trends in these two body beliefs. These findings highlight a need for future work with larger, more diverse samples and longitudinal data.

Introduction The focus of this brief literature review is to explore whether there is a relationship between the unique anatomical and physiological paradigms of the adolescent brain and an increased sensitivity to sexually explicit material. Methods The EBSCO Research Data bases were searched using the following key terms: adolescence, adolescent brain development, neuroplasticity, sexually explicit material, sexualization, and pornography. Results The literature highlighted several components of the adolescent brain that are different than the mature brain. These include: an immature prefrontal cortex and over-responsive limbic and striatal circuits, heightened period for neuroplasticity, overactive dopamine system, a pronounced HPA axis, augmented levels of testosterone, and the unique impact of steroid hormones. The physiological response to sexually explicit material is delineated. The overlap of key areas associated with the unique adolescent brain development and sexually explicit material is noteworthy. A working model summary that compares the response of the adult and adolescent brain to the same sexually explicit stimulus is outlined. Conclusions The literature suggests that the adolescent brain may indeed be more sensitive to sexually explicit material, but due to a lack of empirical studies this question cannot be answered definitively. Suggestions for future research are given to further advance the work in this applicable field of today.

This variable aims at identifying how bodies and movements of (mostly female) characters are portrayed in video games. This is often done by coding specific bodily attributes of characters or to what degree certain body parts are covered or (not covered) by clothing. Fielf of application/theoretical foundation: The variable sexualization is an indicator commonly used in studies investigating the depiction of gender roles in video games and especially in studies aiming to identify stereotypical or sexist portrayals of women in games. Other variables that are often considered in such analyses are character attributes like being physically capable in terms of strength and agility (which is often how male characters are portrayed; Lynch et al., 2016) or whether characters are perpetrators or victims in violent interactions. References/combination with other methods of data collection: Content analytic codings of stereotypical or sexist gender representations can be complemented by surveys among players to ask about their perception of the games they play. In addition, researchers may consider using computer vision methods for, e.g., detecting the amount of skin shown by characters (if they use screenshots or printed ads as coding materials). Example studies Coding Material Measure Operationalization Unit(s) of analysis Source(s) (reported reliability of coding) 20-minute segment of game play Sexualization by clothing skin-revealing clothing, nudity (none, partial, full, not applicable, cannot tell), appropriateness of attire (appropriate, inappropriate, not applicable, cannot tell) Primary and secondary characters Downs & Smith, 2010 (Scott’s Pi = .87; 90; 90) 5-minute segments of recorded gameplay after “the player had taken control of the character’s onscreen action” (Lynch et al., 2016, p. 571) Sexualization by clothing Bare skin between armpits and bottom of the breasts (both dummy coded: bare skin vs. no bare skin) Target female character Lynch et al., 2016 (α = .70) 20-minute segment of game play Sexualization by size of body parts and proportions body proportion (realistic, unrealistic, not applicable, cannot tell), breast size (flat, average, voluptuous, cannot tell), waist size (disproportionately small, average, disproportionately large, cannot tell) Primary and secondary characters Downs & Smith, 2010 (Scott’s Pi = .82; .98; .88) 5-minute segments of recorded gameplay after “the player had taken control of the character’s onscreen action” (Lynch et al., 2016, p. 571) Sexualization by size of body parts and proportions Breast proportion to body size (dummy coded: proportionate vs. disproportionate) Target female character Lynch et al., 2016 (α = .81) 20-minute segment of game play Sexualization by specific behavior(s) sex talk (dummy coded: present vs. absent); sexual behavior (dummy coded: present vs. absent) Interactions between characters Downs & Smith, 2010 (Scott’s Pi = .99; 1.00) 5-minute segments of recorded gameplay after “the player had taken control of the character’s onscreen action” (Lynch et al., 2016, p. 571) Sexualization by specific behavior(s) presence of sexualized movement (dummy coded, “unnecessary undulation or jiggling that drew attention to their body in a sexual manner”, Lynch et al., 2016, p. 572) Target female character Lynch et al., 2016 (α = .75) 5-minute segments of recorded gameplay after “the player had taken control of the character’s onscreen action” (Lynch et al., 2016, p. 571) Physical capability dummy coded: engagement in feats of physical strength or agility vs. no engagement in feats of physical strength or agility Target female character Lynch et al., 2016 (α = .84) References Downs, E., & Smith, S. L. (2010). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Sex Roles, 62, 721–733. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9637-1. Lynch, T., Tompkins, J. E., van Driel, I. I., & Fritz, N. (2016). Sexy, strong, and secondary: A content analysis of female characters in video games across 31 years. Journal of Communication, 66(4), 564–584. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12237

