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The administrator frequently bases decisions and actions on his perception of other people. Behavioral scientists have been systematically studying the process of perception, focusing in recent years on interpersonal perception. Although their work has been done largely in laboratory settings, their conclusions have relevance for the administrator. This paper examines some of the recent work on interpersonal perception and suggests some implications for administrative practice. No easy means is proposed to make objective what is essentially a subjective process; nevertheless it is possible to indicate some guidelines and precautions to use in this complex aspect of interpersonal relations. Understanding the process of interpersonal perception is one means of trying to avoid gross errors in interpersonal judgments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the present paper, we have attempted to clarify the role of social structural variables in shaping friendships. Our interest in the friendship relationship has stemmed from the conviction that it constitutes a role relationship in which healthier behavior may be observed. In addition we feel that the study of such a relationship might lead to better understanding of the manner in which personality and social structural variables interact. Social structure has been broadly conceived as the framework which defines and delineates the range of friendships available to an individual. The variable of social status and role are viewed as being particularly important in structuring communication and interaction patterns of participants within a social setting, and in predisposing certain relationships more than others to move beyond the formally prescribed level of interaction. The fact that role prescriptions within a given social structure may force certain participants to become involved in interlocking interactions is viewed as having a two-fold significance. On one hand, it allows each participant to explore the desirability of becoming involved in a less formally prescribed interaction with his co-participant. On the other hand, if one or both participants do not wish to become involved in a less formal personality-centered type of interaction, the fact that the relationship has been formed and continues to be based upon social structure allows for the maintenance of a less affectively personally involved relationship without its disintegration. We have suggested that as the nature of the friendship relationship is explored more fully, it becomes clear that it must be viewed as a special type of role relationship--an integrative one in the sense that the multiple roles of each participant are brought together, shared and organized. In this connection, we hypothesize that the more central are the roles that each partner can share with the other in their friendship relationship, the greater the amount of closeness possible and the more satisfaction they experience in their mutual friendship interaction. `Within the present paper, we have spoken as if there were no individual differences in response to social structure. The fact that this isn't the case presents numerous opportunities for further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an exploration of the relationship between members' role performance and the benefits they receive from their organizations. The general relationship is interpreted in the context of a "social exchange model" for voluntary associations. Data for the analysis pertain to members of four voluntary farm organizations: Farm Bureau, Farmers Union, National Farmers Organization, and Grange. The data were obtained in a state-wide survey of Wisconsin farm operators in 1965. In general, the data show a moderate relationship, in a positive direction, between benefits and role performance. The benefits tend to differ in the magnitude and, in some instances, in the direction of their relationships to such performance. The findings indicate the importance of taking into account magnitude and direction of relationship, as well as interaction among the benefits and among costs, in order to devise a viable social exchange model of cost benefit relations for voluntary associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study which examined the implications of symmetry and asymmetry in interpersonal relations for the concept of projection. A distinction between symmetrical and asymmetrical cases of projection has been fundamental since it was introduced by Murray and remains so in the recent review by Holmes. It is usually implied that the two types of cases require entirely different accounts in terms of different psychological processes. The implication of the present paper is quite different. Consider any cognitive process whereby once perceives the characteristics of oneself and the other person according to the likely relationship between them. It follows from the earlier argument that such a process will lead to symmetrical cognitions for certain characteristics and asymmetrical cognitions for others. The application to cases of asymmetrical projection is most direct. Murray used complementary projection to refer to an asymmetrical situation where children who were afraid attributed maliciousness to photographs. He suggested a process, similar to that just proposed, involving the attribution of characteristics to others that explain or justify one's own. This type on interpretation has traditionally bee applied only to asymmetrical cases. Murray used supplementary projection for the symmetrical cases dealt with by classical psychoanalytic mechanism of defense. It was in order to clarify such cases that the study included adjectives to represent both relatively strong and milder versions of the Freudian motives of sex and aggression all of which gave clearly evidence for symmetry.

