Search

[ES] La demanda global de baterías de ion de litio (LIBs) ha aumentado significativamente en las últimas décadas y se espera que continúe creciendo. Los vehículos eléctricos (EVs) se han adentrado en el mercado automovilístico para ayudar a reducir el impacto ambiental que producen los vehículos de combustible tradicional. La electrificación de la industria automovilística es fundamental para conducir a la humanidad hacia un futuro más verde, y las LIBs desarrollan un papel crucial en esta transición. Sin embargo, esta tecnología ha suscitado preocupaciones por su impacto ambiental y su sostenibilidad durante la cadena de valor, desde la extracción de materias primas hasta la gestión del fin de vida útil (EoL). Esta tesis proporciona un análisis de la literatura sobre el ciclo de vida y la sostenibilidad de las LIBs en la industria automovilística, aplicando una perspectiva de economía circular. Discute materias primas críticas como el litio, el cobalto y el níquel, enfatizando los desafíos asociados con su extracción, procesamiento y vulnerabilidades en la cadena de suministro. El estudio también investiga tecnologías emergentes de baterías, la importancia de los sistemas de gestión de baterías y el impacto del envejecimiento durante su fase de uso. Finalmente, examina el proceso de EoL de las baterías y ofrece perspectivas sobre esta etapa en Europa, evaluando las diferentes alternativas desde una perspectiva de economía circular y los desafíos durante la última fase del ciclo de vida de las LIBs., [EN] The global demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has increased significantly over the last decades and it is expected to continue growing. Electric vehicles (EVs) have dived into the automotive market to help reduce the environmental impact that traditional fuel vehicles produce. The electrification of the automotive industry is crucial for shifting humanity towards a greener future, and LIBs play a crucial role in this transition. However, this technology has raised concerns about the environmental impact and sustainability of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction to end of life (EoL) management. This thesis provides a literature review that examines the lifecycle and sustainability of LIBs in the automotive industry, from a circular economy perspective. It discusses critical raw materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel, emphasizing the challenges associated with their extraction, processing, and vulnerabilities in the supply chain. The study also investigates emerging battery technologies, the significance of battery management systems, and the impact of aging during the use phase of the batteries. Finally, it examines the process of battery EoL and offers insights into this stage in Europe, evaluating the different alternatives from a circular economy perspective and challenges during last phase of the LIB s life cycle.

[ES] El trabajo consta del estudio, diseño y simulación de un inversor de fuente de corriente para uso en motores de baja inductancia. Se estudia el funcionamiento teórico del inversor y sus usos más comunes en la industria actualmente, así como los posibles usos en el futuro debido a sus características que lo diferencian de los inversores de fuente de tensión convencionales. Concretamente, se estudiará el caso de uso con motores de baja inductancia que carecen de un núcleo de acero. Este tipo de motores no son fácilmente controlables con inversores de fuente de tensión y necesitan de muy altas frecuencias de conmutación para poder manejarlos con alto rizado de par en su funcionamiento. En el trabajo se realiza un diseño exhaustivo de cada una de las partes del inversor, junto a su estudio teórico y su simulación tanto de control como de potencia. El objetivo es realizar un control de par y velocidad del motor., [EN] The project consists of the study, design, and simulation of a current source inverter for use in low inductance motors. It examines the theoretical operation of the inverter and its most common uses in the industry today, as well as potential future applications due to its features that differentiate it from conventional voltage source inverters. Specifically, the use case with low inductance motors lacking a steel core will be studied. These types of motors are not easily controllable with voltage source inverters and require very high switching frequencies to manage them even with high torque ripple in their operation. The work includes a thorough design of each part of the inverter, alongside its theoretical study and its simulation of both control and power. The goal is to achieve torque and speed control of the motor.

[ES] En el presente TFG, se propone el diseño de la instalación eléctrica de baja tensión de una planta potabilizadora de agua (ETAP), incluyendo en este apartado toda la maquinaria necesaria para la captación de agua, filtración, tratamiento desinfectante y bombeo hacia puntos de consumo, así como pequeños equipos necesarios para el buen funcionamiento de la planta. Se tratará de forma específica cada tipo de instalación, tal y como marca el reglamento de Baja Tensión (locales sin riesgo específico, húmedos, mojados, instalaciones sumergidas o con ambiente corrosivo). La planta de tratamiento entra en funcionamiento cuando el agua procedente de los pozos presenta parámetros de calidad del agua, en este caso turbidez, por encima del límite establecido por el RD 140/2033. El proceso consta de entrada a planta, entrada al actifloc, tanque de coagulación, tanque de inyección, tanque de maduración, dosificación de coagulante, dosificación de floculante, filtro multimedia, rebombeo y cloración. En el trabajo, se estudiarán los sistemas de instalación más adecuados, las secciones adecuadas por criterio térmico y por caída de tensión, además de seleccionar los aislamientos adecuados de dicho clableado. Adicionalmente, como una buena mejora de funcionamiento desde el punto de vista de la sostenibilidad, también se propone una instalación de generación de energía para autoconsumo mediante tecnología fotovoltaica. Se analizará la energía producida, distribución de paneles, costes, ahorro anual y tiempo de amortización., [EN] In this TFG, the design of the low-voltage electrical installation of a water purification plant (ETAP) is proposed, including in this section all the machinery necessary for water collection, filtration, disinfectant treatment and pumping to consumption points. , as well as small equipment necessary for the proper functioning of the plant. Each type of installation will be treated specifically, as established by the Low Voltage regulations (premises without specific risk, humid, wet, submerged installations or with a corrosive environment). The treatment plant comes into operation when the water from the wells presents water quality parameters, in this case turbidity, above the limit established by RD 140/2033. The process consists of entrance to the plant, entrance to the actifloc, coagulation tank, injection tank, maturation tank, coagulant dosage, flocculant dosage, multimedia filter, re-pumping and chlorination. In the work, the most suitable installation systems will be studied, the appropriate sections based on thermal criteria and voltage drop, in addition to selecting the appropriate insulation for said wiring. Additionally, as a good operational improvement from the point of view of sustainability, an energy generation facility for self-consumption using photovoltaic technology is also proposed. The energy produced, panel distribution, costs, annual savings and payback time will be analyzed.

