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Background: There is a strong need for evidence based, effective continuous professional development (CPD) for physical education teachers. This need includes CPD aimed at impacting student motivation. Existing CPD on teachers' motivating style often takes the form of singular events such as a workshop or training session. Research shows that in general, this only has a small impact on teacher behaviour and the effects on student motivation have not received much attention. Lesson study is a popular and more extensive form of CPD in which teachers collaborate on lesson planning, delivery and evaluation, based on predetermined goals for student learning. It has been suggested that this approach could enhance the effectiveness of CPD, but few studies have actually examined this at the level of teacher behaviour and student outcomes, especially in physical education. Aim: The present study aims to contribute to the knowledge base of effective CPD within physical education. It investigated whether a lesson study follow-up to a traditional workshop approach would increase the effectiveness of a CPD programme on motivating teacher behaviour, student-perceived motivational climate and student motivation for physical education lessons, from the perspectives of Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory. Methods: Ten secondary school PE-departments were included in the workshop + lesson study intervention group (LS), whilst nine served as a control group that received a workshop only (WS). A total of 52 PE teachers (33 LS and 19 WS) and their 612 students (334 LS and 278 WS) participated in the study. Measurements were taken two weeks prior to the start of the CPD programme (pre-test), and again two to three weeks after the CPD had ended (post-test). Two teachers per school were randomly chosen for pre and post measurements in their games-lessons. Lessons were video-recorded and observed using previously validated observation instruments measuring autonomy support, structure, relatedness support, mastery climate and performance climate. Students completed questionnaires on their motivational regulation, basic needs satisfaction and achievement goal orientation during both pre and post measurements. Results: In terms of observed teacher behaviours, there was a significant, large increase in teachers' provision of autonomy-support and a trend for a medium increase in teachers' provision of structure from pre to post in both conditions, whereas teachers' employment of a performance climate decreased in both groups. There was, however, no significant difference in effect between both conditions. At the student level, there was a small but significant decrease in students' performance approach orientation (PAp), with PAp decreasing more in LS than WS. Changes for all other student-derived variables from pre to post were negligible. Conclusion: Researcher observations showed that both CPD approaches, the workshop followed up with lesson study and the stand-alone workshop, were equally effective in positively altering the motivating behaviour of PE teachers. However, there was no substantial impact on student-perceived motivational climate and student motivation. Therefore, in the manner enacted in the present study, lesson study cannot be recommended as an effective and efficient form of CPD.

Introduction: Effective teaching should demonstrate a match between what learners are intended to know and be able to do, the opportunities they receive to learn and practice, and how we assess for learning. In turn, this promotes more worthwhile and meaningful learning. The purpose of this paper is to add to the limited examples of practices that directly connect with the coherent alignment of learning outcomes, assessment and instructional practices in physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes. We do this by introducing instructional alignment as a practically plausible way in which to exemplify the coherent planning of learning outcomes, assessment and instruction. Methods: Using the backward design process to design aligned learning opportunities, three examples of how instructional alignment can be embedded in PETE modules are shared. These examples are drawn from our own practice in teacher education and have been implemented within our various teacher education programmes to assist pre-service teachers in the design of instructionally aligned lessons.Results and discussion: While we encourage using the backward design process to design aligned learning opportunities, the decisions made may be substantially different depending on the context and the learners. While each of the examples demonstrate instructional alignment, and are dependent on the context and the learners, three nuances within each are discussed -- alignment should support learning progression, clarity of success criteria and enhancing learning by embedding assessment into the learning experience/activity. Conclusion: Effectively embedding instructional alignment in PETE includes (i) buy-in from all programme faculty as to their understanding, and enactment, of instructional alignment as a central pillar of the module/programme, (ii) modelling good practice in supporting and delivering instructional alignment with pre-service teachers and (iii) encouraging pre-service teachers to embed instructional alignment in their planning, preparation and practices as beginning teachers.

