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Table of Contents I. Howh Demanding? 641 II. Rights Minimalism 643 III. Against Intuitive Answers 649 IV. The Appeal of Rights Minimalism 652 Conclusion 654 What do we owe distant [...], What do we owe distant strangers? Effective altruists, as well as philosophers, have offered differing views. A demanding answer holds that we are subject to strong moral requirements to provide aid, the satisfaction of which may undermine other values associated with living one's own life. Another answer, popular among philosophers, is moderate: We are subject to a requirement to provide aid, but this requirement is limited so as to be compatible one's own values in living a life. A third answer, which I sketch in this paper, is minimalist: There are no non-voluntary obligations to contribute to aid. This paper argues against the probative value of moral intuitions on the matter, and on this basis favors either the demanding or minimalist answers. Second, the paper suggests the minimalist answer merits greater attention, and is compatible with at least some prominent descriptions of effective altruism.

ABSTRACT Surrogacy contracts depend on the exchange of information. Intended parents want information about the surrogate's pregnancy to make decisions regarding prenatal care, during-pregnancy behavior, and birth. Contract provisions can [...]

PROLOGUE: ROGER, HUEY, AND SAFFRON 189 INTRODUCTION 190 I. WHAT IS SURROGACY? 191 II. A HISTORY OF SURROGACY LAWS IN THE U.S. AND IN CALIFORNIA 193 A. Surrogacy in the [...], California is considered one of the most surrogacy friendly places in the world, attracting intended parents from around the globe who are seeking to avail themselves of California's laws and bustling surrogacy industry. However, California's statutory scheme overlooks the needs of intended parents who seek to have children through the traditional (rather than gestational) surrogacy route. Laws designed to facilitate commercial gestational surrogacy arrangements make traditional surrogacy arrangements difficult and more costly. This Note discusses the history behind California's surrogacy laws. It centers the story of Roger, Huey, and Saffron (two intended parents and one prospective traditional surrogate), discussing the barriers that they and similarly situated families face in California. It dives into the (often flawed) reasoning behind California's laws, the profit motives that influence the industry as a whole, and the impact on aspiring traditional surrogates and intended parents who cannot afford (or do not desire to engage with) the more expensive gestational surrogacy process. This Note explores the approach of the United Kingdom, where there is no legal distinction between gestational and traditional surrogacy arrangements and there are strict limitations on third parties profiting from facilitating surrogacy arrangements. While acknowledging the imperfect nature of the UK's system, the Note suggests that California might consider a similar alternative route for traditional surrogacy arrangements. This Note fills an important gap in the academic literature by centering the lived experiences of those impacted by California's laws. Whereas much of the literature available on surrogacy focuses on gestational surrogacy arrangements in the commercial context, this Note considers persons who are pursuing traditional surrogacy arrangements in an altruistic context. It explores misconceptions that have led to traditional surrogacy's unpopularity and challenges the industry's paternalistic view and failure to the meet the needs of the U.S.'s changing family structures. This Note proceeds in five parts. Part I provides an overview of surrogacy and explains the terminology that will be used throughout the paper, with particular emphasis on the legal distinction between traditional and gestational surrogacy. Part II briefly describes the history of surrogacy in the United States, with particular focus on California's "surrogacy-friendly" statutory scheme. It explores the legislative history behind California's laws, including the tendency for changes in surrogacy laws to occur after major scandals. Part III describes the practical impact of California's statutory scheme for families like Huey, Roger, and Saffron, such as difficulty finding counsel, difficulty attaining medical and psychological support, and increased costs. It also discusses how traditional family structures are increasingly less common, particularly in queer communities, and explains why some practitioners are hesitant to accommodate these new structures. Part IV addresses the common argument that traditional surrogacy is more psychologically dangerous and risky, and it explains some of the risks involved in gestational surrogacy arrangements. Finally, Part V explores approaches to surrogacy in the U.K. and suggests a need for alternative systems that support altruistic surrogacy arrangements and traditional surrogates.

A concept recently developed by scholars in psychology and biology is 'pathological altruism.' (Oakley 2013, Oakley et al. 2012). A pathological altruist is defined as 'a person who sincerely engages [...]

We posit that parent-child relationships lead to subsequent leader-member exchange (LMX) differentiation in family firms. This differentiation shapes a child's behavior toward the firm. Altruism is proposed to further increase [...]