[ES] La introducción de componentes tecnológicos avanzados, como los convertidores modulares multinivel (MMC), es crucial para alcanzar un sistema eléctrico más mallado e interconectado con un porcentaje cada vez mayor de generación renovable, sistemas de almacenamiento y toda la tecnología necesaria para avanzar hacia un modelo energético sostenible. En este trabajo de fin de máster se ha llevado a cabo un estudio práctico sobre los MMC. Se ha desarrollado un modelo de Simulink para simular un prototipo de laboratorio y desarrollar controladores para los tres modos de funcionamiento investigados: aislado, conectado a red y STATCOM. Además, también se han diseñado los procedimientos necesarios de energización, sincronización y conexión. Después, las simulaciones se han reproducido en el prototipo real. Los resultados demuestran la versatilidad del MMC en los escenarios mencionados. El trabajo proporciona una visión integral de las posibilidades de MMC en el futuro sistema eléctrico y establece una base sólida para la experimentación en próximos estudios., [EN] Grid-forming control techniques are required to achieve a high penetration of power electronics-based renewable energy sources for decarbonised electric systems. However, different grid-forming control strategies can operate in the same grid, and grid stability shall be warranted. This paper analyses the use of different grid-forming control strategies for diode rectifier-based wind power plants. The analysed grid-forming controllers are the well-known droop control, an advanced droop control, and the virtual synchronous machine control. The controllers analysis validates the three grid-forming controllers interoperability, identifying each control parameter s contribution to the stability of each system state variable. Furthermore, the analysis allows a better tuning of the control parameters. Additionally, a fault-ride-through strategy that improves the system restoration after faults is proposed and validated. The proposed fault-ride-through strategy achieves a soft restoration of the active power.

[ES] A lo largo del siguiente proyecto se describe el diseño, la construcción y la puesta en marcha de un banco de ensayos electromecánicos para vehículos eléctricos de movilidad personal de potencia máxima 700W. El objetivo del banco es medir el par entregado por la rueda al banco, la velocidad de la rueda y el rendimiento del patinete desde la batería. Se detalla el diseño mediante SolidWorks de cada una de las piezas que constituyen este montaje y por qué se han elegido las que componen el montaje final. Posteriormente se explica paso a paso el montaje de este y la justificación de los materiales que se han usado. Cabe destacar que algunas piezas han sido diseñadas e impresas en 3D en el material PLA, se detalla el procedimiento que se ha seguido para conseguir un diseño que resulte óptimo tanto para ser impreso como para poner el montaje en marcha de forma efectiva y segura. Se realizan diferentes ensayos para la caracterización de las pérdidas del banco de ensayos mediante un motor de inducción, un generador de continua y el mismo montaje además de los equipos de medida necesarios como tacómetro, voltímetros, amperímetros, analizador de redes y osciloscopio. Finalmente se ensayará un patinete eléctrico de 250W de potencia y obtendremos parámetros como par y rendimiento para diferentes modos de funcionamiento., [EN] The following project describes the design, construction and commissioning of an electromechanical test bench for personal mobility electric vehicles with a maximum power of 700W. The aim of the bench is to measure the torque delivered by the wheel to the bench, the wheel speed and the performance of the scooter from the battery. The design using SolidWorks of each of the parts that make up this assembly and why the parts that make up the final assembly have been chosen are detailed. Subsequently, a step-by-step explanation of the assembly and the justification of the materials that have been used is given. It should be noted that some parts have been designed and 3D printed in PLA material, and the procedure followed to achieve a design that is optimal both for printing and for setting up the assembly effectively and safely is detailed. Different tests are carried out to characterize the losses of the test bench using an induction motor, a DC generator and the assembly itself, as well as the necessary measuring equipment such as a tachometer, voltmeters, ammeters, a network analyzer and an oscilloscope. Finally, a 250W electric scooter will be tested and we will obtain parameters such as torque and performance for different operating modes.

Producción Científica, La creciente integración de la electrificación y las energías renovables, impulsada por objetivos globales de sostenibilidad y eficiencia, fomenta escenarios futuros que otorgan a actores como los recursos energéticos distribuidos , el almacenamiento y los consumidores activos un papel crucial en la transición energética. El objetivo de este trabajo es evaluar el impacto en las redes de distribución del surgimiento y proliferación de Comunidades Energéticas Locales sostenibles. La metodología empleada en este estudio utiliza simulaciones cuasi dinámicas basadas en escenarios que involucran niveles variables de demanda eléctrica y redes de bajo voltaje en condiciones tanto habituales como basadas en comunidades energéticas locales. Este enfoque permite la cuantificación de indicadores clave y proporciona información sobre el impacto técnico de la integración de las comunidades energéticas locales en las redes de distribución considerando los casos de referencia europeos y norteamericanos como sistemas de referencia. Los resultados obtenidos permiten concluir que los sistemas de referencia con topologías malladas pueden soportar el crecimiento de la demanda eléctrica con impactos menos severos en comparación con los sistemas radiales. Además, la integración de Comunidades Energéticas Locales sostenibles proporciona mejoras, de diferente nivel para cada escenario, en los perfiles de tensión (mantenidos dentro de los límites de operación), so, The growing electrification and renewable energies integration, driven by global sustainability and efficiency objectives, foster future scenarios providing actors such as distributed energy resources, storage, and active consumers with a crucial role in the energy transition. The aim of this work is to assess the impact on distribution networks of the emergence and proliferation of sustainable Local Energy Communities. The methodology employed in this study uses quasi-dynamic simulations based on scenarios involving varying levels of electric demand and low voltage networks under both business-as-usual and Local Energy Communities-based conditions. This approach enables quantification of key indicators and provides insight into the technical impact of Local Energy Communities integration in distribution networks considering European and North American benchmark cases as reference systems. The results obtained allow concluding that reference systems with meshed topologies can withstand electric demand growth with less severe impacts compared to radial systems. Furthermore, the integration of sustainable Local Energy Communities provides improvements, of different level for each scenario, in voltage profiles (kept within operation limits), overloads (up to 50% reduction) and technical losses (up to 37% reduction)., European Union’s Horizon 2020 Framework Programme for Research and Innovation under grant agreement no. 957781, project ACCEPT.

