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This paper was presented in Sydney in September 2008 at a seminar conducted by Skills Australia and the Academy of Social Sciences. It examines the demand for training. It concentrates on the factors that affect individual and employer demand, and points out that accredited vocational education and training (VET) need to be considered in the context of extensive use of non-accredited and on-the-job training. (Contains 3 footnotes, 9 tables and 1 figure.) [This work has been produced by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) on behalf of the Australian Government and state and territory governments with funding provided through the Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.]

The vocational education and training (VET) sector has a long tradition of measuring and reporting outcomes. The public face of this is the "Annual National Report of the Australian Vocational Education and Training System" published (and tabled in the Commonwealth Parliament) since 1994. The reporting framework has undergone a number of changes corresponding to revision in high-level strategies developed by the former Australian National Training Authority (ANTA). This, however, is about to change. The catalyst for a radical examination of the reporting framework is the Council of Australian Governments' (COAG) reform agenda. This reform agenda is shaking up the funding relationships between the Commonwealth and the states and will place increasing reliance on measuring and reporting outcomes as distinct from focusing on the resources used (that is, inputs). In this paper, the author provides a history of performance measurement for the VET sector, beginning with the creation of the Australian National Training Authority and ending with what individuals know of the current reforms. As well as describing the various measures, he discusses the challenges that are thrown up by indicators. He concludes with his suggestions for indicators for the vocational education and training system. (Contains 7 footnotes.)

Digital technologies offer immense potential for transforming teacher learning and the delivery of professional development activities throughout teachers' careers. As the COVID-19 pandemic has made face-to­-face professional learning challenging or impossible for teachers to attend in many contexts, online professional learning options for teachers have been receiving renewed attention. This paper puts forward research evidence on the effectiveness of various forms of online learning for teachers and adults, and examines prerequisite conditions for enhancing teacher learning through digital technologies. Teachers' engagement in online learning activities, as captured by OECD surveys, remained limited in many OECD countries before the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper provides a basis for investigating how policies can support teachers' engagement in professional learning using digital technologies and help strike a balance between system-level provision of online teacher professional learning opportunities and the facilitation of teacher-led initiatives.

The National Student Outcomes Survey (SOS) collects information about students who completed their vocational education and training (VET) in the previous calendar year. The gathered information on the surveyed VET students includes their reasons for training, employment outcomes, satisfaction with training, and further study outcomes. The survey covers students who have completed a qualification (graduates) and those who have completed only part of a course and then left the VET system (subject completers). The National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) has conducted the survey with government-funded VET students annually since 1999. In 2016, the scope of the survey was expanded to report on the outcomes of graduates whose training was Commonwealth--or state-funded as well as fee-for-service graduates. These graduates were referred to as total VET graduates. An explanation of the difference between total VET and government-funded student outcomes can be found in appendix A. The expanded scope was applied to the 2017 survey for graduates (following a successful trial in 2016) and for the first time for subject completers and the series renamed VET student outcomes. At the time of sample selection, insufficient information is available from the National VET Provider Collection to identify 'actual' subject completers. Instead, a sample of potential subject completers is chosen, which includes students who are continuing in the VET system. The status of respondents is determined through the survey responses. As such, respondents to the SOS include a number of students who were sampled as subject completers based on administrative data reported to the National VET Provider Collection, but self-identify in the questionnaire as graduates. For many years these 'self-reported graduates' (SRGs) were categorised as graduates in survey outputs, because the self-report was deemed to be more reliable than the collection data. However, it became apparent that many SRGs were not, in fact, graduates. In response to this issue, in 2012, NCVER created a logistic model that predicted the eligibility of a SRG being an 'actual' graduate based on their personal and training characteristics (Braysher 2012). This model has since been run annually for each SOS to assign group membership to SRGs. Those SRGs that were not predicted by the model to be a graduate were re-assigned to their original subject completer status. One of the conditions of the initial analysis was that the model should be reviewed at least every four years to assess its ongoing validity and to make possible modifications should demographics and administrative data change and alter the predictive power of the model. The model was reviewed by NCVER in 2015 (unpublished). The review found some changes in data quality, but found no evidence that these changes were affecting the estimates. At the time no changes were recommended to the logistic model or graduate reclassification procedure, but it was recommended that the model be reviewed again at a later stage. In relation to data quality, the proportion of subject completers claiming to be self-reported graduates has declined significantly since 2007, particularly from 2015 to 2017, highlighting the improvement in the quality of the National VET Provider Collection data since the need to run the model arose (appendix B). Hence, it was appropriate to review the model again. This report presents the findings of an additional comprehensive review of the model and methodology.

