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The criminalization of behavior, whether of an individual or a collective, often represents a conflict between the norms governing a polity and the deviations of one of a few. Perhaps nowhere else is the issue of behavior criminalization more fraught with controversy than within the realm of sexuality, particularly with regard to issues of privacy and personal morality. More precisely, the curtailment of civil liberties based on one's sexual orientation has long been, and continues to be, a significant source of debate, often blurring the line between law and morality; a line which is often upheld, contested, and redefined within the legal realm (West 1988: 181). In recent years, advanced industrial nations have become more accepting of consensual sexual acts in a private, as evidenced by the English Wolfenden Committee (Ibid) which ruled that private sexual relations (including prostitution and homosexuality) were not within the domain to regulate. However, only one century ago the English system was not as forgiving of "deviant" sexual identities as a dark coverlet of heterosexism and irrational medical fears gripped the commonwealth and permeated popular consciousness (Wiggins 2000). ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasing number of academic disciplines (e.g., economics and public policy) permit doctoral students to choose between completing a traditional dissertation or a multi-paper option that replaces the dissertation. Although there is no uniform multi-paper option, a common procedure is for the student to author three publishable and closely-related papers, at least one of which is submitted to a peer-reviewed journal prior to graduation. The multi-paper option has not yet become popular in criminology and criminal justice however the popularity is rising in other disciplines. The study reports the results of ASC and ACJS members' opinions concerning (a) the suitability of a multi-paper option in Ph.D. level criminology and criminal justice programs and (b) the effects of a multi-paper option on the hiring prospects of new Ph.D.s and Ph.D. students. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides the results of an analysis of on-line assessments given to undergraduate criminal justice students at an eastern state university. The format, content, and resources used in an on-line course are described and evaluated to determine the effectiveness of assessment methods on student learning outcomes. Individual student characteristics, level of interaction, and assessment methods will be discussed. Finally, a comparison of paper-and-pencil examinations with on-line examinations will be presented and correlated. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nature and quality of partnerships between university-based researchers and criminal justice practitioners (i.e., law enforcement) is a welcomed union theoretically, however in practice there is notable tension. The competing paradigms of education and research for the police as opposed to education and research on the police are examined using data from two studiesa sample of 192 Pennsylvania police officers and a Massachusetts police department needs assessment. Social policy implications for criminal justice education will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 and a variety of modeling strategies, including sibling fixed effects and restricted comparison groups, this paper examines the housing stability of individuals with a felony conviction but no history of incarceration relative to those of formerly incarcerated individuals as a means of disentangling the effects of incarceration and community removal from the independent effect of felon status per se. Results indicate that, like formerly incarcerated individuals, never incarcerated individuals with felony convictions experience an elevated risk of housing instability and residential mobility, even after adjusting for financial resources and behavioral characteristics. As most previous research on the collateral consequences of the criminal justice system has focused on incarceration, this paper makes an important contribution to the literature by highlighting how conviction, not just incarceration, can introduce instability into the lives of the 12 million Americans with felony records who have never served a prison sentence. These findings suggest that criminal justice reform efforts focused on increasing the use of community corrections over incarceration may do less to reduce the harm of criminal justice contact than reformers expect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Punishment and the law it represents are considered to be sacred in the US. Current understandings of punishment rely on traditional notions of benevolent paternalism which has come to represent hegemonic ideology. By using privatization as a launching point, this paper is meant to address punishment in the United States as a profit-making system. By viewing alienation and anomie as foundation for the existence of the criminal justice apparatus this work is meant to challenge boundaries used by many scholars as ways to understand the growth of the prison industrial complex. By beginning our understanding of punishment at the end of feudalism and serfdom, this paper highlights that at each state in its grotesque development, the criminal justice system has never truly been about justice; but instead a way to exploit labor, create anomie and alienation, while embodying the logic of capital. This has resulted in a monstrous machine presenting itself as sanctified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although misconduct and deviance can occur in virtually any occupation, police misconduct/deviance is a special case of occupational wrongdoing (Kappeler, Sluder & Alpert, 1998). As a result of the professionalism necessary to serve as an officer and the privileges associated with the profession, misconduct as an officer should be viewed more seriously and should try to be prevented as much as possible. Police misconduct not only affects those involved or individual officers but also departments themselves since it can affect citizen perceptions of the police and undermines relations between officers and the public. This paper applies neutralization theory to the issue of police misconduct to explain how officers may be able to engage in both law abiding/enforcing activities and law breaking activities (or at least professional lapses). In addition, this paper looks also at how neutralization can be applied to officers who are "positive deviants" and snitch on fellow officers, breaking the informal code of "blue secrecy" which is rarely explored in either the policing or neutralization theory literature. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The population of older prisoners in U.S. prisons has burgeoned including a rapid increase in older females. This paper is based on a larger research study focusing on the experiences of women who are over fifty and in prison in the southern states of America. For the purpose of this paper, we will focus on data from Tennessee Penitentiary for Women and Kentucky Correctional Institution for Women (KCIW). To gain an understanding of the plight of older incarcerated females, 28 women who were 50 years of age or older living in the Kentucky Correctional Institution for Women (KCIW) and 6 from Tennessee Penitentiary for Women were recruited for this study. Descriptive demographic data as well as qualitative data were collected utilizing face-to-face in-depth interviews and focus groups. Data collected and organized from the interviews revealed several key issues related to prison adjustment: loss of health, freedom, and privacy, relationships with family, friends, other inmates, and prison staff, end of life issues, and strategies for coping with prison life. The personal pains associated with prison life were obvious among this group of older females. The long-term separation from loved ones, health problems and dissatisfaction with health care, and trepidation regarding their futures was a common message voiced by this sample. Despite the challenges of making a life in this prison environment, the women tended to maintain positive outlooks and optimism for their futures. Implications for prison policy as well as arguments for alternatives to incarceration are explored. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Police culture scholarship documents that though there is fragmentation of the so-called "monolithic" police culture, historically consistent features of the occupational culture of police exist. Drawing on ethnographic observations in three U.S. police departments, this paper describes how one consistent feature of police culture--the preoccupation with danger and potential death--is maintained by the commemoration of officers killed in the line of duty. The use of commemorative cultural artifacts by officers and departments contributes to an organizational memory that locally reflects and reifies the salience of danger and potential death in policing. Further, commemoration of dead officers is not restricted to a department's own; the dead of other departments are commemorated by independent police organizations and their officers, maintaining occupational assumptions of dangerous and deadly police work that transcend a single department and its organizational memory. Implications for the study of police culture and police reform efforts are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this paper is to put forth a conceptual model of a criminal organization that incorporates both mandatory and discretionary characteristics. This comprehensive and flexible model attempts to overcome the limitations of static definitions and existing underdeveloped theoretical frameworks that do not fully capture the traits, diversity, and complexity of organized criminal conspiracies. In total, 25 characteristics are incorporated into this model and divided into four categories: organizational, institutional, commercial, and behavioural. To constitute a criminal organization, a conspiracy among offenders must satisfy at least twelve of the 25 traits, six of which are deemed to be universal to any criminal organization. This conceptual model not only fills a void in the theoretical literature on organized crime. It has also been developed for applied purposes: to facilitate legal efforts to determine, in a scientific and rigorous fashion, whether a particular conspiracy among offenders in Canada constitutes a "criminal organization" as defined by Section 467.1(1) of the Criminal Code. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When Amadou Diallo was shot and killed by four NYPD officers, judicial blame focused on the men who held the guns that night. Although eventually acquitted, the officers embodied thick dynamics of race and politics that were left unrevealed and untouched by criminal justice proceedings. The paper delineates the many strands of culture, racism, politics, and organizational interaction that resulted in the death of a young African immigrant at the hands of four white police officers. Told through transcripts of interviews with policemen, defense attorneys, political figures, and members of the community, the story of the Diallo tragedy suggests directions for addressing the problem of police killings of young men of color across the country. The paper draws on research currently in process of publication by Syracuse University Press. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the main findings of quantitative and qualitative research into the criminal careers of about a thousand offenders who were involved in eighty extensively analysed cases of organised crime. The paper analyses how and when offenders become known to the criminal justice authorities, it studies in depth the criminal careers of 'starters', and analyses in detail the criminal careers of (ring)leaders and 'nodal' offenders. As social ties play an important role in organised crime, the paper emphasises that the social opportunity structure - social ties providing access to profitable criminal opportunities - is extremely important for explaining involvement in organised crime. It explains why certain offenders 'progress' to certain types of organised crime and why several offenders only become involved later on in life. Social opportunity structure may also explain interesting phenomena such as 'late starters' - people without any appreciable criminal history - and legally employed people switching careers.Keywords: criminal careers; developmental and life course criminology; organised crime; qualitative research; social network analysis; social opportunity structure. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an exploration of the impact of methamphetamine on the criminal justice system in four counties in Western Colorado, using data from court records research, probation, and community corrections. The paper examines the impact meth has on the courts, and demonstrates how meth users are responsible for numerous non-drug crimes. While methamphetamine is routinely associated with a variety of crimes in western U.S. communities, there has been little empirical evidence to demonstrate the actual impact. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the scope and range of crimes implicated and the consequences for the local criminal justice community. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is theoretical in nature and applies two of the leading theories of social justice to criminal justice practice in the United States. The author applies the theories of John Rawls (Justice as Fairness, 2003) and David Miller (Principles of Social Justice, 2003) to the criminal law, policing, judicial processes, and correctional punishment in order to identify sources of injustice. The paper concludes with suggestions for reform aimed at making criminal justice practice more consistent with social justice. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The workability and fairness of criminal justice systems often depends upon the courage as well as competency, fairness, and effectiveness of those who work in the system. This paper explores the extent of the various kinds of risks that prosecutors face and the role that courage plays in meeting the challenges posed by these risks. In addition to a didactic analysis of these issues the paper presents several case examples illustrating both the issues and some of the possible ways of meeting the challenges posed. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a prison support group program for male offenders. The model was conceived and implemented by voluntary organizations associated with the mythopoetic men's movement. Two similar organizations are described: The Inside Circle Foundation in California and the Jericho Circle Project in Massachusetts. The program offers weekly support groups and weekend intensive trainings. The paper is based on interviews with program leaders and volunteers, and outlines the key program elements and goals. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the question: Can the frameworks of analysis of criminology and criminal justice help us to better understand the nature and sources of terrorism and interventions that can serve to remove its causes? The motivation for this question is the prospect that we may be able to prevent terrorism and respond to it most effectively when we understand what it means, what are its roots -- why people choose to engage in acts of terrorism in the first place -- and how we can protect from harm the targets that are susceptible to attack. The paper examines analytic frameworks designed to give a balanced presentation of critical perspectives on all significant sides of major issues of contention -- and often contentiousness -- including the role of religion, balancing security with rights to privacy and liberty, and the role of media and politics in feeding the fear that gives terrorism traction in the first place. The paper reviews what criminologists have contributed to date, and how they might contribute fruitfully in the future. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to expose the experience of some poor, urban battered women as related to stalking. This paper contends the current stalking literature and policy has discounted the experiences of many poor, urban battered women. This paper reviews the current stalking literature, general victimization data and theoretical criticisms of research and polices which discount the experience of marginalized battered women. The author a former victim's advocate in Jersey City, New Jersey also discusses her observations. Victims were monitored for the purpose of instilling fear and intimidation; however their experience often fell outside of the 'mainstream' conceptualization of stalking. This paper contends that because of limited economic resources and geographic constraints, many poor, urban battered women rarely left their neighborhoods, consequently allowing for easier monitoring. In addition, this paper will discuss the author's observation that this group of women was frequently monitored by their community, including the batterer's friends, family, street associates, etc. It should be clear the author is not advocating for the recognition of this group, for the sole purpose of punishing their batterers. Rather the hope of this paper is to expose the reader to the disconnection created when middle-class concepts, including language and the codification of specific behaviors, are applied to groups whose experiences are not considered by policy makers and outsiders. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of police departments today in the United States and Canada claim to "do" community policing on some level. Community policing has become central in the manner police agencies define and promote themselves. The purpose of this paper is to first examine the apparent promotion and centrality of "community policing" in two large urban police departments (one in the U.S. and one in Canada). The second part of the paper examines the gendered experiences that female officers encounter, and critically explores the possibility of using Community Policing initiatives as feminist tools to encourage social and structural changes within the occupational culture of policing which continues to reflect, for the most part, the traditional, paramilitarisic, crime control model that does not support gendered justice goals. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current "epidemic" of methamphetamine is not the first since the drug's discovery in 1893 by a Japanese pharmacologist. This paper identifies patterns common across four perceived methamphetamine epidemics. The discussion includes social conditions predating epidemics, dormancy of the problem, surge and alarm, morphing of the problem, hibernation, amnesia, and incubation. The paper concludes with implications for: legal production of the drug, physicians and pharmacists, enforcement strategies, prevention efforts, treatment, and management of the epidemic and its aftermath. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The climate of domestic drug policy in the United States as it pertains to both women and men at the beginning of the 21st century is the criminalization mode of regulation - a mode that is based on the model of addiction as a crime. In Canada, drug policy is based mainly on the harm reduction model. Research has revealed that addiction and recovery processes present challenges to women that differ from those confronted by men. Using a comparative analysis between these two societies, this paper considers the ramifications of these two regulatory modes through women's perspectives. This paper attempts to answer the question: "Using an international perspective (i.e., Canada and the United States), is drug policy directed toward women who abuse drugs a miscarriage of justice?" ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some level of police discretion is an inevitable consequence of the numerous decisions a police officer faces daily. In light of recent cases of police abuse of force and racial profiling, most scholarly inquiry has focused on whether police have exercised their discretion fairly/justly. Unexplored in the literature, however, has been consideration of how affiliation with a police association in the form of a membership card (or P.B.A. card) distributed to police officers and their family and friends may favorably influence the outcome of interactions with police. This paper addresses the extent to which the use of the PBA card has resulted in law enforcement agents ignoring criminal or traffic infractions because of the offender's association with a fellow officer. In particular, this paper will examine the history, distribution, function, and public awareness of the membership card. Specific examples of the use of these cards as well as the larger issues associated with their existence will be examined. This paper will argue that the promotion and use of these cards by police associations is one of the largest and least studied threats to a democratic state. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on intimate partner violence (IPV) has traditionally centered on women, as they are disproportionately the victims of this crime. Men's experiences as victims of IPV are often disregarded. Critics of this oversight have suggested that men are just as likely to be victimized by their partners as women - a phenomenon known as "gender symmetry." The gender symmetry argument has sparked heated debates in the literature from a range of scholars who argue the importance of considering the nature and context of the violence. This paper contributes to this area of study by comparing the correlates of men's and women's police reporting behaviours. Reporting IPV to the police is one way that victims can access support services and involve themselves in formal justice systems. This paper uses data from the Canadian General Social Survey (Statistics Canada, 1999) to examine gender differences in the reporting of IPV. Results illustrate important differences in the correlates of reporting behaviours. Particularly, the effect of severity of violence on the decision to report a violent incident is substantially higher for men than women. These findings reinforce the need to develop research that considers how men and women experience this crime differently. Such research is necessary in order to develop victim assistance programs that address victim needs appropriately. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Police institutions tend to be among the most secretive and least accountable of all organizations. When pressed for accountability or sued over malfeasance, they are notorious for skilful evasiveness. To admit error is akin to public humiliation. Police institutions disdain criticism of any kind, especially when the criticism is brought by women. In order to protect itself, police forces will use any step outside the law and use any means available to cage the voices of criticism. This paper will examine the arrest and prosecution of women who sue the police. It will use three major cases--two in Japan and one in the USA--of women being charged with murder after filing suits against the police in open courts. This paper will make the disturbing conclusion that women who sue the police, both in the USA and most certainly in Japan, put themselves in danger of vengeful arrest. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Patricia Yancey Martin, Ph. D., Sociology, Florida State UniversityOrganizations, Social Justice and Rape WorkThis paper shows how organizational and community conditions prompt police officers, nurses and physicians, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges to treat rape victims unresponsively in the course of doing rape work. (Rape work is labor performed by organizational representatives that entails helping victims, examining victims, testing victims, collecting evidence, arresting rapists, investigating cases, counseling victims, training, moving victims through community health, legal, and social service systems, teaching about rape, and so on.) Despite "knowing better" and despite personally feeling empathy and concern for victims, mainstream rape workers (professionals who process victims after they report being raped) routinely treat victims harshly in doing their jobs. This paper identifies the situations, conditions and processes that prompt, and often require, such insensitive and at times harmful behavior toward victims. Using data from 130 Florida organizations (and over 200 informants), plus observations of rape trials and statewide and national data, I explore how the work context encourages legal system workers to prioritize the role of rape victims as witnesses over their role as victims and prompts medical professionals to resist rape exams due to fears of legal entanglement and a perception that rape victims are not true patients. "Good people do bad things" when their jobs and work conditions orient them to. At the end, I identify avenues for positive change to improve the quality of treatment rape victims receive. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past research has shown that blacks in Brazil are more likely to be victims of police brutality. However, no research has been done to show whether or not their minority status makes them less likely to report this violence in the form of calling the police or filing a report. Using PNAD data from 1988, this paper examines whether being black or brown (the minority groups in Brazil) or female affects reporting practices when it comes to victimization by the police. Using descriptive statistics as well as logistic regression analysis, this paper will compare reporting practices of whites, blacks and browns. In addition, the paper will examine whether income, age, sex or education level affect reporting practices when a Brazilian citizen is victimized by a police officer. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupational stress is inherent in positions like policing, because of the experiences and situations on the job. However, in addition to these situational stressors, other variables can affect an officers perception of stress. In addition, however, every individual officer, by definition, works for a particular police department, and organizational factors of that department also affect individual officers' stress levels. Previous literature has already shown that occupational stress differs for officers depending upon their race. This paper seeks to further the literature by measuring whether occupational stress for police officers differ depending more upon the individual race of the officer (level 1) or the racial makeup of the police department for which these officers work (level 2). In addition, this paper will explore whether other both individual level variables, (education, experience in law enforcement, gender, and in-group/out-group status), as well as agency level variables (state, number of officers in the agency, and city/county) affect the officers' perception of occupational stress. Preliminary results show that stress differs between agencies for Hispanic officers, but not for Black or White officers, but stress differs within agencies for all three races. This finding is important considering the fact that many studies have dichotomized race as White and Other, and emphasizing the importance of breaking out these races in studies further than just this dichotomy. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