Se trata de una aplicación interactiva desarrollada en Matlab, diseñada para el estudio y análisis de parámetros unitarios en líneas aéreas de alta tensión. Esta herramienta es ideal para estudiantes y profesionales de la ingeniería eléctrica, proporcionando un medio práctico y visual para comprender las propiedades clave de las líneas de transmisión. La aplicación permite a los usuarios configurar y analizar diferentes tipos de conductores y materiales, ajustar parámetros como la frecuencia, la temperatura y la geometría de la línea, y calcular los parámetros unitarios críticos como la resistencia, la inductancia y la capacidad. Con su enfoque en la interactividad y la visualización, esta herramienta facilita la comprensión de los efectos de diversas variables en los parámetros de las líneas de alta tensión, lo que la hace una herramienta valiosa tanto en entornos educativos como profesionales.

La finalidad del este libro es ofrecer un documento sencillo y práctico, aplicado sobre un caso concreto que es desarrollado con todo detalle. El contenido incluye los conceptos y cálculos necesarios para la determinación de todos los elementos de la instalación fotovoltaica de autoconsumo colectivo, el análisis económico y la legalización. Si bien se utiliza la normativa de España, el texto puede aplicarse a otros países, sin más que adaptarse a su normativa correspondiente.

El libro expone, de forma detallada, el proyecto de instalación eléctrica de generación fotovoltaica en autoconsumo de un centro deportivo, con dos opciones: sin excedentes y con excedentes acogida a compensación. Se han incluido todos los conceptos y cálculos necesarios para el análisis de la factura, la determinación de las necesidades de potencia, el diseño y cálculo de los circuitos de corriente continua y alterna, con la selección de las correspondientes protecciones. Todo ello con constantes referencias a la reglamentación vigente y teniendo presente el análisis económico de la inversión y la legalización de la instalación ante la administración competente. El texto pretende encontrar todos los problemas habituales en la redacción del proyecto. Se ofrece un contenido sencillo y práctico, aplicado sobre un caso concreto que es desarrollado con todo detalle y donde se repiten los razonamientos y las referencias a normativa, especialmente el acceso a tablas y su manejo, con el objeto final de que el lector asimile los conceptos y cálculos. Además, el texto incluye enlaces que permiten descargar las hojas con todos los cálculos y los formularios de legalización.

The accelerated technological evolution and the change in energy consumption patterns have led the electricity industry to thoroughly investigate the active management of demand and the generation of distributed renewable resources. This involves evaluating how consumers respond to variations in electricity prices, thus optimizing the technical and economic efficiency of the system. Smart grids technically manage energy and generate data that allows third parties to form technical and financial data management systems. However, demand response programs that lack accurate information about customer strategies are often designed by companies and regulators. This research analyzes demand response programs in developing countries, highlighting the lack of participation of large consumers in creating these programs. An innovative methodology that uses data analytics, optimization and mathematical model techniques to design and evaluate responses to demand is proposed. Order is stratified, considering manageable and non-manageable loads and the renewable distributed generation that large consumers can contribute. It is projected based on electricity market prices. It is resolved through a bi-level optimization approach that maximizes the aggregator's benefits and minimizes the real-time costs of balancing supply and demand. The research evaluates technical and operational constraints from the perspective of the distribution operator, seeking technically viable and profitable decisions for consumers and distributors in a smart grid environment.

This academic article begins with a brief analysis of the characteristics of electric vehicles and the equipment used in the battery charging process. Furthermore, it provides an overview of the state of electromobility in Ecuador and examines the performance of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology for enhancing energy quality. The main focus of this research is to develop a voltage control method at a low-voltage electrical network connection point using the charging components of an electric vehicle. Simulink software simulation applies the necessary theory to emulate the equations and electrical components involved, using a Proportional-Integral controller as the control method. For experimental validation, resources from the University of Cuenca's microgrid lab are used, emulating the network with power from feeder 0523, the EV's load with programmable load, the charging station with a bidirectional inverter, and the EV's storage system with a lithium battery. This approach is complemented by a MATLAB routine linked to SCADA for the inverter's reactive power control based on a PI controller. Graphic results for both simulation and experimental validation are presented. It concludes that the proposed method effectively maintains voltage within regulatory limits without significantly discharging the battery, ensuring no negative impact on the EV's storage system's longevity.