James Hinton was a charismatic thinker who influenced the mid-Victorian concept of altruism and later sexologists such as Havelock Ellis. Secretly, he also believed that polygamy would solve the problems of sexual frustration, prostitution, and female poverty. His obsessions with polygamy are evident in five volumes of largely unpublished manuscripts found in the British Library. However, in examining the roots of Hinton's beliefs, we can see that Hinton should not be understood only as a precursor to later sexual radicalism; rather, he should be anchored in the very different context of mid-Victorian struggles over individualism in religion and culture., James Hinton was a charismatic thinker at the heart of mid-Victorian intellectual life. His philosophy of altruism rivaled Herbert Spencer's individualism, inspiring the settlement house movement of the 1880s (Koven [...]

A significant genetic effect was found that influence variation in both measurement of mate preference towards altruistic traits and the preferred trait. The findings support the relationship between sexual selection and human altruism towards non-kin.

Responding to a question of Pope John Paul II on what light evolution can throw on creation in the image of God, this article first considers how the creation of humanity in the image and likeness of God (Gen 1:26-27) has been variously understood. It then examines how sociobiology seeks to explain the origin and role of altruism. Finally it proposes a theology of altruism that originates in God's interpersonal mutual commitment, is humanly and archetypally expressed by Jesus as "the image of God" (Col 1:15), and invites the human species to pursue mutual concern as created in the image of the divine altruism., POPE JOHN PAUL II ONCE DIRECTED a series of challenging theological questions to evolution: "Does an evolutionary perspective bring any light to bear upon theological anthropology, the meaning of the [...]

The results of numerous economic games suggest that humans behave more cooperatively than would be expected if they were maximizing selfish interests. It has been argued that this is because individuals gain satisfaction from the success of others, and that such prosocial preferences require a novel evolutionary explanation. However, in previous games, imperfect behavior would automatically lead to an increase in cooperation, making it impossible to decouple any form of mistake or error from prosocial cooperative decisions. Here we empirically test between these alternatives by decoupling imperfect behavior from prosocial preferences in modified versions of the public goods game, in which individuals would maximize their selfish gain by completely (100%) cooperating. We found that, although this led to higher levels of cooperation, it did not lead to full cooperation, and individuals still perceived their group mates as competitors. This is inconsistent with either selfish or prosocial preferences, suggesting that the most parsimonious explanation is imperfect behavior triggered by psychological drives that can prevent both complete defection and complete cooperation. More generally, our results illustrate the caution that must be exercised when interpreting the evolutionary implications of economic experiments, especially the absolute level of cooperation in a particular treatment. altruism | economic games | inclusive fitness | psychological drives | utility doi/ 10.1073/pnas.1000829107

As a species we are incredibly generous and kind to others, even though we might endure a cost to ourselves. For example, people who run marathons or sky dive for [...]

What motivates grandparents to their altruism? We review answers from evolutionary theory, sociology, and economics. Sometimes in direct conflict with each other, these accounts of grandparental investment exist side-by-side, with little or no theoretical integration. They all account for some of the data, and none account for all of it. We call for a more comprehensive theoretical framework of grandparental investment that addresses its proximate and ultimate causes, and its variability due to lineage, values, norms, institutions (e.g., inheritance laws), and social welfare regimes. This framework needs to take into account that the demographic shift to low fecundity and mortality in economically developed countries has profoundly altered basic parameters of grandparental investment. We then turn to the possible impact of grandparental acts of altruism, and examine whether benefits of grandparental care in industrialized societies may manifest in terms of less tangible dimensions, such as the grandchildren's cognitive and verbal ability, mental health, and well-being. Although grandparents in industrialized societies continue to invest substantial amounts of time and money in their grandchildren, we find a paucity of studies investigating the influence that this investment has on grandchildren in low-risk family contexts. Under circmnstances of duress--for example, teenage pregnancy or maternal depression- there is converging evidence that grandparents can provide support that helps to safeguard their children and grandchildren against adverse risks. We conclude by discussing the role that grandparents could play in what has been referred to as Europe's demographic suicide. Keywords: child development; demographic transition; empathy; grandmother hypothesis; grandparental investment; grandparental solicitude; intergenerational transfers; kin altruism; maternal depression; reciprocal altruism doi: 10.1017/S0140525X09991105

Whether competition among large groups played an important role in human social evolution is dependent on how variation, whether cultural or genetic, is maintained between groups. Comparisons between genetic and cultural differentiation between neighboring groups show how natural selection on large groups is more plausible on cultural rather than genetic variation. altruism | cultural FST | group selection | prosociality doi/ 10.1073/pnas.0903232106

Response on the commentaries of Karen Wynn and Dale Hay on the author's study about the roots of altruism among human beings is presented. Details regarding the role of experimental and observational processes and the response on the possibility of selectivity among infants in displaying altruistic behaviors with other people are discussed.