Although continuous professional development (CPD) is a key strategy for physical education (PE) teachers to update skills and knowledge in order to provide the best possible education to students, various concerns have been voiced regarding the effectiveness and feasibility of CPD in the context of PE. One approach to CPD that seems promising in this respect is lesson study, which is a form of collaborative, teacher-led and inquiry-based professional learning. This study reports on teachers' experiences with lesson study and was specifically aimed at teachers' perceptions of what was learned through lesson study and how this was done. Ten PE departments (35 teachers) followed a workshop on the topic of the need-supportive teaching of games which was followed by multiple lesson study cycles. Questionnaires and focus group interviews provided insight into teachers' experiences. Overall, participating PE teachers appreciated lesson study as CPD, especially valuing the collaborative and practice-oriented approach. As lesson study allows for professional experimentation this enabled teachers to transfer new knowledge and ideas into their own specific educational contexts. Nevertheless, results also indicated that in its current form and especially within existing school structures, lesson study might be too demanding in terms of time and resources. Only if schools are willing to make the required investments could lesson study be expected to reach its full potential.

Background: The importance of clarifying goals and providing process feedback for student learning has been widely acknowledged. From a Self-Determination Theory perspective, it is suggested that motivational and learning gains will be obtained because in well-structured learning environments, when goals and process feedback are provided, students will feel more effective (need for competence), more in charge over their own learning (need for autonomy) and experience a more positive classroom atmosphere (need for relatedness). Yet, in spite of the growing theoretical interest in goal clarification and process feedback in the context of physical education (PE), little experimental research is available about this topic. Purpose: The present study quasi-experimentally investigated whether the presence of goal clarification and process feedback positively affects students' need satisfaction and frustration. Method: Twenty classes from five schools with 492 seventh grade PE students participated in this quasi-experimental study. Within each school, four classes were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions (n = 121, n = 117, n = 126 and n = 128) in a 2 × 2 factorial design, in which goal clarification (absence vs. presence) and process feedback (absence vs. presence) were experimentally manipulated. The experimental lesson consisted of a PE lesson on handstand (a relatively new skill for seventh grade students), taught by one and the same teacher who went to the school of the students to teach the lesson. Depending on the experimental condition, the teacher either started the lesson explaining the goals, or refrained from explaining the goals. Throughout the lesson the teacher either provided process feedback, or refrained from providing process feedback. All other instructions were similar across conditions, with videos of exercises of differential levels of difficulty provided to the students. All experimental lessons were observed by a research-assistant to discern whether manipulations were provided according to a condition-specific script. One week prior to participating in the experimental lesson, data on students' need-based experiences (i.e. quantitatively) were gathered. Directly after students' participation in the experimental lesson, data on students' perceptions of goal clarification and process feedback, need-based experiences (i.e. quantitatively) and experiences in general (i.e. qualitatively) were gathered. Results and discussion: The questionnaire data and observations revealed that manipulations were provided according to the lesson-scripts. Rejecting our hypothesis, quantitative analyses indicated no differences in need satisfaction across conditions, as students were equally satisfied in their need for competence, autonomy and relatedness regardless of whether the teacher provided goal clarification and process feedback, only goal clarification, only process feedback or none. Similar results were found for need frustration. Qualitative analyses indicated that, in all four conditions, aspects of the experimental lesson made students feel more effective, more in charge over their own learning and experience a more positive classroom atmosphere. Our results suggest that under certain conditions, lessons can be perceived as highly need-satisfying by students, even if the teacher does not verbally and explicitly clarify the goals and/or provides process feedback. Perhaps, students were able to self-generate goals and feedback based on the instructional videos.

Framed within achievement goal theory and self-determination theory, the aim of this study was to explore the experiences and motivational needs of students within secondary school Physical Education, attempting to identify their preferred motivational instructional strategies. Nine focus group interviews were conducted comprising 61 students (32 girls and 29 boys; M age = 15.17; SD = 0.48) across 3 different schools. The semi-structured interview guide was based on the TARGET (Task, Authority, Recognition, Grouping, Evaluation, Time) framework. Interviews were analysed using the Framework Method. Results revealed that student-preferred instructional strategies were in line with the tenets of the self-determination theory and achievement goal theory. Students stressed the importance of variation, challenge, achievable tasks, involvement, structure, positive and individual feedback, careful grouping, progress evaluation, transparency of standards and reliable assessment. Structuring these strategies according to the TARGET dimensions provided an overview to support PE teachers in realising an optimal motivational class climate.

