Search

We investigate the characteristics of the inflow and the wake of a 6MW floating wind turbine from the Hywind Scotland offshore wind farm, the world's first floating wind farm. We use two commercial nacellemounted lidars to measure the up- and downwind conditions with a fixed and a scanning measuring geometry, respectively. In the analysis, the effect of the pitch and roll angles of the nacelle on the lidar measuring location is taken into account. The upwind conditions are parameterized in terms of the mean horizontal wind vector at hub height, the shear and veer of the wind profile along the upper part of the rotor, and the induction of the wind turbine rotor. The wake characteristics are studied in two narrow wind speed intervals between 8.5-9.5 and 12.5-13.5ms-1, corresponding to below and above rotor rated speeds, respectively, and for turbulence intensity values between 3.3 %-6.4 %. The wake flow is measured along a horizontal plane by a wind lidar scanning in a plan position indicator mode, which reaches 10D downwind. This study focuses on the downstream area between 3 and 8 D. In this region, our observations show that the transverse profile of the wake can be adequately described by a self-similar wind speed deficit that follows a Gaussian distribution. We find that even small variations (~ 1 %-2 %) in the ambient turbulence intensity can result in an up to 10% faster wake recovery. Furthermore, we do not observe any additional spread of the wake due to the motion of the floating wind turbine examined in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of the International Energy Agency (IEA) 15 MW Reference Wind Turbine (RWT), on floating platforms, deployed in commercial-scale arrays at multiple locations around Scotland in the ScotWind leasing round. Site-specific energy production and vessel operations are provided by a dedicated offshore wind farm operations and maintenance (O&M) model, COMPASS, allowing service operation vessel (SOV) O&M impacts to be assessed with increased confidence. For climate change, the median global warming impact varied from 17.4 to 26.3 gCO2eq/kWh across the four sites within a 95% confidence interval using an uncertainty assessment of both foreground and background data. As is common with other offshore renewable energy systems, materials and manufacture account for 71% to 79% of global warming impact, while O&M comprise between 9% and 16% of the global warming impacts. High-voltage direct current (HVDC) export cables, floating platforms, and composite blades are significant contributors to the environmental impacts of these arrays (by mass and material choice), while the contributions from ballast, vessel transportation emissions, and power-train components are lower. The results suggest that material efficiencies, circularity, and decarbonizing material supply inventories should be a priority for the Scottish floating wind sector, followed by minimizing vessel operations and the decarbonization of vessel propulsion, while avoiding burden shifting to other impact categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on potentially adverse effects of wind farms is an expanding field of study and often focuses on large raptors, such as golden eagles, largely because of their life history traits and extensive habitat requirements. These features render them sensitive to either fatality (collision with turbine blades) or functional habitat loss (avoidance through wariness of turbines). Simplistically, avoidance is antagonistic to collision; although, the two processes are not necessarily mutually exclusive in risk. A bird that does not enter a wind farm or avoids flying close to turbines cannot collide with a blade and be killed. In the USA, collision fatality is implicated as the typical adverse effect. In Scotland, avoidance of functional habitat loss appears more likely, but this depends in part on the habitat suitability of turbine locations. Previous Scottish studies have largely concentrated on the responses of GPS-tagged non-territorial golden eagles during dispersal. Several arguments predict that territorial eagles may have lower avoidance (be less wary) of turbines than non-territorial birds. Hence, we contrasted the responses of GPS-tagged non-territorial (intruding) and territorial eagles to the same turbines at 11 operational Scottish wind farms. We show that territorial eagles rarely approached turbines, but, as in previous Scottish studies of non-territorial birds, the spatial extent of avoidance depended on the habitat suitability of both turbine locations and their wider surroundings. Unexpectedly, we found that territorial eagles were apparently as wary as intruding non-territorial conspecifics of the same turbines. Our results show that regardless of age or territorial status, Scottish golden eagles largely avoided wind turbine locations, but this avoidance was conditional, in part, on where those turbines were located. Responses to turbines were also strongly dependent on birds' identities and different wind farms. We speculate on how widespread our findings of avoidance of turbines by golden eagles are elsewhere in Europe, where there appear to be no published studies showing the level of collision fatalities documented in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peatland environments are the Earth's largest terrestrial carbon store and have the potential to act as carbon sinks. However, the development of windfarms on peatlands is affecting their morphology, hydrology, ground-level climate conditions, carbon functions and vegetation, and long-term consequences still need to be assessed. Blanket bogs are a rare type of ombrotrophic peatland that are typical of oceanic areas with high precipitation and low temperatures. Their distribution has been mapped across Europe, where they are mainly located