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A hybrid conventional inverted/scanning near-field optical microscope (Inverted/SNOM) has been obtained, by coupling an Olympus IX-70 optical microscope with a SNOM head to combine the versatility and ease of use of the conventional microscope with the high-resolution and three-dimensional reconstruction obtainable with the SNOM technique. The head can be run in shear or tapping mode and is optimized to characterize soft, biological samples including living cells in physiological environment by including the SNOM in a cylindrical chamber that insulates it from the external noise, while maintaining a controlled temperature and atmosphere. Applications in the fields of biology and material science are presented.

Human HaCaT cells, exposed for 24 h to a 1 mT (rms) 50 Hz sinusoidal magnetic field in a temperature-regulated solenoid, suffer detectable changes in their biochemical properties and shapes. By using infrared wavelength-selective scanning near-field optical microscopy, we observed changes in the distribution of the inner chemical functional groups and in the cell morphology with a resolution of 80-100 nm.

The interaction of the cytotoxic metals cadmium, zinc, and lead with pancreatic cells was studied by atomic force/lateral Force microscopy (AFM/LFM), an approach that provides both topographic (with nanometer scale lateral resolution) and chemical information on the membrane. Different morphological modifications of the overall cell shape and roughness took place as consequence of 100 μM metal-dependent treatment. Furthermore, after exposure to Cd(Cl2) and Zn(Cl2), but not Pb(Cl2), the LFM images revealed several areas of the cell's surface showing lateral friction contrasts that have been interpreted as marker of different alterations of the cell physiology induced by the metal loading. Thus, the coupling of LFM detection to topographic AFM characterization allows to distinguish, through a nondestructive and surface characterising approach, between different metal-induced cytotoxic effects on cells. In this framework, the role of the LFM as an important tool to discriminate between different alteration of a biological system has to be highlighted. Microsc. Res. Tech., 2007. © 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

With confocal Raman microscopy, detailed images of the three-dimensional structure of thick samples (such as porous materials, aggregated nanoparticles etc.) could be readily acquired and visualized with sub-micron resolution. However, confocal Raman microscopy is not a panacea, especially for the studies of nanostructures, mainly because of diffraction limits for the optical resolution. The spatial resolution of Raman systems employing traditional optical microscopes is limited to approximately the wavelength of the light (about 0.5 µm), because both the illuminating laser light and the Raman scattered light are collected in the optical far-field (i.e. many wavelengths of light away from the scattering material). We will describe a new setup for nano-Raman experiments by using the fiber-optic scanning probe of a Scanning Near Field Optical Microscope (SNOM). The collected Raman signal in this near-field geometry reaches spatial resolutions at the level of tens of nanometers. (© 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM or NSOM) is the technique with the highest lateral optical resolution available today, while infrared (IR) spectroscopy has a high chemical specificity. Combining SNOM with a tunable IR source produces a unique tool, IR-SNOM, capable of imaging distributions of chemical species with a 100 nm spatial resolution. We present in this paper boron nitride (BN) thin film images, where IR-SNOM shows the distribution of hexagonal and cubic phases within the sample. Exciting potential applications in biophysics and medical sciences are illustrated with SNOM images of the distribution of different chemical species within cells. We present in this article images with resolutions of the order of λ/60 with SNOM working with infrared light. With our SNOM setup, we routinely get optical resolutions between 50 and 150 nm, regardless of the wavelength of the light used to illuminate the sample.