Some years ago the author rejected out of hand a sociologist colleague's argument that the use of analogies or models is characteristic of insecure individuals operating in immature disciplines. This paper essays an explanation that justifies a reversal of judgment concerning the utility of analogies in sociology and social psychology. It is well to recognize, before continuing with the case against analogical analysis of sociological data, that only an extremist would argue that the very persistence of a conceptual scheme is an argument for its functional nature. The reality of these rewards makes it difficult for those employing an analogy to discern whether it has actual heuristic pedagogical value or its continued use is merely a function of rationalization designed to preserve these subjective rewards. Although not unknown in earlier periods of time, mechanistic models or analogies became much more prevalent in the seventeenth century in response to the remarkable gains of the period in mechanics, physics, and mathematics.

The article presents a list of books related to psychology. They include "Psychophysical Analysis of Visual Space," by J. C. Baird, "Human Social Behavior: A Contemporary View of Experimental Research," by R. A. Baron and R. M. Liebert, and "Units, Symbols and Abbreviations: A Guide for Biological and Medical Editors and Authors," edited by G. Ellis.

The importance of early parent-child relational patterns for subsequent husband-wife relationship in marriage has been generally accepted in the fields of psychoanalysis, psychology and sociology. In studying the dominant, equalitarian and submissive roles of husband and wife in marriage, the influence of early affectional interaction to parents, therefore, will be taken into consideration. While different disciplines may have different conceptual systems in regard to the relation between early interactions and later marital roles, it seems to be of interest to find out statistically such association in a group of 589 married couples.' This paper will report the results of an investigation on the relation between young couple's conflict-attachment relationship with their own parents before marriage on the one hand, and their dominant-equalitarian-submissive role in marriage on the other. It is assumed that positive associations exist between "presence of conflict" with parents and the dominant role, and between "absence of conflict but presence of attachment" to parents and the equalitarian role in marriage.

Two individuals can be so closely involved with one another in a counseling relationship that they become mutually interdependent and yet neither experiences growth. This paper discusses several kinds of these neurotic-symbiotic counseling relationships and examines some possible reasons for the continuation of counseling in the absence of therapeutic change. Some general characteristics of neurotic-symbiotic relationships are discussed, and a comparison is drawn between these growth-preventing relationships and those that are productive of growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents comments of the author in response to comments made by Robert Edward Mitchell on his articles "Status Crystallization: A Non-vertical Dimension of Social Status" and "Social Participation and Status Crystallization." The author's aim was to discover what effect, if any, status inconsistency has on the behavior of individuals. It was not to develop a general theory of why individuals participate in, or withdraw from, groups, as Mitchell implies at the end of Section I, nor to demonstrate that the consistency, or crystallization, variable is a more powerful predictor of behavior than simple, consistent differences in status, as he implies in his reference to relations between high-status physicians and lower-class patients in Section I, or again in Section III when he refers to Jewish garment workers and bankers. The author confesses that he found these discussions very surprising, since at the beginning of Section II Mitchell includes a quotation from his first paper that states his objective in terms that still seem to him to be perfectly clear and straightforward.

Attribution of responsibility is becoming the subject of increasing research activity. Reasons for such activity appear fairly obvious. It is highly probable that the degree to which one person holds another as responsible for the latter's acts is a prime determinant of much interpersonal behavior. For example, responses to others that are punishing versus rehabilitative, generous versus niggardly, kindly versus hostile, or accepting versus rejecting may all be mediated to a substantial extent by the degree to which one attributes responsibility to another person for the outcome of his acts. The focus of the present paper is on several potential determinants of responsibility attribution and their interactions. In professor E. Walster's study, the stimulus events were described as chance-determined. That is, a person gained, broke even, or lost money on an investment purely as a function of environmental events over which he had no control. In this study, Walster was not able to show a relation between responsibility attribution and outcome seventy.

This paper discusses a casework approach to marital problems, using the conjoint interview method, that focuses more on the marital relationship than on the individual personality. This approach utilizes the forces brought about by the interaction of the marital partners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which identifies factors associated with singlehood in males and females. The authors argue that a lot of research has been conducted into the psychological sequelae that lead to singlehood, however factors from childhood can also account for this status. The findings support the hypothesis that higher levels of intelligence, education, and career status account for singlehood in females. Males, it was found, are more likely to remain single if they possess poor interpersonal relationships with parents or siblings.

