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This study of the Job Characteristics Model centers on companies in both manufacturing and service industries in all countries, and government (in Mexico only) located in North America (U.S.) and Central and South America (Nicaragua, Guatemala, Mexico, Costa Rico, Belize, Honduras, Ecuador, El Salvador, & Panama). Results of United States companies are compared to those of non-U.S. firms. Scores were calculated for each of the five dimensions of the model and the motivation potential score. For comparison purposes, scores for all companies studied were compared to those in the Hackman and Oldham database. It appears that cross-cultural differences may help to explain the findings. Keywords: Job Characteristic Model, industries, North, Central and South America, U.S. scores, Hack and Oldham, dimensions, cultural differences, INTRODUCTION In today's increasingly competitive, global environment, aggressive strategies by companies to lower costs and increase margins often result in unintended consequences in terms of employee motivation and morale. Hackman [...]

The latter half of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century have seen significant interest in redesigning jobs to stimulate employee motivation and job satisfaction. It has been argued that employees will perform better if they can utilise a variety of skills in performing tasks which have meaning and significance for both the employees and for those who consume the end product, and where the employees have considerable autonomy in carrying out these tasks. This paper examines the literature on job redesign and considers the question as to whether these principles should apply in all cases, or whether other factors such as business strategy and managerial choice should be considered in determining the applicability of job redesign principles., INTRODUCTION Job redesign strategies were part of the employer initiatives centred around the concept of employee participation that first became popular in Australia in the late 1960s and early 1970s. [...]

In this article, we outline a model of how organizations can effectively shape employees' affective reactions to failure. We do not suggest that organizations eliminate the experience of negative affect [...]

How are tasks bundled into and across jobs within organizations? In this paper, I develop a model of this process of job design by drawing on a multisite qualitative study [...]

We combine structural hole theory with performance feedback theory to identify determinants of partner selection in networks. Specifically, we examine how a brokerage position coupled with aspiration-performance gaps affects an [...]

In this paper we explore a causal mechanism through which high-performance work systems contribute to performance outcomes. We propose that high-performance work systems can improve organizational performance by strengthening relationships [...]

Does task significance increase job performance? Correlational designs and confounded manipulations have prevented researchers from assessing the causal impact of task significance on job performance. To address this gap, 3 field experiments examined the performance effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions of task significance. In Experiment 1, fundraising callers who received a task significance intervention increased their levels of job performance relative to callers in 2 other conditions and to their own prior performance. In Experiment 2, task significance increased the job dedication and helping behavior of lifeguards, and these effects were mediated by increases in perceptions of social impact and social worth. In Experiment 3, conscientiousness and prosocial values moderated the effects of task significance on the performance of new fundraising callers. The results provide fresh insights into the effects, relational mechanisms, and boundary conditions of task significance, offering noteworthy implications for theory, research, and practice on job design, social information processing, and work motivation and performance. Keywords: task significance, job design, work motivation, prosocial impact, job performance

The tube-hydroforming process has undergone extremely rapid development. To ensure a reliable hydroforming process at the design stage, applying robust design methodologies becomes crucial to the success of the resulting process. The reliability of the tube-hydroforming process based on the tube wall thickness thinning ratio is studied in this paper. In order to improve the reliability of the process, the Taguchi method, which is capable of evaluating the effects of process variables on both the mean and variance of process output, is used to determine the optimal forming parameters for minimizing the variation and average value of the thinning ratio. Finite element simulation is used to analyze the virtual experiments according to the experimental arrays. A cross-extrusion hydroformed tube is employed as an example to illustrate the effectiveness of this approach. [DOI: 10.1115/1.2716427] Keywords: reliability, tube hydroforming, finite element simulation, Taguchi method

A quasi-experimental investigation of the moderating effects of redesign of organizational context on perceptions of performance behavior is conducted. The results show that redesign had positive effects on performance behaviors like effort, skill usage and problem solving, but, its effectiveness also depends on aspects of the organizational context suggesting that work redesigns that enhance worker autonomy are most effective in contexts where other supportive management systems are absent.

Multi-level models are investigated to examine how one form of employee involvement (teams) is used at the job levels. The results suggest that despite their potential for good, teams may be increasing inequality or threatening the job rewards that human capital often brings.