The advent of scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) has augmented at a microscopic level the usefulness of optical spectroscopy in the region between 300 nm and 10 mum. Two-dimensional imaging of chemical constituents makes this a very attractive and powerful new approach. In this paper we show SNOM results obtained in several geometrical configurations on boron clusters in silicon, Li clusters embedded in a LiF sample and BN growth on silicon. We also show some results on the wavelength dependence of the reflectivity (R) in the near infrared (IR) of biological cells in liquid environment with the observation of the local fluorescence. The SNOM images revealed features that were not present in the corresponding shear-force (SF) images and which were due to localized changes in the bulk properties of the sample. The size of the smallest detected features clearly demonstrated that near-field conditions were reached both in the visible and infrared region. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

High resolution infrared imaging of thin films and biological systems is one of the most challenging experimental problems in contemporary science and technology. In this work, we have for the first time successfully tested a novel high resolution approach, based on a spectroscopic version of scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM). The coupling of the Vanderbilt Free Electron Laser tunable infrared radiation to SNOM apparatus enabled us to clearly reveal different chemical constituents on a growth medium for biofilm. The images were obtained by SNOM detection of reflected 6.95 μm photons, corresponding to the stretch absorption of sulfur and nitrogen compounds, constituents of the growth medium. We attained a lateral resolution of 0.2 μm (λ/35), well below the diffraction limit of classical microscopy.

We used air operating atomic force microscopy (AFM) to study several morphological modifications of human erythrocytes, artificially produced by addition of exogenous agents including phospholipids, low ionic strength media and drugs. Most experiments were performed on unfixed samples to avoid treating red blood cells (RBCs) with chemical agents that can, in principle, induce morphological alteration. After detailed quantitative AFM characterization, the artificially produced abnormally shaped RBCs were compared with cells that occur with high incidence in blood pathologies. This morphological approach suggests a new strategy to describe and understand the biochemical and/or mechanical modifications responsible for the underlying pathologically induced changes and prove AFM to be a suitable tool to study erythrocyte deformation.

Chalcogenide glass optical fibers were fabricated into functional apertured probes for near field scanning infrared microscopy. Probe fiber tips were chemically etched and aluminum coated for the purpose of simultaneously collecting near field shear force and optical signals. Surface topography and infrared optical reflectivity data were obtained using the tips in a scanning near field microscope while illuminating an integrated microcircuit with the output from a free electron laser operating at a λ of 4.7 μm. Approximately 25 nm topographical and 100 nm optical lateral resolution were observed.

The study of semiconductor interfaces and of solid interfaces in general requires novel instrument capable to investigate the lateral fluctuations of properties on a microscopic scale. We present the first result of a major effort in that framework, whose main objective is the exploitation of the unique characteristics of free electron laser (FEL) infrared sources. The background was provided by our previous development of FEL-based techniques to measure interface barriers with high accuracy and reliability. Quite recently, we were able to implement similar investigations with high lateral resolution. The key elements were the use of a small-tip optics fiber and its coupling with a scanning module; in this way, we achieved and verified the condition of near-field microscopy including a lateral resolution much below the wavelength value. Our discussion includes a presentation of the first scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) images obtained with an FEL and data on small and microscopic-scale fluctuations of semiconductor interface barriers. The likely development of this exciting new field will also be discussed, in particular considering the new proposals for powerful FELs in the low-wavelength spectral range.

We have fabricated and tested infrared scanning near-field optical microscope (IR-SNOM) probe tips made from singlemode chalcogenide fiber. The process used to create the tips was similar to conventional micropipette-puller techniques, with some modifications to allow for the lower melting temperature and tensile strength of the chalcogenide fiber. SEM micrographs, showing tips with sub-micrometer physical dimensions, demonstrate the feasibility of this process. Topographical data obtained using a shear-force near-field microscope exhibits spatial resolution in the range 80-100 nm. Optical data in the infrared (near 3.5 mu m), using the probe tips in collection mode, indicates an optical spatial resolution approximately lambda/15. (C) 1999 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. hll rights reserved.

This contribution presents an application of scanning near-field optical microscopy to the characterization of semi-conductors. It is based on the photocurrent mapping of a patterned Au/GaAs structure (Schottky barrier) under local illumination by the nanosource. The results obtained with different wavelengths, metallized or dielectric probes and different bias voltages exhibit photocurrent variations independent of the topography and induced by interface defects. Finally, from this study of a patterned planar structure, we propose a method to determine the mean free path of the charge carriers in the volume.