My paper compares the Chicago Tribune's reporting of rituals surrounding executions in two periods: 1850-1900 and 1950-2000. I focus on the role of the condemned in establishing or contesting the meaning of the execution. I argue that both periods witness a struggle over the meaning of the execution. While the depiction of the condemned is always at the heart of those struggles, the condemned himself plays a different role in the two periods. In the first period the accounts of the execution ritual focused on the spiritual transformation the condemned was said to undergo in the days leading up to the execution. In contrast, the later accounts fail to present one coherent meaning for the execution. Rather, the struggle over the meaning of the execution intensified in this period and the condemned himself was given much greater latitude by the papers to present his own interpretation of this meaning. Moreover, instead of having a religious focus, the Tribune's portrayals of the ritual during the second period emphasize the legal struggles that occurred prior to the execution. This shift in focus indicates the changing meanings of and justifications for capital punishment in the two periods studied. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most quantitative racial profiling studies have paid less attention to the actual narratives of racial profiling "victims". I argue that a qualitative understanding of social context is necessary for quantitative research. In this paper, I consider the complaints of Hmong import racers in constructing tests for racial biases. Specifically, I compare the rate of citations to rate of warnings from the La Crosse (WI) police department. Based on informants' narratives, it would seem that they have formulated their own "folk theories" of labeling and social control. This paper in turn argues that the sociology of deviance is still most relevant in the studying racial disparities. Racial profiling is a form of racial stereotyping, and these stereotypes serve as deviant labels for stricter modes of social control. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It Starts at Home: Parental Supervision Among a Group of Active Juvenile OffendersAbstractThe apparently simple solution to juvenile delinquency is that prevention begins at home. Parents of delinquents are frequently blamed for their wayward children, and criticized for their child-rearing techniques. The purpose of this paper is to examine the parent/child relationship between a group of active juvenile offenders and their parents. During the course of a larger project, information was collected regarding juvenile perceptions of severity of punishment from their parents, how wrong it is to lie to your parents, and several questions to create an index of parental supervision. This paper seeks to answer the question of whether parents of delinquent children provide significantly less supervision than "regular" parents. The sample consists of 118 active juvenile offenders selected as a convenience sample of juveniles recently referred to a large urban jurisdiction. Bivariate correlations indicate that juveniles reporting lower levels of parent supervision are more likely to report delinquent activity. Factors predicting both self report delinquency and parent supervision will be presented, along with policy implications. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on Mathias Reimann's (2004) useful justification for a new basic course for law students, this paper provides a discussion of an approach to new basic course in international criminal justice for students drawn from disciplines such as law, history, sociology, political science and criminology. This paper argues that the nascent ICC and the jurisprudential developments of the international tribunals suggest the emergence of a discrete international legal order. To appreciate the nature of this new order, it may be useful to practically examine international criminal justice through a variety of themes including: Historical Context, Psychology of International Crimes, Jurisdiction, Individual Responsibility and Defences, Substantive and Procedural Legal Developments, the Problem of Selectivity and the Future of International Criminal Law. This paper is organized to consider key principles, pedagogy and practical challenges and includes study questions for each theme with a view to assist future international criminal justice coursework. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditionally the identification and apprehension of active serious offenders has relied on information from the public, the targeting of 'known' offenders and current knowledge of offending patterns. More recently, the method of offender self-selection has been offered as an additional identification tool, where certain minor infractions have been found to be 'triggers' for uncovering serious criminality - self-selection because the individual has broken a law in the first place. This paper details a police operation - 'Operation Visitor' - focused on visitors to a young offenders institute, to explore whether minor offences committed - either whilst at, or en route to the institution - can be used as trigger offences to indicate serious criminality. One third of visitors caught offending had criminal histories, several considered serious active offenders. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Broken Windows policing has become one of the most important innovations in policing. It is based on a hypothesis regarding the relationships between fear of crime, disorder and more serious crime first brought by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling. They argued that disorder causes fear of crime to increase in a community, starting a chain of events that eventually leads to more serious crime and community decline. This study aims to improve our knowledge of the relationship between disorder and fear of crime in the context of the broken windows hypothesis by using a micro-level research design. This paper used data collected during a study of displacement and diffusion in Jersey City, New Jersey. The results of the current study suggest that perceived social disorder and observed levels of physical disorder have a strong impact on fear of crime. Living on a street segment at the maximum level of disorder corresponded to having a much higher probability of feeling unsafe than a segment at the minimum level of disorder. This suggests that the relationship between disorder and fear hypothesized by the broken windows literature may exist, and that police may be able to reduce fear of crime by reducing disorder. However, it was also found that the police intervention itself increased the probability of feeling unsafe. Thus any fear reduction benefits resulting from focused police crackdowns on disorder and minor crime may be at least partially offset by the extra police presence itself causing residents to become more fearful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a state survey of the public access to clemency materials, mainly petitions, reviewing the diverse procedures of seven States which have the highest execution rates in the US. The survey addresses the law, regulations and practical applications, including interviews with State clemency officials from Texas, Virginia, Oklahoma, Missouri, Florida, Georgia, and North Carolina. These states have a variety of diverse clemency procedures from models in which the governor has sole constitutional authority, where a Board must recommend clemency, and where a board has sole authority. The question of public access to State death penalty clemency petitions is emblematic of important general issues regarding the fairness, standards, effectiveness, flexibility and diversity of the various clemency procedures. It also is related to the question of who controls, monitors and historically preserves the records of the unbridled discretion associated with the clemency process, the executive, the legislature, an independent board, a cabinet, the state archives, or a system of checks and balances. While a State legislature may attempt to monitor the process through record keeping and disclosure requirements, a State constitution which invests the power in the executive could override even the mildest legislative constraints. Therefore the study of access to clemency petitions must include a full understanding of the clemency procedures as outlined by State statutes, constitution, regulations and judicial decisions. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes the design of a project which examines evidence of the extent and nature of missed mitigation in capital sentencing, through the systematic analysis of data in 70-80 Missouri State clemency petitions and published appellate cases from 1976-2005. It will review the role of counsel and expert witnesses in investigating and presenting mitigation evidence, evaluating the affect of the level of counsel and expert fees, professional experience, performance standards, and legal strategy. Clemency petitions are an important resource in this project because they add insight into the missed mitigation which may not have been procedurally admitted in judicial proceedings, due to the restrictions on habeas corpus review. Missouri is the third widest modern user of executions in the U.S., and it also authorized executions of juvenile defendants. The clemency petitions are likely in the public domain because many of them are published by legal and educational groups on the internet. Seventy of the eighty petitioners through the year 2000 are dead, and are not human subjects. The project will take the necessary precautions to protect the identities and social identifiers of defendants and of the third parties mentioned in the petition. The research may assist litigants and judges to use this evidence to correct constituional shortcomings in cases, and the research might lead to changes in counsel's performance standards and practices. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although delinquency is prevalent among juveniles, the mechanism of leading delinquency is inconclusive. However, much research suggests that there is a positive relationship between delinquency and the association with delinquent peers. Past studies show that youth often engage in delinquency with their peers. At the developmental stage of youth, peers are one of the most influential factors on individual's behavior. However, past research tends to measure the association with delinquent peers by asking the number of delinquent friends regardless structure. There is only handful research done with network approach in recent decades. However, they engaged in massive quantitative analysis which hinders researchers from seeing the function of cohesive peer groups regarding delinquency. I intend to reveal the mechanism of delinquency from structural aspect at much smaller scale .In my paper, I will attempt to explain the relationship between delinquency and delinquent peers with social network approach. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that poverty and inequality increase the likelihood of terrorist incidents in a country. By the guidance of the researches in criminal justice field on poverty, inequality and crime relationship this study builds a path to examine terrorism issue. To be able to do this the study uses social disorganization theory (Shaw & McKay, 1942), anomie theory (Merton, 1938) and Marxist theory (Bonger, 1916) which have been base for explaining poverty, inequality and crime relationship. This study answers the research question of "Does income inequality, poverty level, education level, unemployment level increase the likelihood of terrorist incidents in cities of Turkey?" This empirical study uses secondary data analysis, data for the variables of socioeconomic indicators gathered from the databases of national statistics bureau of Turkey and terrorism incidents data gathered from databases of Turkish National police. Logistic regression will be utilized as statistical method for this study to be able to look at the likelihood of terrorist incidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Democratizing policing must be viewed as part of a larger democratization process in transitional and developing societies. This larger process includes socioeconomic development, reducing ethnic and other forms of conflict, building social capital and other forms of citizen capacity, and integrating human rights and participatory equity in all efforts. This cannot be successful without women playing an equal role with men in all of these efforts, including the establishment and implementation of democratic policing strategies. In this paper the author makes the case for gender equity in participation in democratic policing, assesses the obstacles to participation in democratic policing for women and other marginalized groups, and offers ideas for increasing and enhancing the contribution of women and other marginalized groups in the process. When formulating policy, academics, policy makers, NGOs, and other activists should take into account how policing and crime in general are interrelated with patriarchy, ethnic conflict, socioeconomic development, and democratic institution building. The obstacles to female participation in democratic policing are many and are rooted in the varied patriarchal structures of these societies. Some of these obstacles that need to be overcome include current low levels of female participation in decision-making and the distinct harms women disproportionately suffer from in the areas of crime (domestic violence, rape, etc.), ethnic conflict, employment, education, and health, to name a few. However, as members of a marginalized group, women should share their experiences and knowledge so that effective and equitable forms of democratic policing can be devised and implemented. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In their classic study, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (1920), Thomas and Znaniecki state that "social disorganization is not an exceptional phenomenon limited to certain periods or certain societies; some of it is found always and everywhere." The purpose of the present paper is to assess the applicability of social disorganization as it relates to a domain that has been predominately excluded from past analyses. Specifically, the present study makes use of data from the Montana Prevention Needs Assessment Survey (1998) to assess the degree to which aggregate measures of community structure and individually perceived measures of community process have an impact on the outcome of delinquent behavior. In doing so, it makes a unique contribution in its use of aggregate and individual-level data, and its application of a predominately urban theory to a rural context. The study finds that both community structure and process do have a statistically significant impact in the present data. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the Kibbutz Resocialization Program, that between 1983 and 1998, enrolled 110 prisoners placed each on separate kibbutzim. All offenders were recidivist. Prior convictions included property offense (59%), drug offense (35%), and violent offenses (6%). Program's success criteria included (1) completion of the 6 month required enrollment and dropout rate, (2) offenders' level of work and social integration, and adherence to kibbutz norms rated on a five-point Likert scale (1=low, 5=high) by offenders' adoptive parents who acted as gatekeeper of the kibbutz and socializing agents, and (3) recidivism rate. Recidivism was operationally defined as reincarceration of participants (a) while in the program and (b) five to eighteen years post-program release. Qualitative focused interviews followed longitudinally the progress of 24 offenders who had been interviews in 1984 and 1986. The program's dropout rate was 20 percent. Program graduates' reincarceration rate was 22.7 percent as opposed to 61 percent reincarceration rate of the general prison population in Israeli. The most significant predictors of successful rehabilitation were length of stay in the kibbutz, work and social integration, and adherence to kibbutz norms. Finally, this highly-structured environment provided the framework for successful rehabilitation of most of 66 program participants who had a prior history of drug abuse. Content analysis of qualitative interviews brings to life their experience. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides information on the 77th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology (ASC), which will take place at the Atlanta Marriott Marquis in Georgia on November 16-19, 2022.

Higher Education is experiencing a new challenge. Academic institutions are attempting to maintain scholarly standards and quality education while programs are being curtailed, government funding is being cut, the number of students is increasing and the number of full-time faculty members is decreasing. The structure of education itself is being "put to the test". In response to such strains, Metropolitan College of New York (MCNY) has begun the process of rethinking education, its core, its purpose and the populations that have access to it. Therefore, MCNY has met the new challenges by developing an inventive undergraduate liberal arts program model that emanates from a student-centered approach to teaching and learning and focuses on social justice. The curriculum aims to address our students' most critical learning needs in order to improve their levels of accomplishment, prepare them for successful careers, stimulate their ability to contribute to and improve the world, and prepare them for life-long learning. In this paper, reader's will be introduced to MCNY's liberal arts core curriculum model, an abilities driven, information literate, interdisciplinary approach that integrates specific disciplinary knowledge and skill areas into each course's design; while maintaining a student-centered approach. How the curriculum represents a student-centered approach toward social justice will be a focus of the paper. More than any other knowledge and skill area, the experience of MCNY undergraduates indicates a clear need to master mainstream Western literacies. These competencies improve student learning abilities, contribute to better learning outcomes, expand career goals and give students, who have been marginalized within society, by the necessary tools to both make their living, and use words to improve the world and promote social justice. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Literature on the phenomenon of urban delinquency has linked plausible explanations for its causation to characteristics found in criminological theories such as anti-social behavior, social disorganization, differential association, rational choice, and general strain. However, there is an emerging sociological perspective referred to as "oppositional culture," that also provides a plausible explanation for the existence and causation of urban delinquency. Through an analysis of crime, unemployment, and poverty data, this paper examines the development of the urban "oppositional culture," its delinquency label, and what impact it has on policing practices and policy in urban communities. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a preliminary evaluation for the risk assessment, the present study assesses whether it has been working as intended (i.e., termination prediction). Additionally, it will identify offenders' criminogenic factors and need factors to develop the risk assessment of the Day Reporting Center in Douglas County. The risk assessment contextualized in Douglas County will contribute to clients rehabilitation and community protection, and finally crime reduction through these achievements. This paper calculated probabilities of an individual's termination based on the logit model which includes four significant variables. The present study reveals that levels of risk for the DRC's clients range from 24% low risk to 70% high risk. The four groups of the classification can be classified in descending level of risk: Felony-Undereducated Group (70%), Felony-Educated Group (51%), Misdemeanor-Undereducated Group (41%), and Misdemeanor-Educated Group (24%). Considering the difference of the probability of being terminated, while holding each variable (i.e., type of offense or GED/ABE variable) constant, the type of offense (i.e., felony and misdemeanor) plays a more critical role than the level of education in determining clients' termination from the DRC. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While over 35 years has passed since the Shafer Commission in the US, and the LeDain Commission in Canada, recommended marijuana decriminalization, the policies of both countries still reflect significant criminalization of marijuana possession. Several countries in western Europe and Australian states have gone further in tolerance of marijuana use, but further movement towards legal regulation ("legalization") remains at an impasse globally. In Canada, greater leniency in medical access and support has occurred, but a case for acceptable "recreational" use was deemed "trivial" by a Supreme Court ruling in 2003. This paper reviews the evidence on public opinion, use patterns, enforcement and political initiatives in Canada, in an effort to understand why so little change has occurred. Within the framework of normalization, and the presentation of new data from a study of socially integrated, adult marijuana users, it is argued that the strict prohibitionist law and social evalution of this still stigmatized and criminalized activity are seriously misaligned. Yet, in the current climate of political leadership in Canada, focused on an Anti-Drug Strategy which adopts a moral stance rather than an evidence based on, policy reform remains stagnant. The implications of a new direction in the US approach to drug policy, and its potential impact on the Canadian response, are considered. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whether budget devoted to law enforcement effectively prevents crime has been at the centre of debates for a long time, but primarily in America. In this paper, I seek to inspect the relationship between judicial inputs and crime reduction based on China provincial panel from 1989 to 2006. The judicial authority turns out to be ineffective in performing its duty when instrumental variable method adopted. Either the research reveals little evidence that ideological indoctrination relevant inputs have significant influence on China's crime prevention. However, some other socioeconomic factors such as social welfare expenditures, education level and urbanization, play significant roles in this issue. These findings suggest transitional governments should rethink the financing given to judicial system and shift their attention to some more cost-effective means. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an example of a mixed methods measure rooted in a pragmatic approach aimed at resolving the traditional divisions between Quantitative and Qualitative research. Through the use of concept maps, multi-stage data collection and a weighted measure, defined as a salience score, this methodological approach seeks to root a mixed methods approach in an integrated theoretical framework. While complications exist, and inherent assumptions are required, the proposed approach may offer an initial means to consider on what basis a mixed methods measure could be conceived, compiled and justified. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) was passed in 1996 and made applicable to all civil rights cases brought by institutionalized persons. The measure was intended to perform a gate-keeping function, permitting the most worthy prisoners' claims to reach Federal Court, while screening frivolous matters. However, the Courts applying this law have set forth seemingly contrary opinions regarding its permissible parameters, leaving the state of prisoner litigation in flux. This paper examines the legislative history behind the PLRA, the current ambiguity in application of the statute, and proposes a solution to the largest area of confusion - the PLRA's exhaustion requirement. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper I have sought to explain the complexities of crime policy formation. In reviewing the literature that focuses on public opinion, elites, and the media, I have developed several hypotheses that suggest that crime policy should occur in response to a change in either media attention to rising crime rates, presidential attention to the "crime problem" or an increase in punitive attitudes among the public. However, this is not the case. The first, and possibly most disturbing thing the data reveal is that crime policy and federal spending on crime control does not coincide with changes in criminal activity. In fact the opposite is true. When crime rates are at their lowest, more money is given, and more punitive policies enacted. It appears that more is going on than just elite influence, pressure from the public, and the media. Accordingly, we turn to the possibility that fear is driving policy change. Using multiple measures of fear, the data suggests there is a statistically significant relationship between fear and federal spending on crime control and legislative change. This suggests that fear, likely acts as an intervening variable shaping individuals attitudes about the criminal justice system, the state of crime and violence in America, and appropriate forms of government response. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to refine our theorization of 'moral panics', this paper analyzes the routine panic over graffiti writing that has been a part of New York City's cultural and political landscape throughout the 1990s and well into the 21st century. After distinguishing between 'meso' and 'macro' approaches to moral panics, three models that operate at the macro level are identified. These include the 'moral', the 'conflict', and the 'disciplinary' view. While each of these models make important contributions, neither of them can provide a full explanation for the panic over graffiti. Drawing from a variety of documents, such as newspaper articles, political press releases, internal memos and government reports - but also from the work of urban sociologists - I argue that moral panics, or at least a sub-set of panics, may be central to negotiating the social conflict that accompanies the ways in which (urban) space will be put to use. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]