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In contrast to the rising technological applications of China's satellite systems, their applications and impacts in modern Chinese Society, particularly in the legal and administrative forums, have largely escaped under the radar. Specifically, the use of satellite outputs can now be found within a number of administrative and legal activities within China - including policy and rule-making, administrative investigations, and the production of court evidence. At the same time however, outdated legal practices, ambiguous status, and lack of guidance has prevented China's legal system from fully capitalizing on the advantages of satellite technologies. Therefore, to fill these legislative gaps, this review provides a comprehensive overview on the applications of satellite technologies within China's legal system, and provide important insights as to their current developments, legal framework, and legal issues. Additionally, having identified the aforementioned issues, this paper offers policy recommendations for the purposes of legislation. • Satellite applications in China's policy and rule-making processes. • Investigatory applications of satellite technologies within China's administrative organs. • Emerging evidentiary applications of satellite technologies in Chinese court systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We are experiencing a period of renewed interest in human activities in outer space and, in particular, the return of humans to the Moon. Multiple lunar missions, including the NASA led Artemis project and the China and Russia International Lunar Research Station propose a sustained human presence on the Moon which will require in-situ resource extraction and usage. This article explores the likely impact of statements and actions by states on the future evolution of international space law in relation to space resource activities, highlighting the urgent need for greater clarity in the law regarding space resource activities. It will examine the relevant international law, domestic legislation, multilateral agreements, and recent international discussions concerning space resource activities. It concludes that the current international space law regime lacks clear laws regarding space resource activities and emphasises the importance of space law evolving in order to progress with industry and exploration. • Current international law lacks clear guidance regarding the legal frameworks applicable to space mining. • Competing domestic laws and guidelines may create tension between competing users of the Moon. • An international framework is needed to clarify the rules of resource extraction and use in space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of China's national resources in the space domain may change the gap in power between China and the United States in relevant international rulemaking. This article proposes an analytical framework for identifying, comparing, and analyzing states' power resources critical to international rulemaking and uses the framework to compare the relevant resources between China and the United States in the space domain. First, this paper develops a method for identifying resources crucial to international rulemaking in outer space. The relevant resources of the two countries are then compared in this article. Finally, the article explores comparative advantages, consensus, differences, and cooperation possibilities of the two countries in specific international space rules. The framework could be adapted to compare diverse nations' resources critical to international rulemaking in other fields; it contributes to research on space law, international legislation, and national power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The urge to go where no man has gone before has led to great leaps in space technology that only seemed real in cinema. As more private companies, such as private asteroid mining companies in China, attempt to take this leap, it has become clear that there are significant gaps in international space law regarding liability with private parties. Within Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty, there is a laid-out structure on how states can be held liable for damages caused by celestial bodies. However, the Outer Space Treaty ignores what happens if a private company causes injuries in another country or to another space craft. While there has yet to be an example of a private company causing damages from negligence under space law, we know what may happen through Maritime Law. With multiple similarities between maritime and space law, already established maritime regulations can easily be used as a supplementation for space law. In part I of this article, there will be a discussion of the history of space law and modern-day technology done by private Chinese companies. Part II will then examine maritime law concepts and outer space collisions. Part III, IV, and V will move to an in-depth analysis on limitations of liability, vessel insurance, and employees' insurance. Part VI will finalize, discussing how limitations of liability, vessel insurance, and employee's insurance create a stable supplement for Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With commercial participants now undertaking an ever-expanding role within the development and supply-chains of China's space industry post Document No. 60, the resulting