The study examines the roots of altruistic behavior among humans by observing toddlers 14 to 18 months old. Human infants are shown to help others achieve simple goals, such as reaching objects, showing that they are naturally altruistic. Social contexts and feedback from interactions are shown to mediate initial altruistic behavior in humans.

H. A. Prichard changed the course of Plato's Anglophone reception in his 1928 lecture 'Duty and Interest' with the claim that Socrates' defense of justice in the Republic is based [...]

The role of altruistic traits in human mate selection is examined. Results confirmed the presence of mate selection which is based on altruistic traits. Mate preference towards altruistic behavior among women is examined.

A persistent puzzle in the social and biological sciences is the existence of prosocial behavior, actions that benefit others, often at a cost to oneself. Recent theoretical models and empirical studies of indirect reciprocity show that actors behave prosocially in order to develop an altruistic reputation and receive future benefits from third parties. Accordingly, individuals should stop investing in reputations via prosocial behavior when a future benefit (via indirect reciprocity) is unlikely. The conclusion that the absence of reputational incentives necessarily leads to egoistic behavior contrasts sharply with models of heterogeneous social preferences. Such models demonstrate the theoretical plausibility of populations composed of egoists and altruists. Results of Study One show that actors classified a priori as egoists respond strategically to reputational incentives, whereas those classified a priori as altruists are less affected by these incentives. Egoists act prosocially when reputational incentives are at stake but not when opportunities for indirect reciprocity are absent, while altruists tend to act prosocially regardless of whether reputational incentives are present. These results suggest that altruistic behavior can result from non-strategic altruism or reputation-building egoism. Study Two replicates these results and explores indirect reciprocation of others' prosocial acts. We found that altruists indirectly reciprocate at higher levels than egoists, and individuals tend to discount others 'prosocial behaviors when they occur in the presence of reputational incentives. As a result, public prosocial behaviors are indirectly reciprocated less than private prosocial behaviors. In line with our argument that altruists pay less attention to reputational incentives, egoists showed a greater tendency than altruists to discount others 'public prosocial behaviors. The results support the growing focus on heterogeneity of individuals 'social preferences in models of altruism and indirect reciprocity.

A three-generation OLG model with one-directional altruism and two-directional intra-family transfers is presented. Adults invest in their children's education and make transfers to their elderly parents. However, due to lack of altruism, adults with high earnings do not share consumption equally with their elderly parents but spend a larger share of their earnings on own consumption and on their children's education. This allows the model to be consistent with three empirical observations that are difficult to reconcile with traditional altruistic frameworks of intergenerational social interactions and mobility: (i) consumption is not perfectly shared between members of an extended family, (ii) consumption is not equally persistent over the lifecycle as across generations, and (iii) the intergenerational persistence of earnings is particularly high at the top end of the earnings distribution. JEL classification: D31; D64; D91 Keywords: Altruism; Social mobility; Consumption; Education

Conspicuous displays of consumption and benevolence might serve as 'costly signals' of desirable mate qualities. If so, they should vary strategically with manipulations of mating-related motives. The authors examined this possibility in 4 experiments. Inducing mating goals in men increased their willingness to spend on conspicuous luxuries but not on basic necessities. In women, mating goals boosted public--but not private--helping. Although mating motivation did not generally inspire helping in men, it did induce more helpfulness in contexts in which they could display heroism or dominance. Conversely, although mating motivation did not lead women to conspicuously consume, it did lead women to spend more publicly on helpful causes. Overall, romantic motives seem to produce highly strategic and sex-specific self-presentations best understood within a costly signaling framework. Key words: costly signaling, altruism, conspicuous consumption, mating goals, self-presentation

The moderating effect of power distance and Chinese traditionality on relationship between perceived organizational support and work outcomes were studied.

The introduction of altruism and philanthropy into contemporary economics began with Gary Backer's 1961 paper 'Notes on an Economic Analysis of Philanthropy', through the reconsideration of the utility function and topics at the intersection of economics and other social sciences. Several works on economics through the 1960s that incorporated the views of unselfish behavior are discussed.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the moderating effect of Conformism values on the relations between other values and behavior. The authors expected people low, but not high, in Conformism to behave in a manner that is consistent with their personal values related to self-transcendence versus self-enhancement. In Study 1 (N = 199), such values predicted actual altruistic behavior, as estimated by other-reports, but only if Conformism values were low. In Study 2 (N = 189), only people who considered Conformism values to be relatively unimportant showed expected connections between self-transcendence values and anticipated regret in hypothetical scenarios having negative consequences. The data are interpreted as supporting the view that (a) anticipated regret motivates value-consistent behavior, (b ) self-transcendence values in particular are connected to altruistic behavior and to anticipated regret, but (c) conformity to social norms moderates these connections. Keywords: values; conformism; altruism; regret