on hill summits where wind energy potential is higher, making them attractive sites for windfarm developments. The promotion of renewable energy is currently a priority given the environmental and economic drive to increase low-carbon energy production. Establishing windfarms on peatland in pursuit of greener energy, therefore, risks compromising and undermining the green-energy transition. Despite this, the extent of windfarm infrastructures on blanket bogs have not yet been reported at the European scale. This research reports the extent of windfarm infrastructures on recognised blanket bogs, with a geographical focus on Europe, where blanket bogs have been mapped systematically. Under the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC), there are 36 European regions NUTS level 2 with recognised blanket bogs. Of these, 12 have windfarm developments, including 644 wind turbines, 253.4 km of vehicular access tracks and an affected area of 207.6 ha, mainly in Ireland and Scotland where the extent of blanket bogs is also higher. However, despite Spain having under 0.2% of Europe's recognised blanket bogs area, this was the most affected country. In Scotland, a comparison of the recognised blanket bogs under the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) with blanket bogs recorded in national inventories indicates that the extent of windfarm developments was higher, with 1,063 wind turbines and 634.5 km of vehicular access tracks. Our results highlight the extent of windfarm developments on blanket bog habitat, both in areas where peatlands are broadly distributed across the landscape, and also in areas where this recognised habitat is particularly rare. There is a pressing need to assess the long-term impacts of windfarms on peatlands to ensure that efforts to meet energy targets result only in carbon sequestration, and do not jeopardise ecosystem services. Blanket bogs represent a particularly vulnerable habitat, the study of which should be prioritised updating national and international inventories to protect and restore this habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses to what extent British councils have addressed onshore wind energy, and the attitudes of councillors and staff about wind farms. Websites of 400 British councils were reviewed regarding assessment of landscapes and policies towards wind energy. An Internet survey of 800 councillors and staff from 275 councils quantified their attitudes towards wind farms, their visual impacts and the acceptability of existing wind farms in Britain. Wind farms reduced perceived scenic quality. Staff opposed wind energy but councillors were more accommodating. Most participants in England found wind farms acceptable, but less than half in Wales and one third in Scotland. Scotland may have reached the limit for acceptability of wind farms. Wales may be approaching that point. Overall, the survey indicated that it is unlikely that there will be widespread installation of additional onshore wind farms across Britain. Expansion of renewable energy may be sought through re-powering of existing sites with larger but fewer turbines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore wind is in a rapid transitional phase, pushed worldwide by efforts of those to reduce climate change. Wind power is becoming a commercialised, unsubsidised competitive form of low carbon generation of renewable energy. Marketplaces reflect this growing trend with the first introduction of subsidy free bids in a tender for the Dutch and German governments. The analysis of surrounding literature of subsidy free bids and governmental policies revealed that integration of subsidy free bids have been carried out to various extents. Bids like those seen in the German and Dutch governments have been done in accompaniment with supportive policies and measures. For the UK, a possible subsidy free bid could be developed under the Scottish Sectoral Marine Plan. Owing to that, this paper investigates the feasibility of a subsidy free bid for the Scottish government. Utilising the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) metric were inserted into a detailed excel spreadsheet. This paper calculates multiple financial scenarios under the LCOE metric to provide an insight into the possible scenarios of which different models of subsidy free bids can be implemented. The main parameters associated with the BEIS metric and calculator design were investigated. These included financial cost predictions, discount rate, generational capacity and net capacity factors. The final conclusion of the generated output data, showed it was indeed possible to adopt a subsidy free bid under the current UK contract for difference (CfD) scheme under strict and favourable conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind farms may have two broad potential adverse effects on birds via antagonistic processes: displacement from the vicinity of turbines (avoidance), or death through collision with rotating turbine blades. Large raptors are often shown or presumed to be vulnerable to collision and are demographically sensitive to additional mortality, as exemplified by several studies of the Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos. Previous findings from Scottish Eagles, however, have suggested avoidance as the primary response. Our study used data from 59 GPS‐tagged Golden Eagles with 28 284 records during natal dispersal before and after turbine operation < 1 km of 569 turbines at 80 wind farms across Scotland. We tested three hypotheses using measurements of tag records' distance from the hub of turbine locations: (1) avoidance should be evident; (2) older birds should show less avoidance (i.e. habituate to turbines); and (3) rotor diameter should have no influence (smaller diameters are correlated with a turbine's age, in