Research has linked experiences of sexual objectification to body image and eating problems among women. Existing measures of sexual objectification were grounded in heterosexual women's experiences. The present research extends this prior work by centering sexual minority women's experiences to develop and evaluate the Sexual Minority Women's Sexual Objectification Experiences Scale (SMW-SOE). In Study 1, an initial 51 items were developed, drawing on prior qualitative research with sexual minority women and existing measures of sexual objectification experiences. Exploratory factor analysis of 217 sexual minority women's responses to the initial item set suggested an underlying structure of three interrelated factors. In Study 2, data were collected from an independent sample of 201 sexual minority women to conduct confirmatory factor analysis and evaluate validity evidence. Findings from the confirmatory factor analysis supported a higher order solution with three first-order factors. The final scale comprised 17 items: six items assessing Sexualization of Sexual Identity, five items assessing Intrusive and Explicit Sexual Advances, and six items assessing Body Evaluation. In terms of validity, SMW-SOE overall scale scores yielded expected small-to-large positive correlations with heterosexist experiences, internalization of sociocultural appearance standards, and disordered eating; SMW-SOE subscale scores yielded distinctive patterns of correlations. SMW-SOE scale and subscale items yielded acceptable Cronbach's alphas in both samples. Implications for future research and clinical work are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

To get a better understanding of people's natural responses to humanlike robots outside the lab, we analyzed commentary on online videos depicting robots of different humanlikeness and gender. We built on previous work, which compared online video commentary of moderately and highly humanlike robots with respect to valence, uncanny valley, threats, and objectification. Additionally, we took into account the robot's gender, its appearance, its societal impact, the attribution of mental states, and how people attribute human stereotypes to robots. The results are mostly in line with previous work. Overall, the findings indicate that moderately humanlike robot design may be preferable over highly humanlike robot design because it is less associated with negative attitudes and perceptions. Robot designers should therefore be cautious when designing highly humanlike and gendered robots.

Female role models in video games are rare, and if they are present, they are often heavily sexualized. Objectification theory suggests that exposure to sexualized media characters increases self-objectification and decreases body satisfaction in female users. This study investigated the effect of playing a video game with a sexualized versus a nonsexualized character on women's experiences of self-objectification and body satisfaction. We further studied the effect of character personalization as a core feature of video games on the relation between sexualized avatars, self-objectification and body satisfaction. N = 262 female participants reported state self-objectification and body satisfaction after 30 min of playing the video game The Sims 4 with a sexualized or nonsexualized avatar that was either generic or personalized to look like the participant. We predicted that controlling for trait self-objectification, playing the game with a sexualized character would increase state self-objectification, especially in the personalized condition. Regarding the effect of character sexualization on body satisfaction, competing hypotheses based on priming vs. the Proteus effect were tested, considering character personalization and enjoyment of sexualization as moderators and controlling for trait body satisfaction. The current study did not find evidence for the proposed hypotheses. The findings are discussed in terms of the relevance of objectification theory in explaining effects of sexualized models in interactive media.