legal challenges relating to this emerging industry status-quo has garnered much academic discussion. Specifically, while China's space industry has grown at a rapid pace within the past few decades, China's legislative framework has remained largely silent over matters relating to space. Instead, China continues to remain as the only major space-faring nation without a national space law and regime. This substantive legislative gap over China's space related activities has negatively impacted the industry's current deregulation process. While it has been the academic community's primary solution to address the industry's current substantive legislative gap through coordinated rulemaking activities, this paper aims to advance the current academic discussion by taking an alternative approach and arguing that the fundamental legislative challenge and solution to China's emerging commercial space industry, is not substantive, but rather procedural by nature. Importantly, by reconceptualizing the industry's substantive gap from one that is determined by the number of missing legal instruments, to one determined by the rate of legislative activity i.e., the pace of law-making activities vis-à-vis commercial expansion, this paper argues that only through the implementation of legal procedural rulemaking mechanisms will China's space law regime be able to sufficiently address the current substantive legislative gap at a pace matching commercial expansion. • The deregulation of China's space industry. • Regulatory structure and legal challenges of China's space industry. • A procedural argument to resolve China's substantive space law gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space law education has an essential role in the space capacity building of a country because of its importance for human resources development in space law. Comparisons between Canada and China, the European Union and China and the United States of America (USA) and China in space law degree education, course, teaching methodology, institute and practice and communication platform are provided in an attempt to review some issues which exist within the Chinese space law educational system and to seek a better choice for China's space law education reform. Chinese space law education has achieved noticeable progress over the past two decades. However, it is still limited in comparison to its counterparts in Europe and Northern America. The range of the space law degree education programmes and space-law-related courses is comparatively limited. A gap remains between space law education and practice in China. Chinese space law classes are still dominated by the teacher-centred teaching methodology, although several universities have some new teaching practices. The establishment of seven space law-related research institutes plays an increasingly important role in Chinese space law education, space law and policy research and legal advisory services for the Chinese government and non-governmental sectors. However, these institutes still have a long way to go in comparison with their counterparts in Europe and Northern America. While China has established domestic research platforms for space law communication through international cooperation, it does not provide space law practice platforms for space law education. While international space law does not provide a direct legal foundation for space law education in China, Chinese educational laws can lay a profound legal foundation for Chinese space law education. To promote its national expertise and capacity in space law, based on the three-pillar model and the experiences of its counterparts in North America and Europe, China should adopt a systematic and sustainable regime for its space law education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ever since the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the space sector, there have been progressive changes that brought both benefits and risks. AI technologies have started to influence human rights and freedoms, relationships with public authorities and the private sector. Therefore, the use of AI involves legal obligations caused by the influence and consequences of the dependency on the specified technologies. This indicates the need to investigate the issue of the legal problems and risks of using AI in space activity to identify, describe and explain legal issues and dilemmas in general and in the space sector in particular. The author has formulated theoretical definitions in the defined area through the logical-semantic approach. The comparative method has allowed us to carry out a comparative analysis of the AI legal regulation in the space sector in the USA, China and the EU. The authors have gone into rethinking the issue of action, cause-effect relationship, legal personality in matters of prosecution for damage caused by autonomous space objects. As well as combining the existing space law and its state-oriented responsibility with the space activity of private players using autonomous objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a speech by Professor Saadia M. Pekkanen, delivered at The Future of Space Governance conference held in Athens, Georgia in October 2019. Topics included the space governance by Japan and China, the governance regimes to prevent conflict and war, and the need to encourage democratization, bolster commercialization, and prevent militarization in outer space.