A multipurpose scanning near field optical microscope (SNOM) operating at ambient pressure is described with the aim of characterizing the inner parts of biological molecules and any semiconductor or metal microstructure. Therefore, in addition to the requirements of reliability and mechanical stability we have carefully considered analyzing a sample with all available geometries for input/output of photons, in order to get as much information as possible. The SNOM unit consists of two separable cylindrical supports; the lower one contains the sample holder mounted on top of a piezoelectric scanner which is contained in a motor controlled x-y-z stage. A piezo-modulated stretched optical fiber with a few tens of nanometer pinhole and a shear-force apparatus mounted inside the top cylinder allow for topography measurements. The reflectivity of the sample can be measured by applying different methods: the sample can be illuminated on top by an external source, as well as by the optical fiber used for the det...

A scanning tunneling (STM)‐atomic force microscope (AFM) operating at ambient pressure is described. A sound‐isolated chamber contains the STM‐AFM unit; the chamber can be evacuated or filled with inert gas, after the sample and tip (lever) are loaded, in order to reduce contamination on the sample. The STM‐AFM unit consists of two separable cylindrical supports whose lower one contains the sample holder mounted on top of a piezoelectric scanner (movements 6×6×3 μm) that is contained in a motor controlled x–y–z stage (movements 8×8×1 mm). An I/V converter preamplifier for STM operation and a laser deflection circuit for AFM operation are separately mounted inside two different top cylinders. The STM top cylinder can be changed with the AFM one without removing the sample thus giving the possibility of looking at the same sample with STM and AFM. An optical microscope that can reach 120 enlargements allows us to position the tip or the lever on particular regions of the sample through the motor drives. A c...

We have designed and built a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) suitable for biological applications. A sound‐isolated chamber contains the STM unit; the chamber can be evacuated or filled with inert gas, after the sample and tip are loaded, in order to reduce contamination on sample and tip. The STM unit is mounted inside two separable cylindrical supports. The lower cylinder contains the sample holder mounted on top of a step‐motor controlled x‐y‐z stage, while the upper one contains the piezoelectric tip scanner. An I/V converter preamplifier mounted inside the x‐y‐z stage and a completely digitized feedback circuit, together with a full software package in UNIX X‐window environment and data processing, allow fast sample–tip approach and reduced acquisition time. Atomic resolution images of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) in air and reproducible large scan on a platinum grating are routinely obtained. Images of human liver ferritin deposited on an activated gold substrate have also been obta...

We studied the effect of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with human keratinocytes (HaCaT), at low (50 Hz, 1 mT) frequency using both atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) techniques. AFM analysis showed modifications in shape and morphology in exposed cells, while SNOM indirect immunofluorescence analysis revealed an increase of segregation of β4 integrin (an adhesion marker) in the cell membrane of the same cells, suggesting that a higher percentage of the exposed cells shows a modified pattern of this adhesion marker.

Surface differential reflectivity measurements have been carried out for a cleaved CdTe(110) surface. A broad structure centered around 3.5 eV has been found and been deconvolved into three main spectral features at 2.9, 3.5, and 3.9 eV. Our analysis ascribes these peaks to optical transitions at the \ensuremath{\Gamma}, X, and X' points of the surface Brillouin zone, respectively. The oxidation process of the surface was analyzed and the sticking coefficient of excited molecular oxygen was estimated.

The morphological changes of murine hematopoietic 32D Cl3-A cell line, in which apoptosis was induced by deprivation of interleukin-3 (IL-3) from the culture medium, were studied through air operating atomic force microscopy. The subtraction of IL-3 determines the appearing of blebs on plasma membrane and cell fragmentation in several residual bodies. Areas of strong contrast in the friction images, which are nearly absent in control and necrotic cells, were detected with percentage that peaks at 6 h of IL-3 deprivation. These are the results revealing that transient modification of the plasma membrane accompanies the first steps of apoptosis pathway.