This occasional paper is the fourth in a series on the National Quality Framework (NQF). This paper offers detailed insights into education and care service quality ratings for Quality Area 3 (physical environment) of the National Quality Standard (NQS). The focus is on ensuring the physical environment of a service is safe, suitable and provides a rich and diverse range of experiences that promote children's learning and development. This paper begins with an overview of the physical environment standards and what these aim to achieve, highlighting contemporary research and theory behind sustainable environments promoting children's learning. It then outlines the operational requirements of the National Law and National Regulations for the physical environment, with a particular focus on the requirements specific to different service types. The paper also describes how service approval requirements in the National Law apply to the physical environment, and how providers may seek waivers for certain legislated requirements. The paper is intended to be of interest to people who deliver education and care services, families, people who provide training and professional development services to the sector, and to officers in the state and territory regulatory authorities that regulate education and care services.

Internationally, Australia's tertiary education system, comprising the higher education and vocational education and training (VET) sectors, is highly regarded, with both sectors subject to ongoing national review and reforms. This paper explores in detail the multiple issues that lie at what might be termed the "boundaries and connections" between these sectors. The purpose of this occasional paper is twofold, the first being to provide a brief illustration and commentary on the relative trend change and potential trajectories of Australia's vocational education and training (VET) sector by comparison with the higher education sector. This provides the necessary context for the second objective, which is to explore in detail the multiple issues that lie at what might be described as the "boundaries and connections" between these two components of the tertiary education sector.

This occasional paper provides a stocktake of recent developments in continuing professional development for VET practitioners. It explores issues such as industry currency, the debate around a professional association for VET and the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment as the minimum qualification for VET practitioners. Through synthesising the literature, the paper highlights enduring issues for continuing professional development in VET, such as the need to address both pedagogical knowledge and industry skills, and the necessity for individuals to actively engage and willingly participate in professional development in order for changes in practice to occur.

Quality in vocational education and training (VET) is a perennial topic of interest, attracting much attention from participants, providers, funders, regulators and public commentators. Quality is as much subjectively in the "eye of the beholder" as it is objectively assessed through hard data, measures and surveys. This paper summarises the quality of the VET system in Australia from the lens point of the eye of the beholder. It considers the perspectives of five key stakeholder groups: learners, employers/industry, providers, government and regulators. The paper explores, from the perspective of each of these groups, what is important in regards to the VET system, what constitutes and promotes a good-quality VET system, and what are the enablers and barriers to having a system that meets their expectations. The paper then examines the usefulness of the measures of quality currently available, as well as approaches that might be more effective. Key messages include: (1) Quality is context- and purpose-specific and means different things to the five stakeholder groups; (2) These multiple perspectives on quality operate at differing levels -- at the training program, at employment outcomes and at higher systemic levels; (3) Effective, fair and prompt regulation is foundational and essential in removing poor quality training from the system; and (4) A number of enabling factors have the potential to either support or detract from VET quality. These factors may impact both objective measures and subjective views of quality.

The third ACECQA Occasional Paper examines activities to promote consistency and efficiency in the implementation and administration of the National Quality Framework (NQF). Striving for consistency and efficiency is a collaborative effort between the eight state and territory regulatory authorities, the Australian Government and ACECQA. This paper highlights the breadth and depth of collaboration to identify, implement and review approaches to promote consistency and efficiency under the NQF. It also includes case studies to illustrate in more detail how certain activities contribute to consistency and efficiency.