In the article, we have determined that China is a leading, but the only space state that does not have a special space law. These activities are governed by the international norms-principles, international treaties and by-laws of the government. We consider that such a procedure for regulating legal relations in the space industry is illogical. We have revealed the contours of the future space law of China in the article. We’ve noted that the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding on Space Cooperation with Luxembourg will have a positive impact on the exploration and utilization of mineral resources from the Moon and asteroids by Chinese space companies. At the same time, we have concluded that without the adoption of a special space law, foreign investments in the Chinese space industry and space tourism will be constrained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Asia is in part volatile because of the historical rivalry between India and Pakistan. After non-conventional and conventional military buildups in the past, an arms race in the domain of outer space is now a possibility. Space is an advantageous frontier for military uses. In this context, the consensus in international law defines space as a global commons to be used for peaceful purposes. Nonetheless, space powers, including India, engage in space militarization, which can lead to the weaponization of space. India is motivated in this regard by aspirations of regional hegemony and to balance its capabilities with respect to China in an effort to counter China's increasing influence in South Asia. These developments posit adverse effects on the strategic equation in South Asia, leading to strategic instability, and can undermine nuclear deterrence and bring about a South Asian arms race in space. Moreover, the security dilemma in South Asia has prompted defensive and offensive reactions from rival states in the region, exacerbating repercussions on the South Asian strategic landscape. Analysis of the issues suggests that keeping space free from weaponization can alleviate strategic instability in South Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tension between competition and cooperation is common in space activities. China's role in spearheading the International Lunar Research Station, in direct opposition to the US-led Artemis program, demonstrates its strong determination to upgrade its space cooperation. The configuration discourse on the International Lunar Research Station and the Artemis program is clearing a path for a new mixture structure and the interplay of competition and cooperation among space powers. The evolution of China's approach to space cooperation––from an emphasis on national independence to initiating multilateral cooperative platforms––provides insights into understanding the dynamics between techno-nationalism and external constraints, as well as the motivation to increase and an approach towards actually increasing soft power, alongside the development of hard power. This decade-lasting dynamics determines that openness and neutrality are viable means to guarantee the international prospect of China's lunar cooperation platform. Well-designed and targeted engagement measures and overall neutral strategies are needed to realise openness and promote neutrality. To compensate for China's 'leadership deficit' in international cooperation, a practical way forward is taking the Artemis program as a point of reference and transplanting the successful American experience while also differentiating from the Artemis program. The interplay of competition and cooperation challenges, forces compromise in, and maintains and develops the space order. Leading an international cooperation venture will accrue the soft power China needs to sustain its hard power and bring new positive energy to the space order. China's unique dual identity as a space power and a developing country could contribute to solving the dilemma of democratisation and decentralisation in the development of international space law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's transition economy experiment continues to rely heavily on state-driven industrial policy to structure the economy. In 2016, five-year plans on strategic emerging industries were formed by State Council ministries and transmitted to lower levels of government bureaucracy. Building on existing industrial geographic complementarities and technology clusters, developments were expected to dovetail with broader 13th Five-Year Plan and Made in China 2025 industrial policy trajectories. This article explores the policy program of industrial upgrading and innovation in national strategic emerging industries, regional innovation and industrial cluster plans, space and ocean industrial strategies and places China's policy trajectories for industrial development, technology innovation and upgrading in context of institutional economic analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between the civil and defence industries in China has undergone institutional changes from separation to combination and integration. Civil–military integration (CMI) was uplifted as a national-level strategy in 2015. Outer space was prioritised in the 2015 strategy, which presents an interesting opportunity for a review of its particularity and potentiality in China. The application of the CMI to space activities is a product of national policies related to economic development and technological advancement instead of a result of a military modernisation campaign. The CMI strategy holds the potential of being an enabler for space activities in China to accommodate the market-oriented approach and conform to the implementation practice of CMI in other advanced space countries. However, reform efforts remain at the early stages of development. Its operationalisation under the state-led development approach is characterised by