Part I of this paper is a review of the literature concerning the effects of culture on cognition. The relevance of these studies to interpersonal relations in international organizations is explored. A number of broad hypotheses are suggested. At a more specific level three hypotheses are presented. In the case of high-status visitors working in a low-status culture: (1), the visitor's stereotype of the hosts will be negative; (2) the visitor's stereotype of the host culture will be more negative than the stereotype of members of the visitor's culture who have not come into face-to-face relationships with the host culture; and (3) the stereotype of the hosts toward the visitors will be negative, but will also reflect the presumed higher competence of the visitors. Part II reports a study which supports these hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An item analysis of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in two different high school senior classes using the Levinson-Sanford anti-Semitism scale as a criterion yielded 32 items, each of which significantly differentiated the criterion subsamples in both classes. These items were strongly suggestive of certain personality trends on the part of both the more and the less prejudiced students. The 32 items were also considered as a scale, which appeared to be sufficiently reliable and valid to be used as a measuring instrument in its own right. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the revealed difference technique to determine husband-wife interaction. It emphasizes whether the methodological innovation and the technique grew from successive sequences of pilot findings which led to research operations. The experiment was conducted on a group of couples from geographically adjacent communities in the Arizona-New Mexico area. It is concluded that the technique consists of requesting subjects to make individual evaluations of experiences shared by them. It also involves in requesting the subjects to reconcile differences in interpretations which may have occurred.

This article provides the author's view concerning the relation between sociology and psychology. I use the term psychology for the science which deals with mental phenomena, conscious and unconscious. Passing now to the meaning I attach to the term sociology, the first point to notice is that just as it is possible to describe any of our daily actions as individuals without any reference to the motives which prompt these actions, so is it possible to describe the actions of human beings as members of society without reference to motives. It will, I trust, have become evident that the distinction I seek to make between sociology and social psychology is essentially one of method. To me, as to most students of the subject, the final aim of the study of society is the explanation of social behaviour in terms of psychology. The other reason which justifies the sociologist in using psychological terms in his definitions is that the sociologist has taken into his vocabulary a number of terms in general use which have definite psychological implications. It is evident that the logical processes involved in this study of social behaviour as a step towards the discovery of psychological laws is far from simple.

This study deals with the difficulty of conceptually and operationally defining trust and suspicion, although it is generally acknowledged that these concepts (however defined) appear to underlie many social interactions. The paper makes a distinction between manifest trust and suspicion and the underlying subjective states. Subjective trust and suspicion are defined in terms of one party's (P's) subjective probability about anothers (O's) trustworthiness. Further, trust and suspicion as manifested were conceptualized as a function of independent variables: (1) previous experience, (2) structural and situational factors, and (3) dispositional factors. They were further thought to be mediated by two hypothetical intervening states: (1) P's perception of O's motives and/or competence, and (2) P's subjective state of trust or suspicion toward O. It was concluded that three methodological considerations must be taken into account in using the Prisoner's Dilemma game or some other non‐sum‐zero game, to study trust and suspicion. Specifically, the authors suggest, that if such a game is used it should involve sequential choices with meaningful stakes, with some measure of the hypothetical subjective state being provided. (Kee is in the Department of Psychology, Northwestern University: Knox is in the Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia.) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a statistical study of Freud's theory of personality types. One of the chronic problems in personality theory is that of the best way to conceptualize personality organization. Trait theorists have generally held that organization can be conceived in terms of generalized ways of perceiving and responding to a class of situations. The organizing principle is derived from the learning process, so that functionally related habits become organized into higher-order habits. Different traits are relatively independent of one another. Type theorists, on the other hand, have argued for an over-all unity of personality, a Gestalt quality, such that all the parts have a certain necessary relationship to one another.