The potential negative impact of sexualized video games on attitudes toward women is an important issue. Studies that have examined this issue are rare and contain a number of limitations. Therefore, it largely remains unclear whether sexualized video games can have an impact on attitudes toward women. This study examined the consequences of sexualized video game content and cognitive load (moderator) on rape victim blame and rape perpetrator blame (used as a proxy of rape myth acceptance), and whether the degree of humanness of the victim and of the perpetrator mediated these effects. Participants (N = 142) played a video game using sexualized or non-sexualized female characters. Cognitive load was manipulated by setting the difficulty level of the game to low or high. After gameplay, participants read a rape date story, and were then asked to judge the victim’s and the perpetrator’s degree of responsibility and humanness. Based on the General Aggression Model (GAM), it was hypothesized that playing the video game with a sexualized content would increase the responsibility assigned to the victim and diminish the responsibility assigned to the perpetrator. Further, degree of humanness of the victim and the perpetrator was expected to mediate this relation. The results were partially consistent with these predictions: Playing a video game containing sexualized female characters increased rape victim blame when cognitive load was high, but did not predict degree of humanness accorded to the victim. Concerning the perpetrator, video game sexualization did not influence responsibility, but partly influenced humanness. This study concludes that video games impact on attitudes toward women and this, in part, due to its interactive nature.

Despite the growing interest in the experiences of transgender individuals, the phenomenon of fetishization of transgender bodies and identities has been overlooked. The present study was aimed at investigating the experiences of fetishization of transgender and nonbinary (TGNB) people. Participants in the current study represent a sample of 142 TGNB volunteers from the community who answered the prompt: “If you feel comfortable, could you describe your experience of being fetishized?” Using thematic analysis, we developed three overarching themes relevant to the experiences of fetishization of TGNB participants: (1) context of fetishization; (2) negative experiences of fetishization; and (3) positive or ambiguous experiences of fetishization. The results demonstrated that, in most cases, fetishization was understood by TGNB people as a negative experience of sexual objectification, although some individuals experienced fetishization as a positive experience, perceiving the sexual desire of the other person or living it as a kink. Consistent with the integrated theory of dehumanization, the results demonstrated that both sexual objectification and minority stress contributed to participants’ understanding of fetishization for TGNB individuals. Implications for clinical work with TGNB individuals are discussed.

To test the “sex sells” assumption, we examined how Italian men and women react to sexualized advertising. Women showed lower product attractiveness and purchase intentions toward products presented with sexualized female models than with neutral ads, whereas men were unaffected by ads’ sexualization (Study 1,n = 251). Study 2 (n = 197) replicated the overall results. Study 3 (n = 198) tested hostile sexism as a moderator as well as negative emotions as a mediator of consumers’ responses. Especially men with higher hostile sexism showed more purchase intentions after viewing female sexualized ads than neutral ads. Moreover, women’s lower consumer responses toward sexualized female ads were due to higher negative emotions. Study 4 (n = 207) included ads with both female and male models, replicating responses to female sexualization and showing that both women and men had lower product attractiveness and purchase intentions toward male sexualized ads than neutral ads. Replicating and extending Study 3’s results, women’s negative emotions was the mediator. The present study has practical implications for marketers because it suggests that “sex does not sell.” In addition, considering both the psychological damage and practical inefficacy of sexualized ads, our findings have important implications for public policy.

Instagram is a visually centered social media that involves the presence of sexualized imagery posted by users. Such Instagram sexualization may have a negative impact on women's body image. The present study examined whether exposure to Instagram sexualization, namely posts of sexualized women along with appearance-related comments, affected women's body satisfaction and cosmetic surgery intentions. In doing so, it also considered the moderating role of Instagram Addiction Proclivity (IAP). Young Italian female participants (N = 247) were randomly exposed to one of four video conditions resulting from the combination of either sexualized or non-sexualized women's pictures on Instagram, paired with appearance or neutral comments. In the sexualized picture condition participants’ body dissatisfaction increased compared to pre-exposure levels and to the non-sexualized picture condition. The type of comments did not affect participants’ body satisfaction. Moreover, IAP predicted cosmetic surgery intentions and moderated their reactions to Instagram content. Indeed, the higher the IAP, the higher the cosmetic surgery intentions of participants viewing sexualized pictures with neutral comments and non-sexualized pictures with body appearance comments. These findings suggest that female Instagram users should be aware of the negative impacts of viewing sexualized imagery as well as the role that IAP may play. info:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion

The body positive movement on social media seeks to challenge narrow conceptualizations of beauty that media outlets traditionally perpetuate and reinforce. Through a 2 × 2 between-subjects online experiment, we examined how the nature and authenticity of body-positive imagery on social media affects female viewers and their evaluations of body-positive content (N = 425, Mage = 35.47, SDage = 13.52). Specifically, participants viewed and reacted to a series of 10 body-positive images of women on social media varying in their degree of sexualization (sexualized vs. non-sexualized) and evidence of digital photo modifications (modification icons vs. no modification icons). A control group that featured landscape images was also included. Results indicate body-positive images that are considered sexualized and are believed to be digitally modified can undercut the movement's intended aims: Participants who viewed body-positive images that were sexualized (vs. non-sexualized) and included photo modification icons (vs. no modification icons) reported greater endorsement of traditional beauty ideals (e.g., thinness) and thought the images were shared for self-serving reasons (e.g., to gain likes/shares/endorsements); these relationships were mediated by the extent to which viewers believed these images were sexualized and digitally modified. Further, results indicate that sexualized body-positive images can instigate sexual objectification of others and oneself. Those who viewed control images (vs. experimental body-positive images) produced significantly fewer sexually objectifying words about others and themselves. Implications for both viewers and producers (e.g., individuals, corporations) of body-positive imagery on social media are discussed in light of objectification theory.

Negative consequences of video games have been a concern since their inception. However, one under-researched area is the potential negative effects of sexualized video game content on players. This study analyzed the consequences of sexualized video game content on online sexual harassment against male and female targets. We controlled for a number of variables that might be related to online sexual harassment (i.e., trait aggressiveness, ambivalent sexism, online disinhibition). Participants (N = 211) played a video game with either sexualized or non-sexualized female characters. After gameplay, they had the opportunity to sexually harass a male or a female partner by sending them sexist jokes. Based on the General Aggression Model integrated with the Confluence Model of Sexual Aggression (Anderson & Anderson, ), we predicted that playing the game with sexualized female characters would increase sexual harassment against female targets. Results were consistent with these predictions. Sexual harassment levels toward a female partner were higher for participants who played the game with sexualized female characters than for participants who played the same game with non-sexualized female characters. These findings indicate that sexualization of female characters in a video game can be a sufficient condition to provoke online sexual harassment toward women.

Sexual objectification experience is that person experienced life with objectified information. In order to explore the influence of the sexual objectification experience on female college students’ selfie-posting behavior, 700 female college students were surveyed with the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification scale, Enjoyment of Sexualization scale, Social Network Selfile-posting scale and Imaginary Audience Ideation scale. The results show that: 1) Sexual objectification experience is significantly correlated with female college students’ selfie-posting behavior and enjoyment of sexualization. Female college students’ enjoyment of sexualization is significantly correlated with selfie-posting behavior. 2) Sexual objectification experience can predict female college students’ selfie-posting behavior through the partial mediating role of enjoyment of sexualization, and the mediating role of enjoyment of sexualization is moderated by female college students’ imaginary audience ideation. This research revealed the mechanism of the relationship between sexual objectification experience and selfie-posting behavior, which helps to guide female college students to actively and healthfully participate in social activities.