What drives policymakers to put the interests of others above their own? If human nature is inherently selfish, it makes sense to institutionalize incentives that counter decision makers' temptations to use their positions to benefit themselves over others. A growing literature rooted in evolutionary theories of human behavior, however, suggests that humans, under certain circumstances, have inherent predispositions towards 'representational altruism,' i.e., to make an authoritative decision to benefit another at one's own expense. Drawing on Hibbing and Alford's conception of the wary cooperator, a theoretical case is made for such behavioral expectations, which are confirmed in a series of original laboratory experiments.

Application of experimental economic theory for analysis of effects of value of educational vouchers on altruism is described.

The primacy of self-interested individuals is often regarded as the appropriate basis for US social spending decisions. One thread of this argument has advanced age-based self-interest and politically powerful elderly [...]

Microeconoimc models, which examine altruistic behavior of humans, are presented.

Neurosciences models, which examine social interaction of humans, are presented.

Models of neural networks, which examine altruistic behavior of individuals, are presented.

Most analyses of children's stories share the assumption that stories are told to children to influence their behavior. This paper explores how the analysis of stories can provide insight into social strategies used by people interacting within their cultural context. To demonstrate the potential of this approach, we created multiple versions of an original children's story to explore attitudes of college students toward the form of social interaction known as reciprocal altruism. Some versions portrayed the protagonist of the story as following a tit-for-tat strategy, while in other versions the protagonist was altruistic toward all the other characters regardless of their past behavior. Subjects read one of the versions and rated it in terms of how likely they would be to read it to a child of the appropriate age. The highest rated version involved the protagonist being altruistic even to characters that had cheated in the past. We discuss this finding and suggest future applications of this methodology. KEYWORDS: Children's stories; Culture; Indirect reciprocal altruism; Parental behavior; Reciprocal altruism; Tit-for-tat strategy

Building on previous research by Allik and Realo and Conway, Ryder, Tweed, and Sokol, the present study investigates whether cultural individualism is related to greater levels of prosocial behavior toward strangers. Focusing on regional variations within the United States, the authors found individualism to be positively related to charitable giving and volunteerism such that both were more likely to occur in more individualist states. Differentiating between different types of charitable causes, the authors found that cultural individualism was primarily related to giving to and volunteering for causes that were compatible with core individualist values, whereas no such relationship was found for religious causes and nonreligious cause that did not incorporate values of individualism. Keywords: individualism; volunteering; culture; altruism

Clarifications relating various criticisms by David Colander, John Cullis, and Aaron Levine on a model for behavior of individuals and firms in rational economic and competitive markets duly integrating moral, ethical and altruistic conduct are presented.

A study examining the effects of altruism, moral dimension and ethical behavior on rational economic and competitive markets is presented. Based on the study a behavior model duly incorporating the moral and altruistic behavior for individuals and firms is developed.

The consistency of the consumption utilities of the discounting, with the altruism for the future decision makers is explained. The necessary and the sufficient conditions of the discounting functions to be consistent with the selflessness are discussed.

Norms are established by the powerful in their own interests, and with the acclaim of responsible intellectuals. Law is a living instrument, its meaning determined by practice, and practice demonstrates that new norms are established permitting anticipatory self-defense that is another euphemism for aggression at will.

Indirect reciprocity, defined as a beneficial act whose return comes from someone other than the act's recipient, is a common phenomenon in human societies. However, it is a poorly analyzed phenomenon with respect to payoffs. Are the expectations of return realistic, or not? Are these expectations pro-social attitudes, or illusions induced through manipulation? I discuss four categories of putative indirect reciprocity, two of which pertain to interaction between individuals and two of which involve social systems. The conclusion is that two of these categories, reciprocal reputation and institutionalized reciprocity, are strongly linked to reciprocity, whereas the other two categories, generous reputation and metaphysical reward, are likely to involve only an element of illusionary reciprocity and a substantial degree of altruism.

A study was designed to validate in France the so-called foot-in-the-door technique with implicit demand described by Uranowitz in 1975, a test of altruistic behavior shown previously to have a positive effect on compliance. However, in conditions of a high-justification request, Uranowitz did not obtain the subjects' compliance. In the present study of foot in the-door with implicit demand, subjects complied with the request whatever the justification. This result can be interpreted as differences in perceptions of the justifications among subjects of our study and those of Uranowitz.