In the present study, carbon films were deposited by a pulsed laser deposition method. A C60 fullerene target has been irradiated by a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser with a pulse duration of 7 ns. The carbon films grown on Si(111) substrates at different substrate deposition temperatures (30, 300 and 500 °C) were characterized by Raman, X-ray Photoelectron and X-ray Auger Electron Spectroscopies, Energy Dispersive X-Ray Diffraction, Scanning Electron and Atomic Force Microscopies, and Vickers microhardness technique. The composition, structure, morphology and mechanical properties of films were found to be strongly dependent on the substrate temperature. At 30 °C and 300 °C deposition temperature, superhard and hard diamond-like films have been obtained, respectively. In the case of 500 °C deposition, a hard film, composed of crystalline C60 and diamond-like carbon, has been prepared.

The innovative potential of a non-commercial apparatus for simultaneous in situ Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Reflectometry (EDXR) measurements is presented. A comparison between the two techniques, probing the samples surface in the direct and the reciprocal spaces, respectively, provides a deeper inspection in the surface morphology. Additionally, X-ray Reflectometry applied to films gives joint information on the surface and bulk morphology. The results on a gas sensing film demonstrate how simultaneous time-resolved AFM/EDXR allow the film surface/bulk morphology to be monitored, offering a unique tool to study the active materials in film-based technological devices in operating conditions.

The morphological changes induced in (RuPc)2 gas sensing thin films by hydration and de-hydration processes were investigated. Prior to this study a preliminary characterization was performed by conductivity measurements upon exposure to NO2 gas fluxes, to verify the electrical sensing response of the films. This response was correlated to the bulk morphological modification of the films. Subsequently, the effect of external moisture on the morphological stability of the films was addressed. This morphological characterization of the films was performed by using the energy dispersive X-ray reflectivity (EDXR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques, both ex situ and in situ, i.e. under operating conditions, during exposure of these films to 100% of relative humidity. The measurements allowed an accurate observation of both the surface morphology (i.e. its roughness obtained independently by EDXR and AFM). Moreover bulk evolution of the films was obtained by in situ EDXR and the morphological changes allowed to retrieve information on the water uptake dynamics. Moreover, the reversibility of the water/film interaction was studied and correlated to the sensing properties of the (RuPc)2.

The crucial requirement of device stability in the development of organic electronics was addressed. In particular, the nanoscale morphology of bulk heterojunction organic films for photovoltaic applications was studied by time-resolved energy dispersive X-ray reflectometry in synergy with atomic force microscopy analysis. A reorganization of the organic molecules in the film upon illumination was detected. The occurrence of two distinct processes (characterized by a reorganization of the blend bulk and an increase of its surface roughness, respectively) was revealed. Furthermore, the effect of the morphological instability on the device efficiency over time was quantified. Finally, the effect of thermal annealing treatments and of the choice of different cathodes was verified.

Mediante la microscopia a scansione ad effetto Tunnel viene osservata la struttura molecolare del DNA. Vengono evidenziati i gruppi fosfati e le basi dei solchi minori(minor grooves) mentre la struttura del profondo solco maggiore(major groove) risulta non risolta. Viene descritto il metodo usato chiamato convenzionalmentebarrier height mode insieme al metodo topografico convenzionale e vengono dati alcuni dettagli dell’apparecchiatura sperimentale. Il DNA e stato preparato da soluzione acquosa fissandolo a un substrato di oro mediante la molecola organica Tris 1-Aziridinyl Phosphine Oxide (TAPO).

We report on the use of thermal annealing to improve the behavior of NO2 gas-sensing ruthenium phthalocyanine films at high temperatures. The approach used, based on the study of the effect of temperature on the film morphology, makes use of in situ energy dispersive X-ray reflectometry and atomic force microscopy. The results show that the morphological changes, induced by high working temperatures, strongly affect the material sensing ability. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the film morphology may be stabilized by thermal annealing treatments, thus enhancing the sensor performances in terms of response times and the capability to work at high temperatures.