examining possible habituation). Four generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) were constructed with intrinsic habitat preference of a turbine location using Golden Eagle Topography (GET) model, turbine operation status (before/after), bird age and rotor diameter as fixed factors. The best GLMM was subsequently verified by k‐fold cross‐validation and involved only GET habitat preference and presence of an operational turbine. Eagles were eight times less likely to be within a rotor diameter's distance of a hub location after turbine operation, and modelled displacement distance was 70 m. Our first hypothesis expecting avoidance was supported. Eagles were closer to turbine locations in preferred habitat but at greater distances after turbine operation. Results on bird age (no influence to 5+ years) rejected hypothesis 2, implying no habituation. Support for hypothesis 3 (no influence of rotor diameter) also tentatively inferred no habituation, but data indicated birds went slightly closer to longer rotor blades although not to the turbine tower. We proffer that understanding why avoidance or collision in large raptors may occur can be conceptually envisaged via variation in fear of humans as the 'super predator' with turbines as cues to this life‐threatening agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind farms can have two broad potential adverse effects on birds via antagonistic processes: displacement from the vicinity of turbines (avoidance), or death through collision with rotating turbine blades. These effects may not be mutually exclusive. Using detailed data from 99 turbines at two wind farms in central Scotland and thousands of GPS-telemetry data from dispersing golden eagles, we tested three hypotheses. Before-and-after-operation analyses supported the hypothesis of avoidance: displacement was reduced at turbine locations in more preferred habitat and with more preferred habitat nearby. After-operation analyses (i.e. from the period when turbines were operational) showed that at higher wind speeds and in highly preferred habitat eagles were less wary of turbines with motionless blades: rejecting our second hypothesis. Our third hypothesis was supported, since at higher wind speeds eagles flew closer to operational turbines; especially–once more–turbines in more preferred habitat. After operation, eagles effectively abandoned inner turbine locations, and flight line records close to rotor blades were rare. While our study indicated that whole-wind farm functional habitat loss through avoidance was the substantial adverse impact, we make recommendations on future wind farm design to minimise collision risk further. These largely entail developers avoiding outer turbine locations which are in and surrounded by swathes of preferred habitat. Our study illustrates the insights which detailed case studies of large raptors at wind farms can bring and emphasises that the balance between avoidance and collision can have several influences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an investigation of the potential for coordinated charging of electric vehicles to i) reduce the CO 2 emissions associated with their charging by selectively charging when grid carbon intensity (gCO2/kWh) is low and ii) absorb excess wind generation in times when it would otherwise be curtailed. A method of scheduling charge events that seeks the minimum carbon intensity of charging while respecting EV and network constraints is presented via a time-coupled linearised optimal power flow formulation, based on plugging-in periods derived from a large travel dataset. Schedules are derived using real half-hourly grid intensity data; if charging in a particular event can be done entirely through use of renewable energy that would otherwise have been curtailed, its carbon intensity is zero. It was found that if 'dumb' charged from the current UK mainland (GB) grid, average emissions related to electric vehicle (EV) charging are in the range 35–56 gCO2/km; this can be reduced to 28–40 gCO2/km by controlled charging – approximately 20–30% of the tailpipe emissions of an average new petrol or diesel car sold in Europe. There is potential for EVs to absorb excess wind generation; based on the modelled charging behaviour, 500,000 EVs (20% of Scotland's current car fleet) could absorb around three quarters of curtailment at Scotland's largest onshore wind farm. • Electric vehicle (EV) charging is scheduled for minimum carbon intensity. • EVs' potential to absorb excess renewables by charging selectively is investigated. • Real GB grid carbon intensity (gCO 2 /kWh) and wind curtailment data used. • Scheduling can reduce EV emissions from 35 to 56 gCO 2 /km to 28–40 gCO 2 /km. • 500,000 EVs can absorb 75% of curtailment at GB's largest onshore wind farm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind farms can help to mitigate increasing atmospheric carbon (C) emissions. However, disturbance caused by wind farm development must not have lasting deleterious impacts on landscape C sequestration. To understand the effects of wind farm development on peatlands, we monitored streamwater at Europe's second largest onshore wind farm (539 MW), Whitelee, Scotland, for 31 months. Using nested catchment sampling to understand impacts on water quality, increasing macronutrient concentrations and exports were associated with wind farm development, particularly forest-felling and borrow pits. Low/poor water quality occurred in small headwater catchments most disturbed by development. At the site exit, dissolved organic C and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentrations increased during construction, though [SRP] recovery occurred within 2 years. Since C was lost and streamwater quality negatively affected, we propose future good practice measures for wind farm