ACECQA has published the second in its series of occasional papers, analysing one of the most challenging quality areas -- Children's Health and Safety. Quality Area 2 addresses one of the primary objectives of the National Quality Framework -- to ensure the health, safety and wellbeing of children attending education and care services. The paper examines performance across service types, socio economic and remoteness classifications, jurisdictions and management types. It also breaks down Quality Area 2 and highlights that standard 2.3 (each child is protected) and element 2.3.3 (incident and emergency planning) are the most challenging aspects of the Quality Area. One of the findings from the analysis is that services in remote and very remote areas may benefit from more support to understand and comply with the requirements of Quality Area 2. The paper also summarises recent state, territory and Commonwealth initiatives around child safe organisations, as well as some examples of the types of compliance and enforcement action that state and territory regulatory authorities have taken relating to children's health and safety.

This Working Paper contains three sections: the background to existing User Choice resourcing principles and their interrelationships as of March 2004; analysis of the existing arrangements, including their consistency with each other and with the User Choice principles agreed by Ministers; and concluding comments. The author found a considerable measure of consistency in the priorities by which User Choice resources were allocated by the different Australian States and Territories in early 2004. Differences in theoretical approach and in practice, in terms of process structure and resource allocation outcomes were found. Opportunities for improving the learning partnership between different stakeholders are also noted. One attachment, Statement of User Choice Policy (MINCO; November 2003), is included. (Contains 5 tables.) [For companion report, "User Choice Resourcing Arrangements in Australia in March 2004. Working Paper No. 57," see ED505817.]

This working paper identifies OECD countries' interests in digital innovation in education by analysing their policy papers on digital education. Many OECD countries have adopted a specific strategy on digital education, or integrated the topic in a generic strategy on digital innovation as such. The ideas that are expressed in the strategies differ greatly; some are work in progress, others contain bold envisions of the future. There is a high awareness among OECD countries of the benefits of digitalisation, and the role of government to support digital innovation in education. This paper covers and documents countries' policy focus before the 2020 coronavirus crisis.

This working paper is the first publication coming out of a project investigating the role of vocational education and training (VET) in developing digital skills in the Australian workforce, using two sectors as case studies--Transport and Logistics, and Public Safety and Correctional Services. The study employs a mixed method approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative analyses. It involves industry training package content analysis, content extraction and analysis from online job vacancy advertisements, and key industry interviews, as well as a quantitative employer survey. In the online job vacancy analysis, a total of 1,708 job advertisements covering 74 occupations/job titles were analysed to explore digital skills requirements. In addition, a detailed content analysis was conducted of 11 training packages, with a specific focus on the qualifications for these occupations. In this analysis, 758 units of competency were analysed to examine how and the extent to which digital skills provision is embedded into qualifications. Findings showed that only a small number mentioned digital skills as a requirement. The training packages for these industries contained significant digital training content but with the majority of these units of competency occurring as electives. These findings raise questions about whether employers are making assumptions about the digital skills of potential employees.

The digital revolution and automation are accelerating changes in the labour market and in workplace skills, changes that are further affected by fluctuations in international and regional economic cycles and employment opportunity. These factors pose a universal policy challenge for all advanced economies and governments. In the workplace, people seek to acquire contemporary and relevant skills to gain employment and retain transferable skills to maintain employment. The central purpose of this paper is to investigate how other nations or regions are dealing with these issues. What approaches are they taking to understanding the mix and dynamics of the skills attained by individuals and, more broadly, the totality of skills that in aggregate constitute a highly capable and adaptable labour force, one that supports firm viability and greater national productivity. This research has examined a range of initiatives and approaches being developed or in use in selected countries, including the United States, Singapore and New Zealand, and agencies/organisations; for example, the European Commission and the Skills for the Information Age Foundation. In doing so, it showcases the good practices used to ensure that occupational-level skills information remains current and widely accessible. [For "Identifying Work Skills: International Case Summaries. Support Document," see ED579875.]