First experiments at the Vanderbilt free electron lasers measured the local reflectivity of a PtSi/Si system. The reflectivity in the scanning near-field optical microscope images revealed features that were not present in the corresponding shear-force (topology) images and which were due to localized changes in the bulk properties of the sample. The size of the smallest detected features clearly demonstrated that near-field conditions were reached. The use of different photon wavelengths (0.653, 1.2, and 2.4 mu m) enabled us to probe regions of different depth. (C) 1998 American Institute of Physics.

Human skin cell culture (HaCaT) that has been exposed to an AC magnetic field undergoes detectable changes in its biochemical properties and shapes. Such changes were observed by infrared wavelength-selective scanning near-field optical microscopy with a resolution of 80-100 nm. We specifically investigated the changes in the distribution of the inner chemical functional groups and in the cell morphology induced by a 24 h exposure to a 1 mT (rms), 50 Hz sinusoidal magnetic field in a temperature regulated solenoid. These results further accentuate the crucial questions, raised by several recent studies, about the impact of low-frequency electromagnetic field on human cells.

Scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) makes it routinely possible to overcome the fundamental diffraction limit of standard (far-field) microscopy. Recently, aperture-based infrared SNOM performed in the spectroscopic mode, using the Vanderbilt University free electron laser, started delivering spatially-resolved information on the distribution of chemical species and on other laterally-fluctuating properties. The practical examples presented here show the great potential of this new technique both in materials science and in life sciences. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In this work we employed Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (SNOM) techniques to study the effect of the interaction between human keratinocytes (HaCaT) and electromagnetic fields at low frequency. HaCaT cells were exposed to a sinusoidal magnetic field at a density of 50 Hz, 1mT. We performed AFM analysis showed modification in shape and morphology in exposed cells with an increase of the areas of adhesion between cells. This last evidence has been confirmed by SNOM indirect immunofluorescence analysis performed with a fluorescent antibody against the adhesion marker b4 integrin, which revealed an increase of b4 integrin segregation in the cell membrane of 50 Hz exposed cells, suggesting that a higher percentage of these cells shows a modified pattern of this adhesion marker.

LiF films have been grown on silicon substrate, irradiated with soft x-rays to create fluorescent regular micrometric-spaced arrays based on colour centres, and studied by Scanning Near-field Optical Microscope (SNOM). Strong variations in the local reflectivity have been observed in the infrared region between 6.1 and 9.2 mum and tentatively ascribed to a modulated variation of the refractive index of the coloured zone with respect to that of the uncoloured LiF matrix. (C) 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

Silicon and silicon nitride surfaces have been successfully terminated with carboxylic acid monolayers and investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM). On clean Si surface, AFM showed topographical variations of 0.3-0.4 nm while for the clean Si3N4 surface the corrugation was around 3-4 nm. After material deposition, the corrugation increased in both samples with a value in topography of 1-2 nm for Si and 5-6 nm for Si3N4. The space distribution of specific chemical species was obtained by taking SNOM reflectivity at several infrared wavelengths corresponding to stretch absorption bands of the material. The SNOM images showed a constant contribution in the local reflectance, suggesting that the two surfaces were uniformly covered. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The early stages of Sb films deposited at room temperature on Si(100)2×1 surfaces have been investigated by angle-integrated and angle-resolved Auger spectroscopy. A comparison between the experimental results and the predictions of simple deposition models indicates that the growth of the Sb film proceeds by island formation. Without any annealing, a uniform overlayer never develops up to films 4 nm thick

Hydrogen chemistry in thin films and biological systems is one of the most difficult experimental problems in today's science and technology. We successfully tested a novel solution, based on the spectroscopic version of scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM). The tunable infrared radiation of the Vanderbilt free electron laser enabled us to reveal clearly hydrogen-decorated grain boundaries on nominally hydrogen-free diamond films. The images were obtained by SNOM detection of reflected 3.5 microm photons, corresponding to the C-H stretch absorption, and reached a lateral resolution of 0.2 microm, well below the lambda/2 (lambda = wavelength) limit of classical microscopy.