In Title VII sexual harassment jurisprudence, U.S. courts use a 2-prong subjective-objective test to determine the viability of a sexual harassment claim: The complainant must show that the employer's conduct was unwelcome and sufficiently severe or pervasive to alter the conditions of employment and create an abusive working environment because of the complainant's sex from both the complainant's perspective (subjective prong) and a reasonable person's perspective (objective prong). This online study used a diverse national sample (361 MTurk Community Members) to investigate whether people apply the objective prong in a uniform manner, as the law assumes, or show predictable differences. Participants read a vignette about a female interviewee's allegations of sexual harassment following from severe, mild, or no sexual objectification by a male interviewer during a job interview. The interviewee claimed that she was either harassed or not by the interviewer during the interaction, as well as claiming to enjoy or reject sexualization. Participants made judgments about whether the interviewer's behavior was sexually harassing from the interviewee's and a reasonable person's perspective. Overall, participants' sex and enjoyment of sexualization moderated their judgments of sexual harassment when considering the situation from both points of view, demonstrating that there is no convergence on a unified standard for evaluating whether specific behavior is sexually harassing. Drawing comparisons to obscenity law, we argue that the use of data to form social fact evidence may help decision makers in hostile work environment cases to apply a more uniform understanding of what is hostile and abusive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Using an experimental methodology, the present study assessed college students’ perceptions of a male peer who presented himself on Facebook in either an objectified or nonobjectified manner. One hundred eighty-nine college students ( n = 111 women, n = 78 men) viewed a Facebook profile with either an objectified or a nonobjectified profile photo of the same young man and then evaluated the profile owner. They also reported on the desirability of dating the profile owner. Results indicated that the objectified profile owner was considered less competent but not less socially appealing or physically attractive. Participants liked the nonobjectified profile and profile photo better than the objectified profile and profile photo. There was also more interest in a committed dating relationship with the nonobjectified profile owner than the objectified profile owner. Findings suggest that using an objectified profile photo on Facebook may come with some costs for young men.

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which young women post sexualized photos of themselves on Instagram and Facebook, whether these photos garner positive feedback in the form of “likes” and friends/followers, explore individual differences that predict which women post self-sexualized photos, and test whether posting self-sexualized photos on social media actually relate to feelings of sexual agency (i.e., control over one's own sexuality). Undergraduate women (N = 61) downloaded the ten most recent photographs of themselves posted on Instagram and/or Facebook and completed a variety of survey measures. Systematic coding of the resulting 1060 photos revealed that rates of self-sexualization were relatively low, though participants posted more sexualized photos to Instagram than to Facebook. Wanting attention on social media was the strongest predictor of posting self-sexualized photos, and indeed, more sexualized photos garnered more likes on Instagram than less sexualized photos, and women who post more sexualized photos tend to get more likes in general and more friends/followers on both Instagram and Facebook. Interestingly, posting self-sexualizing photos was not associated with actual sexual agency in offline encounters. These findings suggest the importance of cultural differences between platforms and of understanding women's desire for attention on social media.

The overt objectification and dehumanization of Black people has a long history throughout the Western world. However, few researchers have explored whether such perceptions still persist implicitly and whether Black women are sexually objectified at an interpersonal level. We sought to address this gap by exploring whether Black women are sexually objectified to a greater extent than White women and whether target sexualization exacerbates this effect. In Study 1, using eye-tracking technology (N = 38), we provide evidence that individuals attend more often, and for longer durations, to the sexual body parts of Black women compared to White women, particularly when presented in a sexualized manner. In Studies 2a (N = 120) and 2b (N = 131), we demonstrated that Black women are implicitly associated with both animals and objects to a greater degree than White women with a Go/No-Go Association Task. We discuss the implications of such dehumanizing treatment of Black people and Black women in U.S. society. We hope that this evidence will increase awareness that objectification can happen outside the realm of conscious thought and that related interventions ought to include an ethnicity-specific component. Additional online materials for this article, including online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching, are available on PWQ's website at [http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index] http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index