Hypotheses pertaining to relatedness satisfactions and desires were derived from ERG theory and tested in an experimental social psychology laboratory. Twenty-one adult male middle and upper middle managers participated in role playing activities based upon actual work experiences described by the men in interviews beforehand. Three degrees of mutuality and relatedness satisfaction were created in the role playing experiment. The managers' desires for relatedness varied as a function of the experimental conditions and supported the hypothesized curvilinear relationship between relatedness satisfaction and desires. These results proved to be consistent with previous results obtained by field correlational methods and thus provide a link between the two methodologies for the study of human needs in organizational settings. The study also presents a new behavior coding system for scoring mutuality in interpersonal behavior and demonstrates that high degrees of relatedness satisfaction can be produced in a laboratory settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Project managers, because of their inherent "authority-gap", have developed a handful of techniques for supplementing their authority. The importance of these techniques will often vary with the dollar-size of the undertaking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article looks at managerial accounting procedures including behavioral science procedures. The effectiveness of human relations is directly related to the usefulness of the managerial accounting procedures and the planning and controlling of business operations. Managerial accounting takes into consideration the efficiency or inefficiency of an individual and can impact the individual psychologically. Data from an experiment on two-phases in the psychological effect of performance reports is discussed. The experiment included 3 different groups of students participating in a business simulation for the duration of 12 quarters; 1 group received quarterly feedback, another group was given feedback at the end of the fourth quarter, and the last group was not given performance reports until the end of the 12 quarters.

Seven studies investigated the relative importance of social cost, belief incongruence, and race in the preference for "types" of people or stooges. The Ss in five studies completed a "Person Preference Test." The test required the Ss to state their preference for eight person types, composed of all possible variations of the three variables across six relationships varying in intimacy. The Ss ranked in order of preference the eight person types, and one study asked the Ss to indicate preference for each of all possible pairs. The results showed that complete congruency (same beliefs, race, and low social costs) is the most important factor. Race is particularly important for the most intimate relationship. Excluding a consideration of complete congruence, the relative importance of the variables were the following: social cost, belief incongruence, and race. Two laboratory studies tended to support the relative importance of social cost, in the preference for stooges differing in social cost, belief incongruence, and race. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four studies using both opposite and same-sex dyads were conducted to examine the relationship between sex and willingness to volunteer to be a subject in an experiment. The degree of contact between the experimenter and subject was varied. In three of the four studies, a significant interaction effect was found, with subjects helping experimenters of the opposite sex more often than members of their own sex. No evidence supporting an ingratiation interpretation was found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many previous works relating the social structure to states of psychological stress or tension have accorded some importance to the role of interpersonal influence. Here, three fundamental features of the influence process held pertinent to stress are delineated. To assess the relative impact of (1) discrepancy among influences, (2) level of influence, and (3) the number of influence sources, data from 58 rural high school students and over 750 of their sources of educational and occupational influence are examined. The results of this analysis suggest that a multi-dimensional conception of the relationship between interpersonal influence and stress seems warranted. Implications for the future study of stress and our conception of the influence process are noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary T he personalities of 100 mechanical engineers were investigated by means of protective techniques, a personality inventory, a personal history form, and a clinical interview. While they show a wide range of temperamental variation, there are definite trends which characterize the main body of mechanical engineers. (1) Mechanical engineers are emotionally stable. They ordinarily make compatible marriages, maintain comfortable human relations, and are usually free of neurotic and psychosomatic symptoms. (2) Interpersonal relations are harmonious but casual. Impersonality is one of their more common traits. (3) An analytical interest in people is rare. (4) They avoid introspection and self-examination. Insight is often shallow. This lack of self-understanding makes them less perceptive of social nuances and relatively insensitive to the less obvious needs of others. (5) Engineers are straightforward, direct, and self-sufficient. (6) They are inclined to be matter-of-fact and, outside their own field, are often unimaginative. Their attitudes are realistic, though their brand of realism deals more with surfaces than with depths. (7) Engineers are energetic. When faced with problems, they are advocates of the direct action approach. Polite diplomacy and oblique conciliatory tactics are foreign to their nature. (8) Most of them are goal-oriented, serious-minded, and conscientious. (9) They like phenomena to be definitely structured; there is a fundamental aversion to ambiguity. This fondness for structure and order may underline their essentially authoritarian approach. (10) Engineers have definitely masculine traits and interests. (11) Social participation is normal in amount. The explanation is more a matter of conventionality and social conformity than any profound interest in people. It is not true that engineers are usually introverts. What sometimes makes them appear so is their characteristic impersonality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an increasing awareness of the part played by intergroup attitudes in controlling human relations. Studies on attitudes towards minorities, toward the British or Japanese, toward management or labor, and the like, are made in an effort to understand and perhaps to indicate how to influence the interplay between groups. This article reports on a study conducted by the Israel Institute of Applied Social Research in which this line of analysis is totally inapplicable. The article concludes that it may be well to point again to the dangers in the study of attitudes, including attitude change, which are exposed by the present investigation. Unless one ascertains the metric on attitude, its zero point and the principal components, one may arrive at entirely false conclusions as to the relationship of the attitude to other variables. This analysis also provides evidence suggesting that an excess of no reply on an attitude question means indifference, and that the attitude's zero point actually coincides with the point of indifference.