uncertainty, ambiguity, and fluidity. The reforms are demanding in terms of tackling the entrenched issues of breaking down civil–military barriers and managing the contradiction between the traditional state-led approach and the revolutionary market-oriented approach. Specifically, it is in need of basic infrastructure to facilitate the development of commercial space, including a high-level, coherent framework of policy guidelines and the improvement of governance structure and institutional mechanisms through the enactment of a space law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has one of the world's most advanced space programs, making it important to understand the motives shaping its pursuit of space power. Although analysts have examined the role of Chinese military doctrine in shaping its space ambitions, little is known about the role of China's public in its space-related activities. As scholars increasingly recognize, China's government is often highly concerned with domestic public opinion, particularly that of China's online population. Similarly, China's most ambitious projects, such as its human spaceflight program, are often used as propaganda aimed at domestic audiences. Public support for China's space activities could, therefore, play an important role in influencing China's space policy. To examine how China's public views China's space activities, this article draws on findings from a survey (N = 1482) fielded with Chinese respondents in June–July 2020. The article finds that China's public is largely supportive of investing in human spaceflight and deep space exploration. The survey also indicates that although respondents view the United States as a competitor and a threat, they favor cooperating with the United States in space exploration. Furthermore, the survey finds that China's public is supportive of international law governing outer space, as well as laws banning the use of space weapons. Overall, this descriptive analysis provides an important first step for understanding the role of public opinion in China's pursuit of space power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has made great achievements in space activities in recent years. While emphasizing the principle of self-independence, China also acknowledges the importance of space cooperation. As early as 2001, China indicated its interest in joining the International Space Station. However, no substantive progress has been made concerning China's participation thus far. This may be a result of political and economic, rather than legal and technical, considerations. There is no doubt that China's participation shall contribute to the sustainable development of the ISS. China's participation could also offer an excellent opportunity to reexamine the 1998 framework and clarify or improve certain provisions that exist in the current regime. While technologically ready for participation, China should start considering possible legal issues that may arise from its participation in the ISS project. This article takes up the challenging task of identifying potential legal issues that may arise in the course of China's participation in the ISS and offers suggestions for a future cooperative legal framework regarding the ISS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the situation of the existing Chinese space legislation and methods for its improvement. Topics discussed include the organization and management of the Chinese space activities, distribution of the legislative power related to space activities in China along with uncertainty and ambiguity resulted from the multidepartment administration. Other topics include the Space Activities Act, liability arising from space activities and issues regarding rescue of astronauts.

The article presents information on the basic legal concepts used by Chinese legal professionals and Western legal professionals to eliminate the misunderstanding caused by translation problems. It addresses the confusion which has been raised by the terms used in space treaties such as the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement. It suggests solutions regarding responsibility of space activities including the terms of a claimant State, procure the launching and international liability.

Abstract: Preventing the weaponization of outer space is one of the most relevant issues of the current space law debate. In recent years discussions on this issue have significantly increased in international fora, such as the UN Conference on Disarmament and the COPUOS. While it has not been possible to arrive at an agreed solution on how to efficiently deal with the problem of possible weaponization of outer space so far, several valuable proposals have been put forward. China and Russia, on the one side, and the European Union, on the other, have taken the lead in this respect. While the former have submitted a proposal for a draft treaty on the demilitarization of outer space, known as the PPWT, the latter has issued a Draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities. Despite the differences between the two proposals, this paper proposes the development of a Chinese, Russian and European common approach aimed at preventing the weaponization of outer space. Although such a goal is undoubtedly challenging, some political and legal factors may enable such cooperation in the not-too-distant future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article discusses the role of Moon Agreement in the commercial exploitation of the moon and of its natural resources. It says that various States are trying to send a manned mission to the Moon including China, India, and the U.S. which opened a debate on space law regime's ability to ensure a profitable development of lunar activities. However, the Moon Agreement fails to create a legal regime in governing such exploitation and has negative impact on the development of lunar resources.