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2005.07.006 Byline: Brian M. Kleiner Keywords: Macroergonomics; Work system design; Organizational design and management Abstract: Attending to the larger system components such as organizational design and management is not novel for ergonomists. In Europe, there has been a strong tradition to investigate ergonomic problems within a holistic, systems context. 'Macroergonomics' builds upon this tradition by providing specific methods and tools that yield large-scale results. It is believed that meaningful and large-scale results are needed in today's competitive and turbulent work environments. Macroergonomics is defined, its history is uncovered and focus is given to a key methodology, macroergonomic analysis and design. Case studies are used to validate the method and illustrate that performance results in the 60-90% range can be expected. Author Affiliation: Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0118, USA Article History: Received 9 July 2004; Accepted 25 July 2005

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2004.11.004 Byline: Patrick G. Dempsey (a), Svend Erik Mathiassen (a)(b) Abstract: The industrial revolution significantly changed the way work was organized and analyzed by the introduction and widespread implementation of the division of labor philosophy. This philosophy has continued to dominate work design, and has evolved beyond the factory to include many facets of service industries, and even professional occupations. The analysis of manual work, particularly materials handling tasks, remains an active domain of ergonomics research and practice. Many of the task-analytic tools used for workplace analysis are rooted in the philosophy of dividing work into elements, analyzing the individual elements, and synthesizing the results into conclusions about the entire job, including the risk of contracting musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). The authors discuss the notion that the nature of modern work, which is characterized by multiple tasks in a complex time pattern, and the complex nature of MSDs, which are influenced by biomechanical as well as psychological, political, and economic factors, may limit the effectiveness of classical task analytic techniques in preventing MSDs. Author Affiliation: (a) Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Center for Safety Research, 71 Frankland Road, Hopkinton, MA 01748, USA (b) Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Gavle, P.O. Box 7629, SE-90712 UmeA[yen], Sweden Article History: Received 16 July 2003; Accepted 2 November 2004

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2005.09.001 Byline: Trudi Farrington-Darby, John R. Wilson Keywords: Expertise; Work systems design; Methodology Abstract: This paper reviews the complex topic of expertise. It begins with an explanation for the range of interest and viewpoints, and moves on to a discussion of the nature and study of expertise. The diversity in definitions, domains, disciplines, and the impact of these factors on approaches to investigation, are offered as possible explanations for some of the differences that appear to run through the literature. Specific attention is given to issues that may concern ergonomists interested in understanding expertise from the perspective of work in complex and dynamic settings. We suggest a move away from traditional novice-expert experimental designs to study of work in a naturalistic way, studying tasks and activities that are sufficiently challenging so that real expertise can be elicited. Author Affiliation: Centre for Rail Human Factors, Institute for Occupational Ergonomics, University of Nottingham, Room BO3, ITRC Building, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK

Attending to the larger system components such as organizational design and management is not novel for ergonomists. In Europe, there has been a strong tradition to investigate ergonomic problems within a holistic, systems context. 'Macroergonomics' builds upon this tradition by providing specific methods and tools that yield large-scale results. It is believed that meaningful and large-scale results are needed in today's competitive and turbulent work environments. Macroergonomics is defined, its history is uncovered and focus is given to a key methodology, macroergonomic analysis and design. Case studies are used to validate the method and illustrate that performance results in the 60-90% range can be expected. Keywords: Macroergonomics; Work system design; Organizational design and management

This paper reviews the complex topic of expertise. It begins with an explanation for the range of interest and viewpoints, and moves on to a discussion of the nature and study of expertise. The diversity in definitions, domains, disciplines, and the impact of these factors on approaches to investigation, are offered as possible explanations for some of the differences that appear to run through the literature. Specific attention is given to issues that may concern ergonomists interested in understanding expertise from the perspective of work in complex and dynamic settings. We suggest a move away from traditional novice-expert experimental designs to study of work in a naturalistic way, studying tasks and activities that are sufficiently challenging so that real expertise can be elicited. Keywords: Expertise; Work systems design; Methodology