The article focuses on personality dynamics and social conflict. A hereditary conception of aggression leads nowhere with regard to social conflict. If man is born with a given potential for aggression, one must apparently assume that in the course of his life he will act out this potential in some form. But aggression, as even the Freudians agree, may be channeled into face-to-face hostility, into competitive behavior, and even into work, or it may be vented in group competition and conflict of a non-violent nature. Thus, the theory cannot logically lead to any kind of prediction about the occurrence of violent social conflict, whether between nations, or classes, or races. As a practical problem neither an instinctivist nor an environmentalist theory of aggression has much value from the point of view of blunting or disarming social conflicts.

This article presents a study on the relation between interaction and liking. The data collection for this study was undertaken through so called group-questionnaire procedure. The group-questionnaire was carried through on October 17, 1962 under the control of a civil collection-leader, who was specially instructed for this occasion. Almost all forms were filled out at the same time in the same locality; a few forms were filled out a couple of days later under the same conditions. According to the collection-leader the data collection occurred under calm conditions and the atmosphere among those filling out the form seemed to be positive. In order to eliminate some of the possible suspiciousness of the recruits that the officers would see the individual's form, the recruits were requested to put the form into an envelop, seal it, and give it to the collection leader. As regards attitudes toward officers and toward military training the sanctioning probably lies mainly with the formal part of the unit. On the contrary, as regards attitudes to one's own group fellows and views on one's own motivation the informal social control among the recruits in the unit can be assumed to be stronger partly depending on the acts that follows the attitude.

This article looks into the social and psychological basis of human relations. The article focuses principally upon the effects of the social environment upon individual psychological processes. The four areas of social psychology are interpersonal perception, cognitive structure, anxiety and achievement in the classroom, and group effects on intra-individual processes. Interpersonal perception is described as being concerned with (a) process involved in one person's perception on another, (b) the personality attributes of the perceiver and those of the percievee, and (c) the structure and dynamics of the social groups of which the perceiver and usually also the perceivee are a part. The performance of task of the type found in schoolwork is sometimes improved under low or moderate anxiety but that high levels of anxiety are uniformly found to bring about a decrement in performance.