Electrical power systems worldwide tend to have environmental responsibility and energy sovereignty, with the incorporation of non-conventional renewable energy and introducing technical-operational problems. The Ecuadorian National Interconnected System (SNI) was analyzed considering the base case and 4 scenarios; The base case establishes the current system with thermal, hydraulic and wind generation with 66.6MW and a system demand of 4261.20MW, the demand was covered with a contribution of 91% hydraulic generation, 8% thermal and 1% wind; In scenario 3 with a wind generation penetration of 647.19MW, the output of unit U6 of the Paute Molino plant and a demand of 4261.20MW, the demand was covered with 79% hydraulic, 7% thermal and 13% wind, failing to comply the frequency limits allowed by regulatory entities at 0.25%; For scenario 4, it considers a wind generation penetration of 885.10MW, output from unit U6 of the Paute Molino plant and a demand of 4261.20MW covered with 71% hydraulic, 8% thermal and 20% wind, failing to comply with the frequency limits allowed by regulatory entities by 3.5%. Simulations are carried out in Simulink Matlab with: Base case criteria and the 4 scenarios considered, generation agents most representative of the Ecuadorian SNI and a contribution system to the Primary Frequency Control (CPF) for wind generation with virtual inertial; Important improvements are obtained in the contribution to the CPF by the wind generation agent.

This thesis focuses on the analysis of a methodology for evaluating the model the operational flexibility of a set of distributed generation units, essential for their effective integration into the electric power system. The initial overview of the work explores distributed generation, defining key concepts and examining its current status in Ecuador through installed projects and current regulations. In addition, it delves into the international understanding of Operational Flexibility, reviewing its evolution and defining the perspective adopted in this study to use this concept. The proposed methodology employs metrics such as operating power, power ramp and energy storage to define a volume of flexibility of Distributed Energy Resources (DER). The study is performed in three phases: analysis of the individual flexibility of each DER, followed by an aggregation to calculate an overall flexibility volume and finally an evaluation by comparing the available flexibility with the flexibility required to establish that it is sufficient. Python was used for graphical representations and Excel for data analysis. Validity was checked by simulations of IEEE base models with OpenDSS and MATLAB, showing consistency in the results.

The global growth in electrical consumption faces two main problems: the depletion of non- renewable resources due to predominant fossil fuel generation and the high environmental impact of greenhouse gas emissions. The proposed solution is to transition towards decentra- lized systems with renewable sources, such as photovoltaic and wind energy, integrated into microgrids connected to the central system. However, the natural variability of these resources affects frequency and voltage stability, necessitating a four-level hierarchical control: maintai- ning internal setpoints, adjusting voltages based on power, compensating for deviations, and optimizing power flows. An approach developed in this work combines techniques like neural networks and universal controllers to minimize stochastic impacts, optimizing energy manage- ment and photovoltaic panel performance. The results demonstrate effective battery integration up to 59 % of the time, even in renewable resource scarcity, successfully mitigating voltage and frequency fluctuations within acceptable operational limits, even during faults, with variations of ±0.05Hz and ±7.16V respectively.

[EN] Currently in three-phase distribution networks, especially low-voltage networks, there are some inefficient powers. These are defined as reactive power, unbalanced power owing to linear loads, power owing to supply unbalanced voltage, and harmonic power. This has given rise to the concept of power quality. To improve power quality, devices called active filters have been developed. These devices eliminate all the inefficient power. However, for most processes, the elimination of reactive power needs to be from a price/performance perspective because the use of active filters is very expensive. Therefore, the use of capacitor banks in any of their versions (single-phase, three-phase, scalable battery, SVC, etc.) is the most economical and sufficient solution. In this study, a calculation algorithm is proposed to obtain compensators for the inductive reactive power of the load, consisting only of single-phase capacitor banks. These capacitors are designed to minimise losses in the supply line, which are lower than those obtained using the minimum loss line (MLL) strategy. The resulting compensator consists of three, two, or one capacitor, depending on the load characteristics.

Advancements in next-generation mobile communication systems, such as 5G and its succes- sors, demand meeting a wide array of requirements, including increased capacity, enhanced ef- ficiency, low latency, and support for numerous connections. This study focuses on exhaustively analyzing the physical layer of 5G radio networks, with a particular emphasis on key effects li- ke propagation environments and channels, synchronization, and channel estimation accuracy. Detailed simulations were conducted using the Matlab 5G NR toolbox, assessing various chan- nel conditions and propagation models in both macro-urban and indoor environments. Results reveal that CDL and TDL channel models affect synchronization and channel estimation diffe- rently, underscoring their significance in system performance. This research provides valuable insights for developing techniques to enhance future networks beyond 5G. Additionally, a mul- tiple access management mechanism is proposed, combining orthogonal and non-orthogonal techniques through machine learning to optimize medium access control. The effectiveness of this proposal was evaluated using synthetic traces of human mobility, demonstrating a sig- nificant increase in network access capacity and improvements of up to 42.86 % in random mobility environments and 33.36 % in human behavior-based mobility environments (STEPS). These findings highlight the importance of adopting innovative approaches to maximize mobile network performance, which are crucial for the development of future network technologies.

As the share of renewables has grown to high penetration in some countries, flexibility options have become vital to ensure a reliable and sustainable power system. Energy modeling provides the qualitative and quantitative knowledge needed for future energy system planning and operation. Ecuador already has a large percentage of renewable energy due to its large hydroelectric potential, however, overdependence on this resource must be avoided through good energy planning, balancing resources and available technologies. This study performs an energy balance using the urbs modeling framework to evaluate the possibility of creating a diversified and clean energy mix that can supply the projected future demand in southern Ecuador, taking into account technical and economic criteria for each type of technology available. The results show that it is possible to achieve a decentralized energy mix based mostly on renewable energies with an energy contribution of 85.43% with hydroelectric power plants, 9.3% with renewable energy power plants (biomass, wind and solar), 4.71% with natural gas power plants and only 0. In addition, it is observed that investment in renewable energy generation can significantly reduce the use of technologies based on fossil fuels, which implies a reduction in fuel use of up to 70% and a 27% reduction in CO2 emissions.