While more women than ever now participate in the paid workforce, it still can be hard to find women in top leadership positions. To understand why so few women are in top leadership positions, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region, the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) set out to understand what factors help women achieve leadership positions, what factors prevent it, and how organizations could add more women to their leadership ranks. In this paper, the authors raise five key questions that women should reflect on as they consider their ambitions. They summarize five key lessons that came up repeatedly in conversations with women leaders who had worked their way into leadership positions. The authors also discuss some of the changes organizations can make to increase the number of women leaders. These include policies and changes in organizational culture. Research was conducted two phases. First, the authors surveyed 204 women leaders from Singapore, Australia, India, and Korea. The authors gave them a list of reasons that might contribute to the lack of women in leadership positions and asked them to select up to five items they most agreed with and five they most disagreed with. In phase two, the authors conducted 27 face-to-face interviews with women leaders working in Singapore. Women told their personal leadership stories, shared their perspective on women leaders' career enablers and blockers, and also completed the phase 1 survey. The authors learned that there is no single reason or simple solution. Increasing the number of women in leadership positions will require aspiring women leaders to develop themselves professionally and, in some cases, adopt new behaviors. But the organizational context that women work within is also important.

While teachers' initial education is key to ensuring that new teachers are prepared for their work, it is only one piece in the continuum of teachers' professional growth. Continuing professional learning is vital for teachers to broaden and deepen their knowledge, keep up with new research, tools and practices and respond to their students' changing needs. It also plays a key role in building collaborative school cultures and supporting the collective improvement of the teaching profession. While the importance of continuing teacher learning is widely recognised, building efficient, equitable and sustainable professional learning systems is far from trivial. The OECD Teachers' Professional Learning (TPL) study seeks to support the development of effective TPL policies and practices in schools and school systems. This paper proposes a theoretical and analytical framework for the study, systematically maps available OECD indicators to this framework and identifies information gaps and areas for future comparative work.

Governments recognise that careers guidance, underpinned by accurate labour market information, can help learners make post-secondary education choices that match their interests, aptitudes and abilities, and lead to rewarding employment. For this reason, they have invested in building linked education/employment information systems and other information resources which are displayed on websites targeted to learners and their families. However, researchers and governments agree that these efforts are often ineffective in informing learners' decisions -- access to information is not sufficient to provide effective support to student choice. Drawing upon the insights of behavioural economics, this paper examines how learners access and use information, and what this implies for the design of public study and career choice websites that aim to effectively support student choice. The report also takes stock of the career guidance websites in use in the majority of OECD countries, and sets out to provide actionable advice for policy makers to guide the design of effective information policy levers that support student choice.

This occasional paper provides the views of 17 "thought leaders" in the Australian vocational education and training (VET) sector. Their insight and opinions were sought to inform a larger research project focused on the student entitlement reforms that were introduced into the national VET system from 2012. These individuals offered a variety of senior-level vantage points on the topics of: (1) Australia's national training system: why it has been developed, what its key elements are, and the aspects where consistency has been sought and the aspects where flexibility has been sought; (2) VET student training entitlements: why this initiative has been introduced and the implications of the agreed flexibility in approach to its implementation by jurisdictions, in terms of maintaining a functional national training system; and (3) the implications of the VET student entitlement initiative for future national VET reform. A particular emphasis has been on the implications of the reforms and the challenges faced in its implementation in the context of achieving a balance between national consistency and jurisdictional flexibility. The interviewees considered key elements of the national training system, namely: standards for VET products (training packages and materials); standards for VET providers; and a flexible training market. The interviewees commented on the consistency and flexibility sought in each of these key elements, highlighting where tensions exist, particularly in student training entitlements. The following are appended: (1) Project statement provided to interviewees about the project and Project protocols; and (2) Interview guide questions. Information about the NVETR Program funding is provided at the end of this paper.