It has been proposed that differences in cognitive systemization, particularly differences in the manner in which persons' evaluative discriminations of others in their social environment are structured, constitute one of the significant variables which determine their differentials in attraction to such others. Reasoning from a position that views interpersonal attraction as a function of need gratification, it was hypothesized that individuals would manifest differences in their attraction to others because of the differences in reinforcement resulting from their perceptions of others as either similar to or different from themselves in cognitive complexity. Four specific predictions derived from this general hypothesis were tested in an experiment involving the exposure to both cognitively complex and cognitively simple 5s of the responses of either a cognitively simple or cognitively complex fictitious stranger, with the assessment of the degree of attraction to each by means of Byrne's attraction scale. The results of these manipulations clearly substantiated three of the four predictions, and in the case of the remaining one were in the expected direction, thus generally supporting the more basic hypothesis. Certain unanticipated findings, which seemed explainable in terms of initially unforeseen differences in reinforcement possibilities, were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thirty female Ss and one female confederate enrolled in introductory psychology courses participated in the experiment. Each discussion group consisted of two naive Ss and the confederate. The effect of quality of argument on eye contact and the relationship between leadership votes and eye contact were studied. It was found that (a) when the confederate gave high quality arguments she received more eye contact and more leadership votes from naive group members (t = 3.69, p < .01, t = 5.36, p < .01, respectively); (b) when ranked on a leadership questionnaire, the confederate was ranked significantly higher in the high quality condition than in the low quality condition (X2 = 41.00, p < .001); (c) the correlation between eye contact and leadership votes across quality conditions was r = .69, p < .01. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two groups of college students were exposed to two sets of standardized stimuli which were alike in certain temporal and spatial differentiations. A series of cognitive-affective questions were asked of these Ss concerning their recognition of the critical temporal relations governing the interperson (Study I) and interlight (Study II) activities which they viewed and concerning their personal emotional reactions to these relations and activities. The most noteworthy outcome of this procedure was the consistent strong simple finding of agreement among Ss that the faster people danced or dots jumped about, the better the viewer liked it and the more favorably he evaluated it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the effect of a personal tragedy on interpersonal attractiveness. It has often been observed in "social reality" that the most competent or superior people are seldom the most popular. Indeed, several sources indicate that the intellectual ability of popularly elected leaders tends not to be too divergent from that of their followers. Eighty-six males from an introductory course in Psychology volunteered for the experiment in "judgment of leadership qualities" as a regular part of their class activities. In each experimental group one confederate (O) acted out a role, either arrogant or extremely competent, or shy and bungling. In each group, the only task and purpose of the second confederate was to inform the group of O's tragedy. Three of the four hypotheses were supported by the data. When an extremely competent person had a tragedy, involving harm to others, clearly his fault, his personal attractiveness decreased. When the competent O had a tragedy clearly not his fault, liking increased. On the other hand, when an incompetent had a tragedy clearly not his fault, others' liking for him decreased.

This article presents information related to the measurement of individual differences in perceived personality trait relationships and their relation to certain determinants. In recent years the emphasis in psychological investigations of interpersonal perception has shifted from the accuracy of such perceptions to the nature of the processes involved. The current interest seems to be directed toward the processes by which impressions of the personalities of others are formed. Theoretical considerations have led a number of investigators to posit an "implicit personality theory" or "Lay theory of psychodynamics" for individuals through which impressions are formed, if this concept is valid, when Individual A receives partial information about Individual B, A is able to form a more complete impression of B's personality according to A's `theory' as to what traits are related to those that are perceived in B. A number of investigators have addressed the problem of the interrelationships that exist among traits.

This study attempted to demonstrate that the psychology of dress can be brought under scientific scrutiny. Eighty true-false statements concerning dress behavior were administered to 300 undergraduate women. Thirty-three of these statements were found from the item intercorrelations to constitute five "dress clusters"—decoration, comfort, interest, conformity, and economy. Weights for items in each cluster were taken proportional to the first principal axis in a factor analysis of each cluster. The revised 33- item opinionnaire and a number of personality tests were then administered to a sample of 160 of the original 300 women. Significant correlations among the dress and personality variables, in addition to the intercorrelations of the dress clusters and the reliabilities of the clusters, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the issue of dual orientation in social psychology. Most social scientists regard as a truism the dictum that the behavior of an individual is a function of his own personal characteristics and those of his social environment. Sociological social psychologists stress the importance of group variables, while psychological social psychologists stress the importance of the individual variables. Individual needs and traits develop at least partially in response to the social environmental matrix. Groups adapt to and are modified by the individual. Because of processes such as adaptation and selection, individual and group variables frequently become highly correlated. A behavioral phenomenon which superficially might appear to be due to some individual characteristic might in fact be due to a group characteristic with which the individual characteristic is confounded. Many social scientists agree that the "interaction of individual and group characteristics" is an area of investigation lying within the jurisdiction of social psychology. To account fully and accurately for more of the variance in social behavior, as well as to gain a better understanding of how the determinants interact, it is necessary to have a dual orientation rather than two orientations.