The overall shape and membrane surface of human erythrocytes (RBCs) in the presence of nifedipine (a dihydropyridinic drug used in the clinical treatment of hypertension and angina pectoris) were imaged by contact-mode atomic force microscopy. Nifedipine induces in RBCs relevant morphological changes the extent of which increases as a function of drug concentration and incubation time. The modifications have been interpreted as mainly due to insertion of nifedipine into the outer layer of the RBC membrane. The potential effect of nifedipine as a hemoglobin denaturant has been ruled out by x-ray absorption near-edge structure and optical spectroscopies.

We studied the fully-formed (80 angstroms) Pt/GaP and (140 angstroms) Au/GaAs interfaces by scanning near-field optics microscopy, internal photoemission, atomic force microscopy, and by x-ray photoemission electron microscopy. These complementary techniques enabled us to correlate the spatial variations of the diodes transport properties with the chemical and topographic inhomogeneities of the buried metal-semiconductor interfaces.© (1996) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

We present several experimental results of imaging DNA on graphite. Images have been taken simultaneously in constant-current and gap-modulated mode. This way of imaging has been very helpful in order to discriminate between structures due to biological molecules and substrate artifacts. A possible way of using the tip to confirm this conclusion is shown.© (1993) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

A hybrid conventional/scanning near-field optical microscope is presented. The instrument is obtained coupling an Olympus IX-70 inverted optical microscope with a SNOM head, to combine the versatility and ease of use of the conventional microscope with the high-resolution and three-dimensional reconstruction achieved by the SNOM. The head can be run in shear or tapping mode and is optimized to characterize soft, biological samples including living cells in physiological environment by including the SNOM in a cylindrical chamber that insulates it from external noise, while maintaining a controlled temperature and atmosphere. © 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd.

We present an apparatus for controlling the deposition of thin films. The apparatus is based on a quartz resonator whose frequency is controlled digitally by a computer. Temperature variations of the quartz during the evaporation process, attributed to the exothermic heat of condensation and radiation heating from the evaporation source, are compensated. A very stable deposition rate and a good film thickness evaluation are obtained.

We fabricate scanning near-field optical microscope (IR-SNOM) probe tips made from singlemode chalcogenide fiber and test them using a standard SNOM setup and free-electron laser. SEM micrographs, showing tips with submicrometer physical dimensions, demonstrate the feasibility of the thermal micropipette puller process used to create the tips. Topographical data obtained using a shear-force near-field microscope exhibit spatial resolution in the range of 80 to 100 nm. Optical data in the IR (near 3.5 $\mu$m), using the probe tips in collection mode, indicate an optical spatial resolution of approximately $\lambda/15$.

SUMMARY A scanning tunnelling microscope working in air with good atomic resolution is described. Atomic corrugation of graphite samples cleaved in air has been observed with a lateral resolution considerably less than 1 A. The height of the potential barrier is measured as a function of the time the system tip-sample is exposed to air. An explanation for the observed giant corrugation is given.

A flexible electronic setup on a PC platform and the software implementation in Windows Microsoft environment, for a multipurpose head for scanning probe microscopy (SPM), has been developed. The integrated, multiapplication data acquisition system is linked to a PC-Pentium controller, through a digital I/O board, and consists of: (i) an asynchronous acquisition for real time removal of following error from SPM images; (ii) a three-axes, computer controlled micropositioning stage; (iii) software for electronic control, data acquisition, and graphics elaboration performed through subroutines of Visual Basic (Visual Basic Programming System Professional edition for Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation, USA.), and PV-WAVE personal edition. (PV-WAVE Personal edition for Windows is a registered trademark of Visual Numerics, USA.)

Uncoated DNA molecules marked with an activated tris(l-aziridinyl) phosphine oxide (TAPO) solution were deposited on gold substrates and imaged in air with the use of a high-resolution scanning tunneling microscope (STM). Constant-current and gap-modulated STM images show clear evidence of the helicity of the DNA structure: pitch periodicity ranges from 25 to 35 angstroms, whereas the average diameter is 20 angstroms. Molecular structure within a single helix turn was also observed.