This occasional paper provides an overview of the development of Australia's national training system and is a key knowledge document of a wider research project "Consistency with flexibility in the Australian national training system." This research project investigates the various approaches undertaken by each of the jurisdictions to establish a student entitlement funding model and also examines one of the often overlooked fundamentals of the national training system--the dynamic tension that exists between consistency and flexibility. This paper reflects on the history of vocational education and training (VET) in Australia. A key focus is the development of the national training system, which has emerged over the last two decades. The authors also explore the dynamic tension, built into the system, to achieve both national consistency and sufficient flexibility to ensure that training meets specific local, industry and learner needs. Australia's national training system: goals, objectives and key elements 1992 to 2015 is appended.

This paper summarises factors and emerging trends for higher education following from the disruption caused by the coronavirus pandemic and the responses of providers and governments. It is framed as a provocation to stimulate discussion about futures for higher education in Australia and beyond following the immediate COVID-19 disruption. While the evolving response to the pandemic makes prediction fraught, to provide concrete indication of the trajectory of many trends this paper draws on research into and past experience of similar economic, political and social 'shocks' to the provision of higher education in advanced economies. It examines how the coronavirus pandemic is magnifying existing pressures for universities and how it is providing new possibilities. The first section summarises ten trends and their associated drivers. Based on a PESTEL analysis, it includes codes for each item to signal the associated key factors contributing to the trend, including (P)olitical, (Ec)onomic, (S)ociocultural, (T)echnological, (L)egal and (En)vironmental. For each trend, we outline several implications for higher education provision in Australia. The second section synthesises these implications into a range of outcomes and questions.

Feedback is known to be one of the most important factors influencing learning and achievement (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). However, ensuring that feedback positively influences student learning requires careful curriculum and assessment design by academic staff. This can be challenging in higher education when subjects are delivered in digital learning environments (DLEs), as there are generally fewer opportunities for spontaneous feedback through informal dialogue or social interaction in class. Fortunately, there are a range of digital tools to assist with the design and delivery of feedback information in DLEs. This short paper identifies the benefits, challenges, and design considerations of using these digital tools to provide feedback information from a range of sources, including academic staff, peers, and the student themselves.

The global spread of COVID-19 has led to unprecedented disruptions in schooling around the world that have animated increased interest among policymakers, educators, researchers and the general public in knowing about how education systems have responded to the pandemic and how students' learning experiences have changed. The PISA Global Crises Module was developed to address this need. 62 student questionnaire items (grouped into 11 questions) and 68 school questionnaire items (grouped into 14 questions) were developed following a process that involved input from leading questionnaire development experts, PISA National Centres, as well as small-scale cognitive interview studies in three countries. While all countries were affected by the pandemic in some way, the module seeks to illuminate differential effects on student learning and well-being, and the degree of interruption or changes to education across different education systems. Governing bodies, organisations and researchers can use the instruments and the descriptions of the underlying constructs for adaptation and broader implementation.

The worldwide school closures in early 2020 led to losses in learning that will not easily be made up for even if schools quickly return to their prior performance levels. These losses will have lasting economic impacts both on the affected students and on each nation unless they are effectively remediated. While the precise learning losses are not yet known, existing research suggests that the students in grades 1-12 affected by the closures might expect some 3 percent lower income over their entire lifetimes. For nations, the lower long-term growth related to such losses might yield an average of 1.5 percent lower annual GDP for the remainder of the century. These economic losses would grow if schools are unable to re-start quickly. The economic losses will be more deeply felt by disadvantaged students. All indications are that students whose families are less able to support out-of-school learning will face larger learning losses than their more advantaged peers, which in turn will translate into deeper losses of lifetime earnings. The present value of the economic losses to nations reach huge proportions. Just returning schools to where they were in 2019 will not avoid such losses. Only making them better can. While a variety of approaches might be attempted, existing research indicates that close attention to the modified re-opening of schools offers strategies that could ameliorate the losses. Specifically, with the expected increase in video-based instruction, matching the skills of the teaching force to the new range of tasks and activities could quickly move schools to heightened performance. Additionally, because the prior disruptions are likely to increase the variations in learning levels within individual classrooms, pivoting to more individualised instruction could leave all students better off as schools resume. As schools move to re-establish their programmes even as the pandemic continues, it is natural to focus considerable attention on the mechanics and logistics of safe re-opening. But the long-term economic impacts also require serious attention, because the losses already suffered demand more than the best of currently considered re-opening approaches.