The article presents information on the four effects of co-operation. In spite of the rapid development of social psychology in recent years, relatively little attention has been paid to the problems of cooperation. There is some experimental evidence, which, however, has remained rather unsystematized. The work songs, well known also from studies of primitive societies, obviously served the purpose of temporal coordination. There is no doubt that the average effect of cooperation is a very important one, and very well distinguished from the other ones. It occurs in a lot of situations in daily life say, when school marks, obtained from different teachers, are combined. The rapid development of science during the last 100 years is certainly a consequence not only of the accumulated knowledge, forming a better base for further work, but also of the rapid increase of the number of scientists. This number is of importance in two ways. It means a broadening of the field under research more problems can be attacked. But it also means an increasing probability of certain valuable scientific performances, i.e., when different workers attack the same problem or group of problems.

The article focuses on hostility and its implications in the field of international relations. The study is concerned with the investigation of some dynamic problems of international tension by means of a verbal test. It is designed to find what relationships exist among expressions of hostility in three kinds of social situations: everyday situations, professional (teaching) situations and international situations. The hypothesis are (a) different categories of hostile responses exist in given social situations and (b) measures of hostility among the three different kinds of social situations are related. The construction of the instrument used in this study involved the following steps: (a) development of brief situations, (b) administration of these situations in open-ended form, (c) categorization of open-ended answers and refinement of the situations, (d) referral of situations with categorized answers to judges and (e) preparation of the final inventory. The instrument includes short verbal situations in three fields of social behavior: everyday, professional (teaching) and international.

The relationship of the Pr (prejudice) scale to a number of other factors in two high school senior classes has been presented. A comparison between these relationships and those obtained for a conventional anti-Semitism scale was made. The two sets of relationships were highly consonant, tending to substantiate the validity of the Pr scale. The findings also served to expand the meaning of the Pr scale, and to show what other traits and factors tend to covary with it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents some psychological and sociological correlates of anti-Semitism with regard to studies of social intolerance. One of the continuing tasks of social psychology is the need to account for the direction, strength, and origins of social attitudes. This responsibility is of special importance in respect to questions of social intolerance, where hostile and antipathetic attitudes may have consequences ranging all the way from personal ill-will to individual character disturbance and group conflict. A consideration of recent studies devoted to these issues yields the strong impression that social attitudes do not exist independently of each other, but are, on the contrary, highly interrelated and organized. It can be shown that social attitudes convey in reliable and predictable ways, and that what a person feels in regard to one issue can be quite accurately foretold by canvassing his opinion concerning other issues. Some of the studies have argued that the intercorrelational network has much more than a superficial or phenotypical consequentiality, and that the observed reticulations of interrelated opinions and beliefs are themselves but the external manifestations of certain basic personality factors and predispositions.

Social Psychology is shown as having, in its rejection of grand theory, also abandoned many of its significant problems. The field of social psychology is defined in relation to sociology and psychology. The latter are each dealing with a complete logical system, which may or may not be in conflict or leave certain areas undefined. Social psychology is defined as an interstitial science covering the situations where actions of the individual and the forces of organized society interact. The need for full-range theory is shown and examples are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hypothesis discussed herein is an example of the use of what is known as the natural history approach to the study of human behavior. This approach when applied to revolutionary movements has yielded the postulate that such movements pass through four stages in their development. Before undertaking to outline the revolutionary process, it is necessary to undergird such a description of revolutionary behavior with a brief statement of the way human behavior looks to contemporary students of the "science of human relationships." In answer to the question, "What is human behavior?" there is an increasing tendency to reply that human behavior is a function of the development of socially-acquired attitudes toward culturally-held values. From the point of view of the social forms within which collective behavior goes on, a revolutionary movement may be thought of as a development in the course of which a mass is transformed into a crowd, a crowd becomes a public, and a public evolves into a society.

The subject of sociology is in process of development and is passing through somewhat the same stages as have the older sciences. These stages which are invariably more or less common in all may be designated, in a general way, as the philosophical, experimental and organizational. Sociology at present is emerging from the realm of the philosophical by putting more and more dependence in observation and classification. In the attempts of the past two or three decades the sociologists in trying to make sociology a science have made numerous excursions into various realms of learning, but especially into anthropology, psychology, and statistics. Another group of sociologists, not having been satisfied with anthropological explanations, have turned to psychology. The hypothesis upon which they worked was that it was impossible to explain the groups and organizations without knowing thoroughly the individual. While the teachers of sociology have been writing and teaching in the fields of anthropology and social psychology, the social workers, social reformers, and statisticians have been producing tables, columns of figures, and graphs.