El creciente uso de cargas no lineales en las redes de distribución, provocan que estas se vuelvan más sensibles y menos tolerantes a las fluctuaciones de energía, por lo que, la calidad de la misma cobra una gran relevancia para que los equipos no se vean afectados. La energía solar fotovoltaica, es una energía renovable que no tiene un gran impacto ambiental y se está implementando cada vez con el fin de obtener un cambio positivo en la matriz energética, por lo que, la calidad de energía eléctrica que se pueda obtener a partir de esta fuente debe cumplir con rangos preestablecidos. Este trabajo de titulación realiza un análisis de la calidad de energía eléctrica obtenida a partir del sistema solar fotovoltaico de la Micro-Red del campus Balzay de la Universidad de Cuenca, obteniendo así información sobre los parámetros ligados a la calidad de energía descritos en la regulación ARCERNNR 002/20 que se encuentra vigente actualmente. Los datos se obtuvieron mediante el analizador de calidad de energía Fluke 435 serie II y se analizaron con la ayuda del software Power Log 430-II, verificando que cada parámetro analizado cumpla con la regulación y las normas IEC e IEEE a las que esta hace referencia y que se han revisado previamente, con el fin de brindar una descripción clara del cumplimiento de la regulación y que se tenga en cuenta las posibles perturbaciones que puedan ocurrir en la Micro-Red en futuras investigaciones por parte de estudiantes o docentes de la Universidad.

Stability is an important part of the studies that are carried out on Energy Systems due to the importance of knowing if the system is capable of returning to its equilibrium conditions after a disturbance has occurred, the objective of the analysis being to observe if network synchronism is lost in this multimachine model. The more generators, lines, loads, speed controllers, and voltage regulators enter the system, the complexity of the system increases and therefore a stability study becomes complicated to carry out with simple mathematical models, using computational tools for this purpose. The increasing insertion of renewable energies such as wind farms or photovoltaic plants in transmission, subtransmission and/or distribution systems leads to questioning whether the system's response to failures is modified and what degree of affect it would have. In this article, the analysis of angle stability in an electric power supply system is disclosed, the system under analysis is modeled with each of its elements and characteristics, this system model has the particularity of being modified with the incorporation of renewable energies; it focuses on the simulation of contingencies that allows the subtransmission system to be analyzed when renewable energy sources have not been incorporated into the network bars; and then, using the same contingencies, observe the behavior of the electrical system when renewable energy sources have been incorporated in some bars of the system.

[ES] Este TFG se centra en el diseño de los circuitos eléctricos para la conexión de los aerogeneradores de un parque eólico marino con la red eléctrica terrestre. También se aborda el diseño de los sistemas de transmisión y distribución de energía eléctrica, así como los sistemas de puesta a tierra y las medidas de seguridad necesarias para garantizar el correcto funcionamiento del parque eólico marino., [EN] This TFG focuses on the design of the electrical circuits for the connection of the wind turbines in an offshore wind farm with the onshore electrical grid. The design of the electrical power transmission and distribution systems is also addressed, as well as the grounding systems and safety measures necessary to guarantee the correct operation of the offshore wind farm.

The new energy paradigm and the imminent need to migrate from fossil fuels to more sustainable alternatives, over time, have caused the modernization of both the automotive and electricity generation sectors. This paper deals with a pre-feasibility analysis of the implementation of sustainable technologies, electric mobility and photovoltaic distributed generation, using, as a case study, the current scenario faced by the University of Cuenca and proposing a series of models, which will be evaluated through four axes or types of analysis. The Diagnostic Analysis, through the measurement and processing of data, allows the identification of the capacity and performance of new technologies. Technical Analysis, through the implementation of current regulations and physical restrictions, allows the generation of models to be studied. In the Economic Analysis, it determines the investment for each model and makes its comparison, where it is concluded that the model that contemplates the implementation of electric vehicles presents lower costs than its diesel equivalent, even from the first year. The Environmental Analysis extends the capacities of the economic analysis considering emissions and externalities related to CO2, where it is concluded that the model that includes electric vehicles and distributed solar-photovoltaic generation represents more than a thousand times fewer emissions per year than its diesel equivalent.

El libro expone, de forma detallada, la configuración de los sistemas aislados, describiendo en profundidad las dos tecnologías de almacenamiento de energía, plomo-ácido e ion-litio. Incluye un caso concreto de proyecto de instalación eléctrica de generación aislada con baterías, con plomo y litio, con todos los conceptos y cálculos necesarios para la determinación de las necesidades de potencia, la selección de los equipos, módulos fotovoltaicos, regulador, batería e inversor, el diseño y cálculo de los circuitos de corriente continua y alterna con la selección de las correspondientes protecciones, todo ello con constantes referencias a la reglamentación vigente. También se aborda el análisis económico de la inversión y la legalización de la instalación ante la Administración competente. El texto pretende encontrar todos los problemas habituales en el diseño y construcción de este tipo de instalaciones aisladas. No se trata de un texto teórico y, de forma deliberada, se repiten los razonamientos y las referencias a normativa, especialmente el acceso a las tablas y su manejo, con el objeto final de que el lector asimile los conceptos y cálculos. Por último, el texto incluye enlaces que permiten descargar las hojas con todos los cálculos y los formularios de legalización