This work asks one simple question: "how reliable is the method used by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) to estimate projected rates of VET program completion?" In other words, how well do early projections align with actual completion rates some years later? Completion rates are simple to calculate with a cohort of students who start together in a very short program with a defined end date. The context in vocational education and training (VET) is, however, far more complex. Program lengths vary and may span several years, students commence at different times and many study part-time. Waiting for all students to complete or "drop out" of their training before calculating an actual completion rate gives a reliable answer, but is somewhat impractical. This paper summarises the key findings from a technical review of the validity of the method long used by NCVER in estimating projected completion rates for government-funded VET programs. This analysis required the interrogation of large longitudinal data sets with tens of millions of enrolments over multiple years. The outcomes are revealing because of ever-high interest in completion rates as measures of the efficiency and effectiveness of the VET sector. Key findings include the following: (1) The method long used by NCVER for estimating VET program completion rates using data from the National VET Provider Collection is shown to be reliable and aligns well with actual rates of completion for historical estimates; (2) Given that it takes a number of years for actual rates of completion to stabilise, the method is well suited for inclusion as part of any method of assessing completion rates, where the projected completion rate method is used to estimate rates for the most recent years and actual rates used for prior years; (3) The technical review has also shown that the current predictive method can be improved by defining a program's commencing year as the year it first appears in the National VET Provider Collection rather than using the commencing flag variable; and (4) It is anticipated that the incorporation of unique student identifiers into any preferred methodology, and its extension to total VET activity, can be phased in from the collection of 2017 training activity. "The Current Method for Projecting Rates of Completion: A Working Example" is appended.

Quality outcomes from vocational education and training (VET) are fundamental to ensuring a skilled workforce and supporting a productive economy. In a competency-based training system, assessment is the gatekeeper for quality. Audits undertaken by the Australian Skills and Quality Authority (ASQA) have identified concerns with compliance against the assessment requirements of the Standards for Registered Training Organizations (RTOs) 2015 (Standards for RTOs). ASQA strategic reviews, including into aged and community care, early childhood education and care, equine programs and security training industries, highlighted assessment as an area requiring more attention if the quality of training is to improve. In response to concerns about assessment, and to ensure high-quality within the system, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) Industry and Skills Council agreed that further reform options be developed to improve the quality of assessment of student training outcomes and enhance confidence in the VET sector. Specifically, the Industry and Skills Council agreed to explore reform options to support the following principles: (1) Graduates have the required competencies for the job role and there is consistency across RTOs in the quality of assessment; (2) Trainers and assessors have the capability to assess appropriately; (3) Assessment meets the standard set by industry; and (4) The regulator has the capacity to effectively regulate assessment practices and outcomes and take appropriate action. The discussion paper sought stakeholder views on further specific reforms that may ensure the existing reforms that could generate the intended impact and are not held back by ongoing concerns over RTO compliance with assessment requirements. The appendices are included.

The term 'engagement' is much researched but tricky to define in the field of educational technology and online learning. In this short paper I will offer three perspectives on what 'engagement' means in online learning environments and provide some advice to educators on how student engagement in online learning might be promoted. The presentation of three perspectives is in no way meant to represent the entire literature base in the area. But the three perspectives hopefully provide a useful framing of how academic staff -- particularly those new to online teaching and learning -- can approach the concept of student engagement in online learning.