The image that media communicates of childhood creates stereotypes about them and influences their lifestyles. Specially, girls’ bodies are converted into a show by certain corporate culture that consider girls as consumer objects. In this context, we wonder how Spanish college students perceive girls showed by fashion magazines exhibiting sexualizing attributes. The study also explores the sexualizing power of the attributes perceived. Another aim is to determine if there are different segments of individuals based on the previous perceptions. An online survey was conducted among 449 college students (18-25 years old), conscious about the communication world. The objective was to determine the attributes considered more and less related with a sexualizing power. Results show that participants are highly sensitive to the sexualization of girls in fashion magazines. Contestants can identify attributes with a high sexualizing power in aspects regarding to stylish, make up, postures, corporal exhibition and language portrayed in the images. There are four groups clearly identified according to more and less sexualizing power linked to the attributes perceived. A first group does not assign a sexualizing power to the attributes that adultize girls. Secondly, there are individuals who do not notice any sexualizing power in the attributes studied. A third group perceives the sexualizing power in the attributes related to the corporal exhibition. Finally, a group that observes a high sexualizing power in all the attributes.

Objectification studies have mostly focused on why and how women are objectified, but relatively little is known about what drives the objectification of men. This paper aims to examine the objectifying gaze toward men, which is operationalized in the present paper as decreased focus on men's faces and increased focus on men's body parts (arms, chest and stomach). We considered the role of appearance (vs. personality) focus and ideal body shape on the objectifying gaze toward men. Specifically, we instructed sixty-five participants (36 men) to either evaluate the appearance or the personality of men while their eyes are monitored. To assess the objectifying gaze, we examined dwell time (i.e. total time spent fixating on an area) on targets' face, arms, chest and stomach as well as first fixation (i.e. how quickly face, arms and stomach were fixated relative to the onset of the image). Consistent with our main hypothesis, results indicated that appearance-focused participants looked at faces less and chests, arms and stomachs for more time than personality-focused participants. Participants also looked at men's arms for more time and at faces for less time for men's bodies with high (vs. average and low) ideal body shape. We discussed these results and their implications in the light of objectification and body perception theories., SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Recent research found that sexualized bodies are visually processed similarly to objects. This article examines the effects of skin-to-clothing ratio and posture suggestiveness on cognitive objectification. Participants were presented images of upright versus inverted bodies while we recorded the N170. We used the N170 amplitude inversion effect (larger N170 amplitudes for inverted vs. upright stimuli) to assess cognitive objectification, with no N170 inversion effect indicating less configural processing and more cognitive objectification. Contrary to Hypothesis 1, skin-to-clothing ratio was not associated with cognitive objectification (Experiments 1-3). However, consistent with Hypothesis 2, we found that posture suggestiveness was the key driver of cognitive objectification (Experiment 2), even after controlling for body asymmetry (Experiment 3). This article showed that high (vs. low) posture suggestiveness caused cognitive objectification (regardless of body asymmetry), whereas high (vs. low) skin-to-clothing ratio did not. The implications for objectification and body perception literatures are discussed., SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Ant queen pheromones (QPs) have long been known to affect colony functioning. In many species, QPs affect important reproductive functions such as diploid larvae sexualization and egg-laying by workers, unmated queens (gynes), or other queens. Until the 1990s, these effects were generally viewed to be the result of queen manipulation through the use of coercive or dishonest signals. However, in their seminal 1993 paper, Keller and Nonacs challenged this idea, suggesting that QPs had evolved as honest signals that informed workers and other colony members of the queen's presence and reproductive state. This paper has greatly influenced the study of ant QPs and inspired numerous attempts to identify fertility-related compounds and test their physiological and behavioral effects. In the present article, we review the literature on ant QPs in various contexts and pay special attention to the role of cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs). Although the controversy generated by Keller and Nonacs' (Anim Behav 45:787-794, 1993) paper is currently less intensively debated, there is still no clear evidence which allows the rejection of the queen control hypothesis in favor of the queen signal hypothesis. We argue that important questions remain regarding the mode of action of QPs, and their targets which may help understanding their evolution.