[ES] En la última década se ha producido un gran despliegue de energías renovables en todo el mundo, con nuevas tecnologías cada vez más maduras y económicamente viables. Este despliegue de energías renovables no pierde impulso y, con la adopción de ambiciosas políticas de net zero y objetivos de reducción de gases de efecto invernadero, se espera que muchas redes eléctricas de todo el mundo tengan una alta penetración de energías renovables intermitentes (VRE) en las próximas décadas. Esta transición supone un cambio en el paradigma de las redes eléctricas tradicionales, basadas en unidades energéticas despachables y predecibles. Sin embargo, las VRE requieren una planificación y gestión cuidadosas, ya que su variabilidad intrínseca supone un reto añadido para la fiabilidad y seguridad de la red. Dado que las VRE dependen en gran medida de condiciones climáticas como el viento, la nubosidad o la temperatura, este estudio ha analizado el efecto que los factores climáticos causan en la generación de VRE en el Mercado Eléctrico Nacional Australiano. Se ha realizado un análisis para identificar correlaciones entre tres impulsores climáticos (El Niño-Oscilación del Sur, Dipolo del Océano Índico y Modo Anular del Sur) y tres recursos de VRE (solar, fotovoltaica de pequeña escala y eólica). Aunque se han identificado algunas tendencias, siguen siendo débiles y otros factores podrían ser mucho más relevantes para la variabilidad en la generación de VREs. Sin embargo, se han detectado diferencias regionales en cuanto al efecto de los factores climáticos sobre las energías renovables: los estados meridionales, como Victoria y Australia Meridional, tienden a mostrar correlaciones más bajas con los factores climáticos respecto a los estados del levante (Nueva Gales del Sur y Queensland)., [CA] Durant l’última dècada s'ha produït un gran desplegament d'energies renovables a tot el món, amb noves tecnologies cada vegada més madures i econòmicament viables. Aquest desplegament d'energies renovables no perd impuls i, amb l'adopció d'ambicioses polítiques net zero i objectius de reducció de gasos amb efecte d'hivernacle, s'espera que moltes xarxes elèctriques de tot el món tinguen una alta penetració d'energies renovables intermitents (VRE) en les properes dècades. Aquesta transició suposa un canvi en el paradigma de les xarxes elèctriques tradicionals, basades en unitats energètiques despatxables i predictibles. Tot i això, les VRE requereixen una planificació i gestió acurades, ja que la seua variabilitat intrínseca suposa un repte afegit per a la fiabilitat i seguretat de la xarxa. Pel fet que les VRE depenen en gran mesura de condicions climàtiques com el vent, la nuvolositat o la temperatura, aquest estudi ha analitzat l'efecte que els factors climàtics causen en la generació de VRE al Mercat Elèctric Nacional Australià. S'ha realitzat una anàlisi per identificar correlacions entre tres impulsors climàtics (El Niño-Oscil·lació del Sud, el Dipol de l'Oceà Índic i el Mode Anular del Sud) i tres recursos de VRE (solar, fotovoltaica de petita escala i eòlica). Tot i que s'han identificat algunes tendències, continuen sent febles i altres factors podrien ser molt més rellevants per a la variabilitat en la generació de VRE. Tot i això, s'han detectat diferències regionals quant a l'efecte dels factors climàtics sobre les energies renovables: els estats meridionals, com Victòria i Austràlia Meridional, tendeixen a mostrar correlacions més baixes amb els factors climàtics respecte als estats del llevant (Nova Gales del Sud i Queensland)., [EN] The past decade has seen a rapid uptake of renewable energies around the world, with new technologies becoming more mature and economically feasible. This deployment of renewable energy is not losing momentum and, with the adoption of ambitious net zero policies and greenhouse gas reduction targets, many electricity grids around the world are expected to have a high penetration of variable renewable energies (VREs) in the coming decades. This transition supposes a change in the paradigm of traditional electricity grids, based on dispatchable and predictable energy units. However, VREs require careful planning and management as their intrinsic variability is an added challenge to the reliability and security of the grid. As VREs depend heavily on climate conditions such as wind, cloud cover or temperature, this study has analysed the effect climate drivers cause on VRE generation in the Australian National Electricity Market. An analysis has been made to identify correlations between three climate drivers (El Niño-Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole and Southern Annular Mode) and three VRE traces (solar, rooftop PV and wind). Although some trends have been identified, they remain weak and other factors might be much more relevant to the variability in RE generation. However, regional differences have been identified with respect to climate drivers¿ effect on VREs: southern states such as Victoria and South Australia tend to exhibit lower correlations towards climate drivers than that of eastern states (New South Wales and Queensland)

[ES] El sector de la aviación se enfrenta al ambicioso objetivo de lograr su descarbonización para el año 2050. El hidrógeno líquido se presenta como uno de los combustibles alternativos más atractivos para alcanzar esta meta gracias a su alta densidad gravimétrica y la ausencia de emisiones de carbono directas durante su combustión. No obstante, para conseguir la implantación del hidrógeno líquido como combustible se requiere una profunda transformación del sector de la aviación, de sus infraestructuras y prácticas. Por ello, este TFM aborda el estudio de la distribución del hidrógeno líquido en los aeropuertos. Se valoran distintas opciones de distribución, pero se estudia con especial dedicación la distribución por tubería y uno de sus principales problemas asociados, el cálculo de las pérdidas por ebullición, en inglés "boil-off losses". En el trabajo se desarrolla un modelo de progamación que logra optimizar el sistema de distribución de hidrógeno, de acuerdo con la configuración del aeropuerto, y reducir al mínimo las pérdidas de combustible. Se concluye con una comparación de las pérdidas por ebullición entre distintas configuraciones que permite cuantificar el impacto que factores como el caudal másico, el diámetro de las tuberías y su longitud suponen sobre el método de distribución de hidrógeno líquido., [EN] In the face of growing energy demand and the need to reduce greenhouse gases, green hydrogen represents an attractive energy vector that can decarbonize highly energy demanding sectors, such as aviation. In particular, liquid hydrogen, due to its higher energy density per unit volume compared to its gaseous state, is expected to progressively replace traditional fuels in aviation. To make hydrogen-based aviation a reality, the aviation sector must undergo a major transformation from fully developing the hydrogen supply chain to redesigning existing aircraft and airport infrastructures. Due to the characteristics of liquid hydrogen, whose boiling point is -253°C, highly insulated technology must be developed along the supply chain to prevent boil-off. Boil-off is the vaporization of the fuel due to unavoidable heat input and represents a challenge as it can significantly impact on the overall efficiency of the LH2 supply chain. This thesis provides preliminary knowledge on the distribution of liquid hydrogen by pipeline at the airport. The boundaries of the study include the distribution of hydrogen from the airport storage farm to each aircraft stand. The study focuses only on fuel transfer, excluding subsequent refueling. To do this a generic airport is defined taking into account expected performance parameters and characteristics of each of the main components of the pipeline distribution system. The work focuses on quantifying the volume of boil-off gases occurring along the distribution pipeline under base case operating conditions and employs this parameter for a comparative assessment. Next, a series of parametric analyses are performed in which the impact of several parameters on the boil-off are evaluated and the results are compared with the base case. This thesis, although a preliminary study, can serve as a simplified model to compare different configurations and assist in infrastructure design decisions. In addition, the work highlights the need fo