development, including limiting total disturbance within individual catchments and locating borrow pits, where deemed necessary, off site avoiding peatlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although green hydrogen produced from dedicated wind and PV plants is considered an alternative route to achieve net zero targets, its assessment models are only being developed in recent years. Even though electrolyser is known to account for a large portion of the investment costs, there is still a lack of sizing models for this equipment, which can negatively affect the feasibility of plants. Moreover, the impacts of future technology maturity and cost reduction on the feasibility of hydrogen production plants are rarely analysed and reported. Realising the research gaps from previous studies, this paper proposes a comprehensive feasibility assessment model for green hydrogen production from dedicated offshore wind and PV plants, utilising net present value, discounted payback time, and levelised cost of energy and of hydrogen (LCOH) as economic evaluation criteria. Furthermore, a unique sizing model is presented, allowing the optimal electrolyser size with the lowest LCOH to be found. Two case studies investigating a hypothetical offshore wind farm in Scotland and a hypothetical PV farm in Vietnam to produce green hydrogen have been carried out, in which the impacts of technology maturity and cost reduction on the LCOH are analysed. It is projected that the LCOH in Scotland and Vietnam case studies, with specific conditions and assumptions of the two cases, would reduce from 3.10 and 3.05 $/kg in 2030 to the lowest values of 2.16 and 1.59 $/kg in 2050, respectively. Additionally, the optimal electrolyser capacity is found to equal 89.3% of the offshore wind plant capacity, and 57.7% of the PV plant capacity. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is conducted, which revealed the capital cost of renewable energy plants has the most significant effect on the final LCOH. [Display omitted] • An electrolyser sizing model that allows the lowest levelised cost of hydrogen. • Future outlook of system costs, levelised cost of energy and hydrogen are analysed. • A solar and an offshore wind case studies, optimised electrolyser sizes are 57% and 89%. • 2050 levelised cost of hydrogen for solar and offshore wind is 1.59 and 2.16 USD/kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scotland is one of the places in Europe to have experienced significant wind farm development over recent years. Concern about impacts on wild land has resulted in legal challenges based on European Union (EU) law. This article analyses whether wild land can be protected from wind farms and the differences that the United Kingdom departure from the EU will make. It considers the concept of ‘wild land’ compared with ‘wilderness’, analyses the legal basis (if any) for wild land protection and examines potential impacts from wind farms. It highlights the significance of EU environmental law, particularly nature conservation and environmental assessment law, and analyses recent Scottish jurisprudence that has applied this. The role of the European Commission and Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) is emphasised as a key part of EU environmental law. The article asks whether relevant global and regional environmental agreements can effectively replace the content of the substantive law and context of the Commission and CJEU. Four environmental agreements and two related compliance procedures are briefly evaluated. The conclusion is that while EU law does not directly provide protection for wild land, it is considerably stronger than the international environmental agreements that may replace it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production renewable energy is a promising sector for social enterprises located in the remote northern communities of Scotland. Community wind power offers a way to generate resources to be re-invested in local development purposes, such as community businesses, social services and infrastructure and communications. In this study, a regional input–output modelling is applied to the analysis of the socio-economic impacts of 11 wind farms of community-based social enterprises located in the Outer Hebrides, Shetland and Orkney. The results show significant socio-economic benefits of re-investing revenues for social purposes. For instance, strategic re-investments of revenues in local social services generate about tenfold additional employment and income impact compared with the impact of wind power production. Our socio-economic analyses find that community-based social enterprises are one promising solution for place-based regional development in the European northern periphery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of onshore wind energy impacts the land where it is constructed, together with competition for natural resources between the energy and land sector. The loss of terrestrial carbon stocks and ecosystem services from land use change to wind farms can be interpreted as the opportunity cost that landowners give up by choosing to construct wind farms on their land. Here, we spatially quantify the impact onshore wind farms have on land when we factor in the opportunity carbon (C) costs. We found that, the construction of 3848 wind turbines in Scotland generated 4.9 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions from land use change. On average the emission intensity of land use change in peatland is 560 g CO 2 kWh−1, in forestry is 88 g CO 2 kWh−1, in cropland is 45 g CO 2 kWh−1, and in pastureland is 30 g CO 2 kWh−1. In the worst land use change scenario, the displacement of Dystrophic basin peat habitats generated 1760 g CO 2 kWh−1, which is comparable to the life cycle emissions of fossil-fuel technologies such