Thin films of vanadium oxide were prepared by means of r.f. reactive sputtering. Their physical properties were studied as a function of the oxygen content in the sputtering atmosphere. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray photoelectron spectromicroscopy (XPSM) investigations have been used for the study of the morphology and the chemical composition. In addition electrical characterisation in controlled atmosphere has been also performed for the evaluation of gas sensing properties. In particular, films deposited with 15% O 2 in the sputtering chamber were found to be more resistive and to exhibit the best sensitivity when exposed to different gases. This behaviour has been explained taking into account the presence of different crystallographic phases and the influence of the polycrystalline nature of the films.

Infrared scanning near-field optical microscopy (IR-SNOM) is an extremely powerful analytical instrument since it combines IR spectroscopy's high chemical specificity with SNOM's high spatial resolution. In order to do this in the infrared, specialty chalcogenide glass fibers were fabricated and their ends tapered to generate SNOM probes. The fiber tips were installed in a modified near-field microscope and both inorganic and biological samples illuminated with the tunable output from a free-electron laser located at Vanderbilt University. Both topographical and IR spectral images were simultaneously recorded with a resolution of similar to 50 and similar to 100 nm, respectively. Unique spectroscopic features were identified in all samples, with spectral images exhibiting resolutions of up to lambda/60, or at least 30 times better than the diffraction limited lens-based microscopes. We believe that IR-SNOM can provide a very powerful insight into some of the most important biomedical research topics.

We used a combination of internal photoemission and of near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) to study the lateral Variations in solid interface properties such as energy barriers and electron-hole recombination. Ln particular we investigated the fully formed Pt-GaP, Au-GaAs, Au-SiNx-GaAs and PtSi-Si Schottky barriers. Our approach enabled us to measure large lateral variations in the photocurrent with spatial resolution on the nanometric scale. Due to the ability of SNOM to supply parallel topographic information, we observed photocurrent variations from zone to zone that only correlated in a few cases with local variations in surface morphology. We assigned the uncorrelated fluctuations to local variations in the interface stoichiometry, the presence of interface states induced by the metallic overlayer and to defect states at the junction. Furthermore, by tuning the photon energy and applied bias we were able to measure the surface distribution of the diffusion length.

A cell for biological samples that allows atomic force microscopy (AFM) observations in a controlled environment (air or gas or any liquid) is described. The cell is made of a modified Petri container and it is possible, through two inlet and outlet feedthroughs, to introduce an aqueous liquid during AFM observation thus directly visualizing the modifications induced on the biological specimen. Uncoated neurons and Escherichia Coli bacteria have been imaged in air and after introducing an aqueous liquid by contact-mode AFM: the microimages are similar and show a comparable resolution even though the force applied to the biological material is different.

First experiments of coupling a free electron laser to a scanning near-field optical microscope (SNOM) are presented. To address the question of how important such spectroscopy can be for near-field infrared microscopy, we acquired images of the same region of the sample under investigation at several photon wavelengths. SNOM reflectivity images revealed features that were not present in the corresponding shear-force (topology) ones and which were due to localized changes in the bulk properties of the sample. Optical data in the infrared (near 3.5 mu m), using the probe tips in collection mode, indicates an optical spatial resolution well below the classical limit of lambda/2.

The advent of scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) has augmented at the microscopic level the usefulness of IR spectroscopy. Two-dimensional imaging of chemical constituents makes this a very attractive and powerful new approach. In this paper we present SNOM results on boron-doped silicon and on biological growth medium by means of shear-force, reflectivity and photocurrent measurements. Such experiments allowed us to identify boron clusters embedded in silicon and the distribution of growth medium constituents with a lateral resolution well below the diffraction limit. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A scanning tunneling microscope working in air with good stability at atomic resolution is described. Atomic corrugation of graphite samples cleaved in air has been observed with a lateral resolution considerably less than 1 A.