[ES] Se ha realizado un estudio sobre el control de dos máquinas síncronas conectadas en serie. También estudiaremos cómo reducir las oscilaciones en máquinas de imanes permanentes no amortiguadas. Este estudio permitirá un mayor desarrollo de una máquina armónica gemela con rotores contrarrotatorios que controlan dos rotores con un solo estator. Mediante el diseño de un banco de laboratorio y varias pruebas, se varió la corriente de campo y la velocidad del motor. Las pruebas llevaron a la conclusión de que los motores se influyen entre sí. Es importante controlar la sobreexcitación de los motores para evitar que a uno de ellos le falte potencia suficiente para vencer el par resistivo., [EN] A study has been carried out on the control of two synchronous machines connected in series. We will also study how to reduce the oscillations in undamped permanent magnet machines. This study will allow for further development of a twin harmonic machine with contra-rotating rotors controlling two rotors with a single stator. Through the design of a laboratory bench and various tests, the field current and motor speed were varied. The tests led to the conclusion that the motors influence each other. It is important to control the overexcitation of the motors to prevent one of them from lacking enough power to overcome the resistive torque.

[EN] In rural regions with limited access to the power grid, self-reliance for electricity generation is paramount. This study focuses on enhancing the design of stand-alone photovoltaic installations (SAPV) to replace conventional fuel generators thanks to the decreasing costs of PV modules and batteries. This study presents a particle swarm optimization (PSO) method for the reliable and cost-effective sizing of SAPV systems. The proposed method considers the variability of PV generation and domestic demand and optimizes the system design to minimize the total cost of ownership while ensuring a high level of reliability. The results show that for the PSO method with 500 iterations, the error is around 2%, and the simulation time is approximately 2.25 s. Moreover, the PSO method allows a much lower number of iterations to be used in the Monte Carlo simulation, with a total of 100 iterations used to obtain the averaged results. The optimization results, encompassing installed power, battery capacity, reliability, and annual costs, reveal the effectiveness of our approach. Notably, our discretized PSO algorithm converges, yielding specific parameters like 9900 W of installed power and a battery configuration of five 3550 Wh units for the case study under consideration. In summary, our work presents an efficient SAPV system design methodology supported by concrete numerical outcomes, considering supply reliability and installation and operational costs.

The economic and social impact caused by outages in electricity supply, both for electric utilities and consumers, can reach significant figures in extreme situations. Therefore, improving service continuity is a constant priority for electric distribution network operators, even if they meet the reliability standards established by regulations. An effective service restoration strategy can reduce the impact of interruptions and substantially improve the reliability of the distribution system. Therefore, having a methodology for optimal restoration is essential for distribution companies as it helps them operate their networks efficiently and achieve both functional and economic objectives. In this work, a methodology based on a mathematical model is proposed to restore electric supply in distribution systems after a permanent fault. The objectives of this model are to minimize the out of service load and reduce the number of switching operations required to restore the network. During this process, the physical constraints of the system are considered, such as permissible voltage levels, the load-carrying capacity of primary lines and substations, and the network topology. This ensures that the solutions found by the model are operationally feasible. To validate the effectiveness and efficiency of the methodology, simulations were conducted using a real distribution system, exploring various fault scenarios in the system. The results obtained demonstrate that the proposed methodology is a valuable tool for planning and designing effective restoration strategies in real distribution systems. This provides a solid foundation for decision-making in emergency situations.

[ES] El campo de la electrónica de potencia se ha ido entretejiendo progresivamente en el tejido de nuestra vida cotidiana, abarcando un vasto espectro que va desde las placas solares hasta los vehículos eléctricos. Esta tesis de máster introduce un innovador concepto de conversión de energía mediante una novedosa topología de convertidor DC-DC. A la luz de la profunda transformación que está sufriendo la industria del transporte, numerosos fabricantes de equipos originales han apostado recientemente por los vehículos eléctricos para sobrevivir. Es un hecho ampliamente reconocido que el proceso de conversión DC/DC se cuenta entre los procedimientos de diseño más intrincados dentro del campo de la electrónica de potencia. Una de las principales complejidades surge del ambicioso objetivo de la industria de alcanzar un amplio espectro de tensiones de salida y, al mismo tiempo, suministrar el mismo nivel de potencia en todo el rango manteniendo una eficiencia aceptable. El objetivo de esta tesis es permitir el suministro de energía de alta potencia a una amplia gama de dispositivos electrónicos a partir de una fuente de energía universalmente estandarizada unificando diferentes tipologías de convertidores. Varias simulaciones y cálculos esbozados en esta tesis validan la solidez de este concepto, demostrando un rango de voltaje de salida de 100VDC a 1000VDC, entregando 11kW a través de casi todo el rango de voltaje de salida. Es importante señalar que esta tesis de máster sigue siendo puramente conceptual, y como tal, no hay planes para construir un prototipo para el concepto propuesto., [EN] The domain of power electronics has progressively woven itself into the fabric of our everyday lives, spanning a vast spectrum ranging from solar cells to electric vehicles. This master’s the sis introduces an innovative energy conversion concept via a novel DC-DC converter topology. In light of the profound transformation sweeping the transportation industry, numerous OEMs have recently placed their bets on electric vehicles for survival. It’s widely acknowledged that the process of DC/DC conversion ranks among the most intricate design procedures within the field of power electronics. A primary complexity arises from the industry’s ambitious goal of attaining a broad spectrum of output voltages while consistently delivering the same level of power across the entire range by maintaining an acceptable efficiency. The goal of this thesis is to enable the provision of high-powered energy to a wide array of electronic devices from a universally standardized energy source by unifying different converter typologies. Various sim ulations and calculations outlined in this thesis validate the soundness of this concept, demon strating an output voltage span from 100VDC to 1000VDC, delivering 11kW across nearly the entirety output voltage range. It is important to note that this Master’s thesis remains purely conceptual, and as such, there are no plans to construct a prototype for the proposed concept.