Formative assessment (FA) is an effective educational approach for optimising student learning and is considered as a promising avenue for assessment within physical education (PE). Nevertheless, implementing FA is a complex and demanding task for in-service PE teachers who often lack formal training on this topic. To better support PE teachers in implementing FA into their practice, we need better insight into teachers' experiences while designing and implementing formative strategies. However, knowledge on this topic is limited, especially within PE. Therefore, this study examined the experiences of 15 PE teachers who participated in an 18-month professional development programme. Teachers designed and implemented various formative activities within their PE lessons, while experiences were investigated through logbook entries and focus groups. Findings indicated various positive experiences, such as increased transparency in learning outcomes and success criteria for students as well as increased student involvement, but also revealed complexities, such as shifting teacher roles and insufficient feedback literacy among students. Overall, the findings of this study underscore the importance of a sustained, collaborative, and supported approach to implementing FA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students' knowledge about the criteria for an upcoming test is a crucial component of assessment quality. Grounded in self-determination theory, we investigated whether knowledge about the criteria for an upcoming test related to students' situational motivation and experienced anxiety during physical education (PE). We also examined whether these relations were: (a) mediated by need-based experiences; and (b) moderated by teachers' motivating style. Participants were 659 students (55.54% boys, 44.46% girls, mean age 14.72 years, standard deviation = 0.94) out of 40 classes from 32 schools taught by 39 different PE teachers. Analyses through multilevel structural equation modeling showed that students with more knowledge about the criteria for an upcoming test valued and enjoyed the lesson more (i.e. autonomous motivation), and felt less aloof (i.e. amotivation). Relations between knowledge about the criteria and students' situational motivation were mediated by experienced need satisfaction. Specifically, students who had more knowledge about the criteria for an upcoming test felt more in charge of their learning process (i.e. autonomy satisfaction), felt more effective in reaching their goals (i.e. competence satisfaction) and felt more connected to the teacher (i.e. relatedness satisfaction). Although relations between knowledge about the criteria and students' motivation were not moderated by teachers' motivating style, teachers' motivating style displayed independent relations with students' motivation. Implications for assessment quality and students' motivation in PE are discussed.

Although assessment practices are commonly part of the physical education (PE) curriculum they may often frustrate rather than support students' basic needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Nevertheless, assessment also provides various promising opportunities to support these basic needs and enhance learning in students. In order to address this issue, we developed an in-service teacher training programme that was grounded within contemporary theories on assessment and motivation, and aimed at improving PE teachers' expertise on motivational assessment practices. In close collaboration with PE teachers and other experts in the field an in-service teacher training programme was developed that covered important topics such as quality assessment, motivation and assessment for learning. Specific attention was directed to the translation of theoretical concepts into practical and applicable tools. The in-service training programme was then provided on-site three times to a total of 33 PE teachers (of whom 20 were male (60%) and 12 were female (40%), teaching experience 3-32 years) representing different PE departments. Through an iterative cycle of development, provision, evaluation and adjustment the programme was gradually optimised. Focus group sessions and questionnaires were employed to evaluate various aspects, and identify barriers and success factors. The in-service teacher training programme is a successful first step in improving the expertise of PE teachers to start and develop higher quality and more motivating assessment practices. Nevertheless, in order to generate durable change within daily PE practice, follow-up training sessions or counselling methods (e.g. through communities of practice) are essential to overcome implementation barriers. Development, adjustment and future directions for assessment are discussed.