Human error is often related to flaws in system design which might have been avoided had greater attention been paid to human factors knowledge and methods as the system was developed. The paper considers the role of human factors in system design and argues that adopting an operational perspective in identifying human factors issues ensures that subsequent human factors advice is focused upon real needs and is consistent with how managers and engineers choose to manage their systems. It also considers the issue of timeliness of human factors input. Failure to consider human factors issues at a time when other design decisions are being taken often means that it is less straightforward to accommodate changes. Thus, managers and engineers may resist dealing effectively with potential human factors problems for reasons of cost and delay in meeting project milestones. Keywords: Human factors; Task analysis; Design processes; Project management

Network Rail, who own the railway infrastructure in the UK, have been interested in the assessment of mental workload (MWL) of signallers and control staff for some years. A new model of MWL has been proposed within which to develop a suite of new MWL analytical and empirical assessment tools. One of these is the Integrated Workload Scale (IWS), developed and tested for signallers. This paper describes the development of the IWS and its subsequent testing within two full-scale simulator trials with an NX (entry/exit) panel and an Integrated Electrical Control Centre (IECC) system, and then in the field at signal boxes. The IWS has proven to be a valuable measure of individually experienced peaks and troughs in workload over a period of time or within a particular set of scenarios. It is acceptable to signallers and maps well onto assessments of expected workload on the basis of timeline analysis and subject matter expert commentaries.

The factors related to force and postural exposures during a simulated meat cutting task are investigated. The results indicate that the variables can act and interact to modify the kinematics and kinetics of a cutting task.

In this paper the concept of feasible workspace regions is introduced and used to design two-revolute manipulators for a workspace prescribed through arbitrarily given workspace points. A design formulation has been proposed to derive an analytical procedure for defining the feasible workspace regions as regions within which feasible solutions for the manipulator design can be obtained. The feasible workspace regions have been geometrically characterized and specific topologies have been shown through illustrative examples. The design algorithm has been completed with a closed form formulation for geometrical parameters and it gives the opportunity to discuss the number and characteristics of multiple solutions. [DOI: 10.1115/1.1485743]

Assuming that work contexts are changing and becoming ever more diverse, questions have been raised about the current state and relevance of job design theory. In this paper we review the field of job design from three paradigmatic perspectives, namely, functionalism, interpretivism and critical theory. We point out that the core of job design theory, across all paradigms, has traditionally been concerned with the outcomes of job design, the role of key factors such as control, demand, and skill, and how jobs can be changed. By outlining two scenarios about how work is changing, we argue that, although job design still has a lot to offer (its traditional core concerns are still relevant), it must develop to have a wider appeal and to have more relevance. Finally, we propose how job design can develop as a field. These proposals are based on our belief that job design theory can progress most fully if it draws on a wide range of theories from across different paradigms and from grounded studies of the changing nature of work in diverse occupational contexts. Keywords: Job design; Review; Future

The usability of virtual environments has attracted considerable efforts from ergonomists. Work has included studies of the side or after effects of participation in a virtual environment (VE) as well as the appropriateness of the Virtual Reality hardware and software interfaces and the understanding of factors which determine participant performance. Equally important for applied ergonomics is to understand how best to specify, build, implement and evaluate virtual environment solutions to everyday industrial, commercial, educational and medical problems. The potential value of ergonomics applied to virtual environments, and vice versa, are discussed. Two particular instances of VE development relevant to applied ergonomics are described - structured development and evaluation of industrial training and participatory redesign of workplaces. This paper is one of a number of contributions to a special issue on ergonomics in the study and use of virtual environments. Keywords: Virtual environments; Virtual Reality; Applied ergonomics; Task analysis; Training; Workplace redesign; Participation

Rapid and repeatable redesign of business processes, supporting systems, and structures is one response to increasing competitive pressure. However, threshold challenge occurs when attention shifts from the technical system design (business process/work flow and equipment) to the social system design (roles, measures, and structures). During technical system design, strong emotions about loss - of status, authority, and certainty - can be suspended, but starting design of supporting social elements tends to unleash these concerns. The authors' thesis is that successful implementation is most likely when (a) the people who do the work are the ones engaged in the redesign of both the technical and social systems; (b) individual and structural change is addressed systematically among organizational development, information technology, and business process reengineering professionals; and (c) the predictable midpoint challenge (the threshold challenge) associated with shifting the focus of attention in whole system design (WSD) is understood and managed effectively. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