Two sets of national space regulations have been issued in China. Comparing them with space legislations of other countries and State practice, this paper identifies the issues that have not been properly addressed by these regulations such as clarifying the term of "other organizations", requiring permits holders to govern the disposal of the payload in outer space on the termination of operation and specifying the rights of the authorized officers, and so on. It suggests that more work needs to be done in the domestic space legislations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Passivating spacecraft and upper stages at the end of their operational life is a must: numerous in orbit break-ups have been encountered by all space operators due to a lack of proper passivation leading to an explosion triggered by mixture of hypergolic propellants, pressure build-up, or hyper-velocity collision with a small object.The following paper recalls first the high level guidelines that have to be adopted at international level to achieve proper space debris mitigation, recalls the definition of passivation, then describes the most frequent solutions currently adopted. Several examples, mainly from India and China, are quoted, extracted generally from IADC presentations; they are presented in italics, unmodified. The paper then reviews briefly the main problems encountered during the process of designing the passivation system and operating it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The principle of international cooperation is among the basic principles of both general international law and space law. Based on the development and improvement of the norm of international cooperation as kind of "cooperation for the common interests (of the international community)," when engaging in international cooperation in outer space, China should take as its fundamental purpose the advancement of "cooperation for the common interests" by taking into account both its own national interests and the common interests of the international community as a whole. To realize that purpose, the country should emphasize international cooperation in establishing a space station as a specific implementation approach and adopt a China-led cooperation model. On the one hand, China should invite more developed space-faring countries to participate in such cooperation to safeguard its own interests. On the other hand, it should also create opportunities for developing countries to participate in an attempt to safeguard the common interests of the wider international community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In June 2019, the Notice on the Promotion of a Systematic and Orderly Development of Commercial Carrier Rockets was issued. The enactment of the Notice represents an important moment in the development and management of the Chinese space program: on one side, it marks the first regulatory steps taken by Chinese authorities to govern the ongoing process of privatization of Chinese space activities, specifically the production and operation of private space launchers; on the other side, it constitutes the latest addition to the largely outdated corpus of Chinese space law. In this light of its significance, the purpose of this viewpoint is to discuss the Notice's background, highlight its positive features and shortcomings, and envision its expected impact on domestic space projects. • Private space activities are changing the nature of Chinese space activities. • The 2019 Notice paves the way for the gradual expansion of Chinese national space law. • The 2019 Notice is the first regulatory outcome of the privatization of Chinese space activities. • The 2019 demonstrates the awareness of Chinese regulator on the need to upgrade existing Chinese space-related legislation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Problems faced by China's spatial planning were investigated. • Territorial spatial planning system and its role in China's national spatial governance were explained. • Territorial spatial planning helps to improve national space governance capabilities. • Territorial spatial planning legislation will be a milestone in space governance. • Countermeasures to promote the implementation of China's territorial space planning have been put forward. Spatial planning refers to the long-term planning and overall arrangement of land resources and space layout under the jurisdiction of a country or region government, aiming to achieve effective control and scientific management of territorial space and promote the balance between development and protection. It is generally considered as an effective instrument for promoting space governance and regional sustainable development. This study systematically reviewed the evolution history of China's spatial planning and the key issues it faces or brings, then analyzed the major measures and potential challenges taken by the country, and finally put forward countermeasures and suggestions to promote the establishment and implementation of national territory spatial planning (NTSP). Results demonstrated that as the largest developing country in the world, due to the lack of unified spatial planning system and superior laws, there are many problems in China's spatial planning, such as various types, overlapping conflicts, complex approval process and frequent revision of planning, and difficulties in planning implementation, which has led to the imbalance of territory spatial development, deterioration of ecological environment, tightening of resource constraints and regional unbalance development. To solve these problems, China is innovating to take its territory spatial as a system to establish a unified NTSP system, and promoting the transformation of spatial planning from multisector industry or special planning to integrated NTSP. At the same time, China is actively promoting the NTSP legislation, which will have a milestone role in promoting state affairs and space governance by law. However, the NTSP system's establishment still faces many challenges, and the its formulation and implementation need to consider the background of the times, follow the law of modernization development, and adapt to local conditions in combination with national conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This note describes the activities of the International Forum on Air and Space Law held in Beijing on 25-28 June 2007. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on the topic of space law including space law diplomacy, military technology and diplomacy, and the expansion of Chinese military technology.