as coal and gas-fired electricity generation. In arable land, the loss of harvestable crop to wind power was forfeited for a gain in opportunity costs up to £15.4 million over a 25 year operating life. Considering the short-term value of CO 2 in the trading market, the opportunity carbon costs of onshore wind farms can range from £0.3 to £65.0 per MWh of electricity generated per year. These findings highlight that the preservation of terrestrial carbon stocks and crop production in the land sector require the development of new payment schemes that can compete economically against the monetary benefits that landowners can access from lease agreements agreed with energy companies. This ensures also that wind turbines are geographically placed to protect ecosystem C stocks, and to minimize the carbon intensity of the electricity generated. [Display omitted] • The displacement of terrestrial carbon stocks is crucial to quantifying the environmental impact of onshore wind energy. • Direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions are quantified spatially based on land cover types and wind farm characteristics. • Emissions of land use change from the construction of 3848 wind turbines across Scotland vary from 16 g CO 2 kWh−1 in shrubland to 1760 g CO 2 kWh−1 in peatland. • Opportunity costs of onshore wind farms range from £0.30 to £65.0 per MWh of electricity generated per year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reflects on two controversial resource projects – the Bellanaboy gas refinery (Ireland) and the Barvas Moor wind farm (Scotland) – and critical arguments made by key local actors. Although risk, health, environment and development dominated the official decision-making processes, these actors articulated views which cut across or existed beyond such orthodox ideas and framings. Focusing on these, I show that the Gaelic concepts ofdùthchasanddeoraíocht, summarised as place and exile, help to explain why some residents decided to protest. This paper illustrates the role that history, culture and language can play in conflicts, emphasises the need for greater sensitivity to these and suggests that place and exile can inform alternative visions of sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of the wind energy sector is often promoted as a means of supporting rural economies. This paper focuses on how the ownership structure of on-shore wind power plants (external, farmer or community) affects the size and distribution of impacts within the rural part of a region. Empirical analysis is based on a regional computable general equilibrium model of North East Scotland with the results compared to those generated from a standard social accounting matrix multiplier analysis. With no local ownership, while rural GDP increases, there is almost no effect on household incomes due to the limited direct linkages of the on-shore wind sector. Local ownership increases the household income benefits but there are still limited positive spill-over effects on the wider economy unless factor income is re-invested in local capital. With re-investment, farm household ownership gives rise to the largest increase in total household income but community ownership gives rise to the largest increase in rural (non-farm) household incomes and welfare. The results contribute to the on-going debate about the opportunity cost of external asset ownership in rural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A large amount of wind power generation capacity is expected to be installed in Great Britain by 2020. A considerable amount of this capacity will be located in Scotland. This will require reinforcement of power transmission capacity between Scotland and England. Analysis of the impact of a large amount of wind generation capacity on the electricity network requires modelling of wind power output. Due to the lack of available wind power output data a method for artificially generating wind power output from real wind speed data was developed. The technique is based on monthly wind speed averages used to generate Weibull distributions. Hourly wind power output time series over one year are generated for 18 onshore and offshore locations in Great Britain. Capacity factors, maxima, minima and hourly output variations, their means and standard deviations are calculated. A comparison of statistical parameters of the generated data with those of real wind power output shows that both have similar statistical properties. The geographically distributed wind power output data is used in conjunction with an optimal load flow model for analysing three network case studies. One case study uses a hypothesised 2020 Great Britain transmission network the other two cases enhance the network with an Eastern and Western HVDC line linking Scotland and England. The simulation results illustrate the effectiveness of both HVDC lines in reducing wind generation curtailments and operational costs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The impact of wind farms on the environment and subsequently on tourism is the subject of much heated debate. The research was concerned with making a robust quantitative assessment of the economic impact, to help resolve the debate and inform government policy on planning for renewable energy. In addition to a broad description of the intercept surveys and the advanced local economic models used to ascertain impact, the research details two novel elements; a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) model for the analysis of the number of tourists and bed spaces exposed to wind farms and a large internet-based survey of the willingness to pay for landscape. The research found a very small but significant negative economic impact and, on the basis of the survey information, suggests ways of minimising this impact. Both GIS modelling and internet surveying were found to be extremely useful and, it is suggested, both should become standard tools for the tourism researcher. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents the results of a study of public attitudes to onshore windfarm development in south-west Scotland. Specifically, it explores the influences of different development models on attitudes to windfarms by comparing public attitudes towards a community-owned windfarm on the Isle of Gigha with attitudes towards several developer-owned windfarms on the adjacent Kintyre peninsula. The study, conducted in 2006, used a questionnaire-based survey (n =106) to test the hypothesis that community ownership would lead to greater public acceptance of windfarms. It also examined the attitudes of both residents and tourists towards the impacts of onshore windfarms on landscapes and seascapes, including cumulative impacts. The data show that the Gigha respondents were consistently more positive about wind power than were the Kintyre residents. However, the differences were differences of degree rather than diametrically opposing viewpoints. The most significant concerns about windfarms were intermittent production and visual impact, but majorities in both areas nevertheless regarded their visual impact as positive. The data also indicate that local attitudes could become even more positive if future windfarms were owned by local communities. The fact that the residents of Gigha have affectionately dubbed their turbines ‘the Three Dancing Ladies’ is indicative of the positive psychological effects of community ownership. These results support the contention that a change of development model towards community ownership could have a positive effect on public attitudes towards windfarm developments in Scotland. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Energy issues are crucial for Scotland. This paper reviews the environmental, social and political questions surrounding energy and environment in general, and analyses the passionate arguments surrounding onshore wind farm developments in Scotland in particular. Scotland has the best onshore and offshore wind resources in Europe, with almost a quarter of the total resource, and onshore wind is now rapidly overtaking hydropower as the renewable technology with the greatest generating capacity. This development has proved highly controversial, with many schemes attracting vociferous public opposition. This review explores the main issues involved and shows that whilst some of the controversy centres on factual issues such as job creation, intermittency or bird mortality, a primary reason why consensus is so elusive is that conflicting values lie at the core of the debate. Issues such as landscape aesthetics, community (dis)empowerment and the relative importance of global and local factors are perceptual, unquantifiable and shaped by personal world views. Consequently, even if all the misinformation provided by those supporting or opposing wind farms was removed, profound disagreements would remain about the appropriate choices for securing Scotland's future power supply. The paper highlights the need to deepen our understanding of the social construction of public attitudes, to develop better criteria for strategic locational guidance and to investigate the potential of emerging development models such as community-scale wind power schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind power is seen by many as a key industry for the future: an environmentally benign renewable energy to replace fossil fuels. The Northern and Western Isles, with their high average wind speeds, would seem to be well placed to exploit this rapidly emerging demand. As well as meeting a global need, to reduce output of greenhouse gases and a national need for security of supply into the twenty-first century, wind power promises an economic future for rural regions whose prospects are otherwise uncertain. However, this benign scenario is marred by potentially serious negative consequences for local environmental systems, landscape aesthetics and archaeology, which are themselves often of national and international importance. With particular reference to proposed projects in Lewis and Shetland, this paper will consider the competing demands from national and local policy on the location of wind farms, and weaknesses in the current planning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK Government has set stringent targets for renewable energy generation, prompting a substantial increase in proposals for wind farms, notably in the Scottish uplands which have a particularly high wind resource. These upland areas also support many bird species of conservation concern, leading to potential conflict. To help minimise this conflict, a map has been created indicating areas in Scotland where especially careful planning of wind farms will be necessary to avoid adverse impacts on vulnerable bird species. This map is based on the locations of statutorily protected Special Protection Areas, plus eighteen bird species of conservation priority. It is used here to assess the proportion of current and proposed wind farms on peatland, whether these coincide with mapped sensitive areas for birds, and which species are most likely to be affected. A high proportion of wind farms are on peatland (by stage in planning process: scoping 40%, application 38 %, approved 23%, installed 55%), although the area of peatland is only ca. 12% that of Scotland. Peatland also contains a high proportion of sensitive areas for birds. Of the 1 km squares from the sensitivity map whose centres fall within peatland, 52% are high sensitivity, 32% medium sensitivity and 17% low/unknown sensitivity. This compares with figures of 37%, 31% and 32% respectively for Scotland overall. Species on the map that