In this article we develop a stress-based framework of survivors' responses to downsizing. First, we synthesize prior research findings into a typology of survivor responses delineated by two underlying dimensions: constructive/destructive and active/passive. Drawing on Lazarus's theory of stress, we then posit that how survivors appraise the downsizing will shape their responses to it. We argue that trust and justice influence primary appraisal and facilitate more constructive responses because they reduce the extent to which organizational downsizing is evaluated as a threat. Likewise, we argue that empowerment and work redesign influence secondary appraisal and facilitate more active responses because they enhance survivors' assessments of their capacity to cope with the threat. Finally, we discuss contributions of the framework and implications for research and practice. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

A tentative model was proposed for the effectiveness, value and operations of international project teams. The model shows several development processes focused on the individual and team levels. A Raleigh International case study demonstrated the prime role of diversified competences in effective transnational project teams. The five key diversity competencies discovered were cognitive competence, communicative competence, cultural awareness, valuing differences and the synergy from the competencies' differences.

The nature of work is currently undergoing a complete transformation. In response to economic pressures organizations are reshaping themselves into totally new forms. Information technology is underpinning this transformation by providing the backbone for new organizational structures and new ways of working. The implications of this transformation are far reaching, particularly as the entire concept of work changes. The boundaries which have traditionally existed between organizations, individuals, family, home life and community will disappear as work increasingly becomes situation-independent and centered in the home. Our current understanding of the meaning of work will become increasingly obsolete and therefore will force individuals to search for new meanings of work in their lives. As a result work will take on an entirely different meaning. This article explores the problems of the meaning of work in a context of change. We look forward to a future in which the nature of work as we know it now will have changed beyond recognition. The question we address is this: what will work mean to us in the future? (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

For the design of an industrial workstation, ergonomics guidelines are presented in a systematic manner. The guidelines provide a conceptual basis for a good workstation design. In a real world design situation, the implementation of the recommendations or guidelines needs the matching of the population anthropometry with the various components of the workstation. Adequate posture, work height, normal and maximum working areas, lateral clearance and visual requirement are determined for the intended user population. The procedure for determining the workstation dimensions and layout has been explained. The importance of building a mock-up of the designed workstation and its evaluation with representative subjects is emphasized. A case problem (supermarket checkstand workstation) is discussed to illustrate the workstation design procedure. Keywords: workstation design parameters, workstation dimensions, ergonomics guidelines, engineering anthropometry

The sociotechnical systems (STS) approach is devoted to the effective blending of both the technical and social systems of an organization. These two aspects must be considered interdependently, because arrangements that are optimal for one may not be optimal for the other and trade-offs are often requried. Thus, for effective organization design, there is need for both dual focus and joint optimization. This article traces the development of STS from the presentation of its first principles by Eric Trist, its leading founder, who was guided by earlier systems thinking, research on participation, and the action research work of Kurt Lewin, to the present, including discussion of adaptations and refinements that have enhanced its applicability to nonmanufacturing organizations. The approach thas more relevance today than ever before, as organizational personnel seek more fruitful means of empowerment and as their organizations strive for greater productivity and viability in increasing turbulent environments. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Team-based work systems are emerging as key source of sustained competitive advantage inn manufacturing and engineering design operations. The focus on teams derives no small part from the competitive success of Japanese corporations, where team-based systems have been central to manufacturing and engineering design for more than three decades. For years, Japanese operations were seen as dependent on what was perceived as the collective nature of Japanese culture, but these assumptions have been shattered by the success of Japanese firms in establishing manufacturing operations in North America. This article features a detailed look at team-based work systems in eight Japanese-affiliated factories in North America. There are three distinct types of team systems in these factories: lean production teams, socio-technical systems teams, and off-line team structures. The team systems vary in the degree of interdependency and autonomy among teams and in the amount of team-responsibility for daily production operations. These variations in team systems are attributable to the timing of Japanese investment, the nature of the production technology, and the influence of U.S. business partners. This research thus provides a roadmap to the diverse mix of Japanese work practices and identifies important lessons for any organization moving toward greater use of team-based work systems. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)