Background: Assessment can have various functions, and is an important impetus for student learning. For assessment to be effective, it should be aligned with curriculum goals and of sufficient quality. Although it has been suggested that assessment quality in physical education (PE) is suboptimal, research into actual assessment practices has been relatively scarce. Purpose: The goals of the present study were to determine the quality of assessment, teachers' views on the functions of assessment, the alignment of assessment with learning goals, and the actual assessment practices in secondary PE in the Netherlands. Participants and setting: A total of 260 PE teachers from different schools in the Netherlands filled out an online Physical Education Assessment Questionnaire (PEAQ) on behalf of their school. Data collection: The online questionnaire (PEAQ) contained the following sections: quality of assessment, intended functions of assessment, assessment practices, and intended goals of PE. Data analysis: Percentages of agreement were calculated for all items. In addition, assessment quality items were recoded into a numerical value between 1 and 5 (mean ± SD). Cronbach's alpha was calculated for each predefined quality aspect of the PEAQ, and for assessment quality as a whole. Findings: Mean assessment quality (±SD) was 3.6 ± 0.6. With regard to the function of assessment, most PE teachers indicated that they intended using assessment as a means of supporting the students' learning process (formative function). At the same time, the majority of schools take PE grades into account for determining whether a student may enter the next year (summative function). With regard to assessment practices, a large variety of factors are included when grading, and observation is by far the assessment technique most widely applied. A minority of PE teachers grade students without predetermined assessment criteria, and usually criteria are identical for all students. There is an apparent discrepancy between reported PE goals and assessment practices; although increasing students' fitness levels is the least important goal of PE lessons according to the PE teachers, 81% reports that fitness is one of the factors being judged. Conversely, while 94% considers gaining knowledge about physical activity and sports as one of the goals of PE, only 34% actually assesses knowledge. Conclusions: Assessment in Dutch PE is of moderate quality. The findings further suggest that PE teachers consider assessment "for" learning important but that their assessment practices are not generally in line with this view. Furthermore, there seems to be a lack of alignment between intended learning outcomes and what is actually being valued and assessed. We believe that these results call for a concerted effort from PE departments, school boards, and the education inspectorate to scrutinise existing assessment practices, and work together to optimise PE assessment.

Creating environments in physical education (PE) that foster perceived competence and physical activity during gender-mixed game play lessons is a challenge, especially with adolescent girls. This study is a small experiment in one PE lesson that aimed to increase the perceived competence and in-class physical activity in girls, by applying a single-gender grouping strategy within co-educational classes. A final sample of 216 students (90 girls; 42%) within 13 classes in grades 7-9 (age 11-15) played basketball in mixed-gender and in single-gender teams. The effects on participant's perceived competence and moderate-to-vigorous activity (MVPA) were assessed using questionnaires and heart rate monitors, respectively. Although girls' perceived competence was lower than that of boys, girls' perceived competence increased during single-gender game play. Physical activity levels were high during both mixed-gender and single-gender game play. Playing invasion games (i.e. basketball, handball, soccer) in gender-specific groups could be a useful strategy for PE teachers to implement into their lessons, in order to improve girls' perceived competence during invasion games.

Background: Detailed knowledge about physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) can guide the development of school interventions aimed at reducing overweight in adolescents. However, relevant components of PAEE have never been objectively quantified in this population. This study investigated the contribution of active transport to and from school, physical education (PE), and leisure time activities to total PAEE during a regular school week in adolescents. Methods: Seventy-three adolescents (mean age: 15.7 years) wore an individually calibrated combined heart rate-acceleration monitor and kept an activity diary during a regular school week. Branched equation modeling was used to calculate PAEE of the specific activity categories, and their relative contribution to total PAEE was determined. Results: Active transport and PE contributed 30.0% and 17.4%, respectively, to school-related PAEE. Active transport to and from school contributed 15% to total PAEE. Youth with a high physical activity level (PAL) spent 4 hours less in sedentary behavior than subjects with a medium or low PAL (F = 77.415 (2.70), p less than 0.001) and had higher PAEE during leisure time sports (F = 9.135 (2.70), p less than 0.001) and work-related activities (F = 10.583 (2.70), p less than 0.001) than youth with medium or low PAL values. Conclusions: Active transport and PE contribute significantly to PAEE during school hours in adolescents. To achieve an increase in total PAEE in the least active group of adolescents, promising strategies might be to reduce inactive behavior, increase participation in leisure time sports, and possibly to replace inactive for active jobs. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

Comparisons of visual perception, response-selection, and response-execution performance were made between Type 2 diabetes mellitus patients and a matched nondiabetic control group. 10 well-controlled male patients with Type 2 diabetes without diabetic complications (M age 58 yr.) and an age and IQ-matched nondiabetic control group consisting of 13 male healthy volunteers (M age 37 yr.) were included. Significant differences were found only between the two groups on response-selection performance, which concerns the selection and preparation of an appropriate motor action.

Research presented concerns the potential benefits of exercise on the prevention and management of insulin resistance. The physiological aspects of insulin sensitivity are discussed, as research reveals higher levels of insulin sensitivity after exercise.