The article discusses the study of the social behavior of non-human primates in captivity. According to the research, social relations are found in female-female combinations. It is found solely in the infant-mother relationship characterized by affection on the part of the child and concern on the part of the mother. On the other hand, young-young relationships exhibit a weak social behavior. In a male-young behavior, social relation is characterized by dominance, grooming activity, and leader-follower position. Furthermore, it can be best observed the full range of social conduct in the male-female behavior.

The number of projects submitted by members of the Society to the Committee on Social Research has continued to increase for the third straight year. The 495 projects for 1946 were submitted by 330 members, or 25 per cent of the total membership of the Society. The 432 projects in 1945 were submitted by 280 members or 22 per cent of the membership for that year. Thus it is seen that most of the 1946 gain occurred in two fields: Social psychology and Social Research. Except for these fields, the two distributions are fairly similar. In the 1945 census an attempt was made to check on coverage by asking all members, whether they had projects to report or not, to return signed schedules. The main gain in 1946 was in those reporting projects. However the less than 43% return leaves the question of representativeness of coverage unanswered. Two hundred twenty-one members, or two in every three who reported projects, reported only one project, and of course each of these was classified in one field.

The article focuses on the way to measure sociation. To measure sociation, the degree of interaction in a group, the kind and intensity of attractions and repulsions among persons in a group must first be determined. Sociation is defined as the average of units of intensity of all the interpersonal attitudes in a group plus or minus the average deviation of the intensities of attitudes. Attitudes ranging from one unit of intensity of attraction to one unit of intensity of repulsion can be shown graphically.

The hypothesis that there is a relationship between a person's being psychologically unable and unwilling to live with something in himself and being defective in his psychologically living with the same thing in other people is presented to explain frequently observed clients' reactions The meaning of the concept of acceptance and the interpersonal and interpersonal dynamics of the defect are discussed. Four case abstracts and one example from the experiences of a psychotherapist are described as a way of giving the hypothesis and discussion additional meaning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existentially oriented psychotherapists have contributed significantly to our understanding of man. However, some of their terminology is often confusing. Some of these concepts were introduced to the counselor with an attempt at clarification. Psychology today appears to be concerned with the similarities of man, whereas the existential position focuses on individual uniqueness. While clients may come to the counseling bureau with similar manifest problems, the task of the counselor is to illuminate the uniqueness of this particular client. Elucidation of this uniqueness in the light of the existential encounter allows the client's world to unfold and thus the client is able to see more possibilities for action. The essential humanness of the counseling relationship allows these possibilities to emerge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the recent developments in psychology relating to the control of human behavior, which raise some problems and issues of significance to counseling and psychotherapy. Psychology, as the science of behavior, is concerned with the understanding, prediction, and control of such behavior. Counseling and psychotherapy have as goals the changing of behavior. Although the achievements of psychology are quite modest, and do not measure up to the conceptions of the man in the street, considerable progress has been made in the prediction and control, if not the understanding, of behavior. Although there are differing conceptions of the process and of its operation, the control of behavior through the administering of rewards and punishment has been possible to some extent for a long time. The whole field of education has, of course, benefited from the contributions of psychology to the teaching-learning process. The article may summarize by suggesting that there are two basically different approaches to counseling or to any human relationship. The first of these, designated as manipulations and second approach is termed as understanding.

The article examines the relationship of society and its evolution with psychology. Important problems of method arise, involving the whole conception of original history. The problem of method that is central here is that of causation. A new notion of causation, that is, of proof of what causes what, has to be developed and accepted. The answer is that the new notion of causal relation between social phenomena, like all notions of causation, depends for its acceptance on the attitude of the perceiver. It seems, therefore, that all forms of proof in sociological studies boil down to two related types of proof, by convergence and by analogy. It is assumed here that the general cause of social psychological changes is to be found in changes in the material conditions of society. A general pattern can be traced through all the various types of behaviour as they spread down into society and gradually become second nature. Certain instincts disappear altogether. Large sections of society have lost any desire whatever to spit.