are associated with peatland are red-throated diver, black-throated diver, common scoter, hen harrier and arctic skua. Of these, hen harrier is the species most likely to coincide with current and future wind farm developments, and cumulative effects of peatland wind farms on this species require assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the impacts of disturbance associated with the construction of a wind farm on fluxes of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and suspended sediment from a blanket peat catchment in central Scotland during the period immediately following completion of construction. Six streams draining the site were sampled on six dates from October 2006, when construction was completed, and an additional three control streams to the west of the site were sampled on the same dates. Turbidity and stage were recorded semicontinuously in the two largest streams (one disturbed and one control), which were also sampled during storm events. Absorbance (400 nm) and DOC concentrations were determined on all samples, and suspended sediment was determined on the event samples. Absorbance and DOC were closely correlated in both the disturbed and undisturbed streams, with slightly greater absorbance per unit DOC in the disturbed streams. DOC concentrations in disturbed tributaries were always greater than those in undisturbed streams, with mean differences ranging from 2 to around 5 mg L-1. DOC and stage were positively correlated during events with maximum concentrations in excess of 30 mg L-1 at peak flow. Suspended sediment concentrations were markedly elevated in the disturbed stream with maximum concentrations at peak flow some 4-5 times greater than in the control. The colour of the sediment suggested that it was highly organic in nature at peak flow, and suspended particulate organic carbon represented a further loss of C from the site. Using flow-weighted mean DOC concentrations calculated for the storms monitored in autumn 2007, dissolved carbon losses can be estimated for the catchments of the disturbed and control streams. From these data the additional DOC loss related to disturbance associated with the wind farm is estimated at 5 g m-2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distribution of golden plover across Scotland was modelled using land cover and management variables, and used to highlight the spatial association between golden plover abundance and current and proposed wind farm developments. Overlap was greatest in three biogeographical zones (the Western Isles, the Western Central Belt and the Borders Hills) and was estimated at ca. 5% of the biogeographical population in each case. New field data were used to predict the effects of wind farm development on golden plover populations, employing a conservative analytical approach to detect statistically significant wind farm related effects. The results provide evidence of significant avoidance of wind turbines by breeding golden plovers to a distance of at least 200 metres. Furthermore, wind farm sites appear to support lower densities of golden plover than predicted by the distribution model for sites without wind farms. Therefore, there is evidence for negative effects of wind farm developments on golden plover, and we suggest strategies to reduce any potential conflict between the need to promote wind energy and the need to maintain golden plover populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although best described as a ‘meta’ theory addressing the endurance of capitalism, regulation theory can successfully be used to explore not only the economic dimensions, but also the political, socio-cultural and environmental dimensions of particular developmental strategies. Thus, it offers a framework for embedding abstract debates about social attitudes to new technologies within debates about ‘real regulation’ – the economic, social and cultural relationships operating through particular places. This paper uses regulation theory and qualitative, interview-based data to analyse Scotland's drive for onshore wind energy. This approach teases out how responses to wind farms are bound up with wider debates about how rural spaces are, and should be, regulated; the tensions within and between national political objectives, local political objectives and local communities' dissatisfaction; and the connections between local actors and more formal dimensions of renewable energy policy. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Evidence from analysing and evaluating examples of three voluntary SEAs prepared in Scotland in the mid-late 1990s showed that different spatial and temporal scales were used when providing a baseline environment description. The SEAs analysed were prepared for: a wind farm siting programme that looked at national and short-term impacts; a land use plan that looked at regional and short-term impacts; and a transport plan that examined local and medium-term impacts. It was found that the two SEAs prepared by local government only considered impacts on the baseline environment within their jurisdictional boundaries whilst the SEA prepared by the private business considered impacts on the national baseline. A mixture of baseline data about planning, economic, environmental and social issues were included in the SEAs, however, evidence suggested that each SEA only focussed on those baseline features that might be significantly affected by the proposal. Each SEA also made extensive use of existing baseline information available from a variety of sources including local, and central government records and information from statutory bodies. All of the SEAs acknowledged that baseline data deficiencies existed and in certain cases steps were taken to obtain primary field data to help address these, however, it was also acknowledged that resource restrictions and decision-making deadlines limited the amount of primary baseline data that could be collected. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Scottish tourism is forecasted to grow by 50 per cent over the next 10 years but one of the factors that may hinder or facilitate that growth is climatic change. Indeed, many people are now starting to question the impact of such significant growth on the planet. Therefore, this paper assesses the impact of climate change on Scottish tourism in order that policy makers can separate the facts from the myths. The dimensions of climate change such as CO2 emissions, temperature, rainfall, storms, and wind speed are discussed and the implications for Scottish tourism are mapped. Those implications may include the introduction of CO2 allowances for all travellers, more wind farms in rural locations impacting on film tourism or the grouse species disappearing from Scotland. The paper concludes with a number of adaptation strategies that Scottish tourism agencies and business could adopt to mitigate climate change. The importance of this paper lies in understanding how climate change could impact upon a specific destination, in this case Scotland, and in providing a micro analysis of that impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind energy plays a major role in decarbonisation of the electricity sector and supports achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions. Over the last decade, the wind energy deployments have grown steadily, accounting for more than one fourth of the annual electricity generation in countries like the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Germany. However, as the share of wind energy increases, system operators face challenges in managing excessive wind generation due to its nondispatchable nature. Currently, the most common practice is wind energy curtailment in which wind farm operators receive constraint payments to reduce their renewable energy production. This practice not only leads to wastage of large volumes of renewable energy, but also the associated financial cost is reflected to rate payers in the form of increased electricity bills. On-site energy storage technologies come to the forefront as a technology option to minimise wind energy curtailment and to harness wind energy in a more efficient way. To that end, this paper, first, systematically evaluates different energy storage options for wind energy farms. Second, a depth analysis of curtailment and constraint payments of major wind energy farms in Scotland are presented. Third, using actual wind and market datasets, a techno-economic analysis is conducted to examine the relationship between on-site energy storage size and the amount of curtailment. The results show that, similar to recent deployments, lithium-ion technology is best suited for on-site storage. As case studies, Whitelee and Gordon bush wind farms in Scotland are chosen. The most suitable storage capacities for 20 years payback period is calculated as follows: (i) the storage size for the Gordonbush wind farm is 100 MWh and almost 19% of total curtailment can be avoided and (ii) the storage size for the Whitlee farm is 125 MWh which can reduce the curtailment by 20.2%. The outcomes of this study will shed light into analysing curtailment reduction potential of future wind farms including floating islands, seaports, and other floating systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing concerns over climate change have prompted rapid growth of renewable energy over the past few decades, particularly wind energy. However, as the installation of wind farms rises, so will the need for decommissioning and analysis of the environmental impacts associated with decommissioning. This paper investigates how Environmental Impacts Assessments (EIA) identify, estimate and manage potential impacts of decommissioning. EIAs from 12 onshore and offshore windfarms consented between 2009 and 2014 in England and Scotland were analysed and compared. Attributes of these windfarms' Environmental Statements (ES) were scored under six categories: decommissioning in EIA stages, definitions of decommissioning, amount of analysis, depth of analysis, impacts identified, and proactive planning. Onshore windfarms generally tended to investigate the impacts of decommissioning less than offshore windfarms, even those which gained consent in the same year. The investigation of the impact of decommissioning improved for windfarms consented in the latter years of the study period. Across the ESs there was a lack of analysis of potential impacts from decommissioning in their own right: not simply as a reversal of the construction process. The impacts of different end of life scenarios were not analysed in any of the ESs studied. There is evidence to suggest the presence of windfarms, especially offshore, could in some cases be environmentally beneficial for certain species. However, the ecological impact of removing offshore structures at the end of life is unknown and is currently not investigated nor predicted in EIAs. Understanding the potential implications of full or partial removal of marine structures, or alternatives to decommissioning, could ensure that appropriate mitigation is considered at an early stage by both developer and consenting authority. That being said, it is also important to update the assessment of potential impacts over the life of the project as more information on the environment is gathered and end of life plans develop. • Onshore windfarms assess environmental impact of decommissioning less than offshore. • More in-depth investigation of decommissioning impact for windfarms consented later. • Decommissioning impacts not assessed independently: always compared to construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]