[ES] La propuesta de proyecto es la parte de visión por ordenador de un proyecto mayor. Dicho proyecto es un sistema de entrega mediante drones que se basa en un diseño de sistema en un chip capaz de registrar y recuperar datos en tiempo real. Este sistema desarrollado en un SoC servirá como control de seguridad sobre si una persona es la que tiene que recibir ese paquete. La idea inicial de este sistema era utilizarlo en paquetes sensibles en los que el paquete tiene que ser seguro, como en el caso de manufacturas costosas, medicamentos especiales y fármacos. Por lo tanto, la parte de visión por ordenador desempeña un papel importante, tiene que ser precisa, procesar en tiempo real y ser robusta. Existen varias limitaciones en cuanto al sistema de vuelo y entrega debido a la normativa del espacio aéreo, por lo que hay que tenerlo en cuenta a la hora de desplegar este sistema. En conjunto, el sistema brinda la oportunidad de desarrollar un sistema de entrega de paquetes "llave en mano", también en zonas de difícil acceso, al tiempo que se añade una capa de seguridad y garantía de que el paquete se entrega a la persona correcta., [EN] This final report presents a comprehensive study on the computer vision system developed as part of a drone delivery project. The system aims to ensure secure and accurate package delivery by employing real-time face detection and recognition techniques. Leveraging the Nvidia Jetson Nano system on a chip for efficient processing, the system demonstrates high optimization and quick authentication steps for secure delivery. The system integrates a QR code reader that efficiently captures and reads the QR code in under half a second to serve as a first factor for authentication. The face recognition module, based on the face recognition library, extracts face encodings from images and compares them to the real-time frames, achieving reliable face recognition to serve as a second factor authentication. Included in this report, security considerations, potential vulnerabilities, and measures to enhance system robustness can be found. Concerns such as user authentication, secure communication, and data privacy are discussed, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive security audit before deployment. The computer vision system presented in this report demonstrates promising capabilities for revolutionizing package delivery and enhancing security measures across various industries.

In the following technical project, he presents the design and physical implementation of a wind emulator that allows representing the behavior of a wind turbine under different wind curves in reduced simulation times. The emulator is based on a 1 hp pri-induction motor controlled by a variable frequency drive and a control system to adjust the speed of the motor according to the input wind signals. In addition, a 400 W permanent magnet wind generator is coupled to complete the wind generation system. The system allows emulation using the MATLAB Simulink simulation environment, in order to compare and validate the system responses both at speed and generation. This technical project provides an efficient tool to analyze the behavior of wind turbines under various real wind conditions. In addition, this approach offers a cheaper and more practical alternative to assess the feasibility of wind turbines at different points before their actual implementation.

This project is about implement and document the software named Data Reviewer ArcGIS for information quality control of Geographic Information System (GIS) in Electric Company of Distribution and CNEL Business Units. The project specifies theoretical foundations used to analyze and identify the contingency plan and administration of Geographic Information System (GIS). It also describes validation rules used to customize libraries of verification. Furthermore, the project raises an appropriate process to record new electrical data which aim at reducing issues for GIS and another national system integrated. The validation rules development of ArcGIS Data Reviewer was properly formulated for three situations. First one, integration between SAP CIS/CRM and GIS; second one, integration between ADMS and GIS and the last one, integration between CYMDIST and GIS. Finally, a control panel is developed with a simple view. This view improves quality indexes monitoring of Geographic Information System (GIS).

Improving reliability and reducing reply times in the electric distribution system are of interest to electric companies today. In the context, the electric company CENTROSUR uses simulation tools as part of its strategy to achieve these objectives. This degree dissertation focuses on the study of contingencies, which arises as a response to the possibility of disconnection of various elements in the distribution network of the electric company CENTROSUR. Contingency N-1, in the context of this study, involves the disconnection of two the sub-transmission lines in the network as part of an operational strategy. On the other hand, contingency N-2 involves the disconnection of the power transformer located at substation 08 on the distribution system. To guarantee the integrity of the system and continuity in the provision of services, it is necessary to carry out a process that includes the transfer of load from the existing feeders at substation 08 to neighboring substations. The study focuses on an analysis of the distribution system, specifically on the evaluation of load transfers to the N-2 contingency. To carry out this analy- sis, the ADMS and Cymdist tools are used, which allow the respective operational maneuvers to be carried out in cases of contingencies. The aim is to identify similarities and differences in the results of both programs, which will contribute to the improvement of the contingency management in the distribution system of the CENTROSUR electric company.