This research report is intended to provide the National Languages Institute of Australia (NLIA) with an overview of the issues demanding attention in the fields of interpreting and translating. While interpreting and translating have received attention in major language policy reports, subsequent language policy implementation has rarely encompassed these issues. This report argues that the NLIA could have a significant policy and practical role in evaluating present needs related to interpreting and translating and addressing problems in the field. The project described reviews major policy documents on language service organization and review; outlines institutional development in the interpreting and translating field in terms of language services, courses, professional issues, and the private market; and identifies some major policy issues. Recommendations to the NLIA based on these analyses are included. The paper is organized into several topics: interpreting and translating in the context of the NLIA and the National Policy on Languages; the history and current status of interpreting and translating in Australia; and relevant policy issues. Appended items describe persons consulted for the report, a telephone interpreter service, and a interpreting/translating and language aide course accredited by the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters. (Contains 58 references.) (JP)

This study investigated how firms in Germany and Australia compare when dealing with the institutional arrangements for apprenticeship training in their countries, with particular attention given to factors which may impact on their training motivation. Apprenticeships are a well-established pathway to employment across many countries, with a particularly long and enduring history in Germany and Australia. Apprenticeships are characterised by a tripartite relationship between employer, apprentice, and training organisation. The available international literature suggests that the institutional framework for training in a country is an important determinant of a firm's motivation to provide training, and it influences their willingness to bear (at least part) of the training costs. Key messages from this study are: (1) Employers of trades' apprentices in both Germany and Australia appear to bear substantial costs for training their apprentices; (2) Institutional frameworks in Germany foster an investment model, a model which emphasises the benefits of employing apprentices after training, while in Australia some firms adopt more of a production (that is, substitution for "regular" workers) model of apprenticeship training, although there is a relatively strong investment motivation for trade firms in Australia; (3) For firms focused on the short-term costs and benefits of training, the withdrawal of some national government incentive payments in Australia has led to a weaker commitment to training, most evident in non-trade trainee places being offered; and (4) By contrast, firms training in trade occupations appear to be more investment-oriented and are more inclined to continue training, or employ an apprentice after training, even with the withdrawal of incentives. Tables and figures are appended.

Are teachers and principals aligned in their perceptions of the core components of the theory of Leadership for Learning across countries, or are there subgroups of schools in which there is misalignment? The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which a congruency-typology model of leadership for learning is distributed across countries/economies using the TALIS 2018 dataset through examining the interaction of significantly different subgroups of teacher and principal responders through using multilevel latent class analysis (LCA) with a cross-level interaction. I analyse data from lower secondary schools of n=152 635 teachers in 9 079 schools and their principals across 47 countries/economies. Currently in the research literature on school leadership, leadership for learning has emerged as a framework to bring together managerial, transformational, distributed, and instructional leadership. Yet little is known about leadership for learning across national contexts. This study 1) maps the TALIS 2018 survey items to the current literature and surveys for leadership for learning, 2) then details the methods and analysis framework to examine if there are multiple significantly different types of teachers, principals, and schools from a leadership for learning theory framework. The final model 3) identifies a three-group teacher typology and a three-group principal typology, linking these types to school context, covariates, as well as teacher and principal training and experience. Results relate directly to the intersection of research, policy, and practice for training and capacity of school leaders across 47 countries/economies globally.

Early years are a critical period for skill development. In this sense, the Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) programmes have an important role in promoting children's learning during this period. This study aimed to explore the effectiveness of ECEC programmes by analysing the relationship between students' ECEC attendance and their later academic proficiency using PISA 2015 data. PISA results show that across the OECD countries, students who had attended ECEC tend to have higher scores in academic proficiencies at the age of 15. However, these differences in academic proficiencies between those who attended ECEC versus those who did not attend are almost nil when students' socio-economic status (SES) is considered. This relationship reflects differential access to learning opportunities for children from deprived contexts. Furthermore, results show that entering ECEC programmes earlier than the typical time is associated with lower proficiencies at the age of 15. Therefore, earlier entry to ECEC is not necessarily beneficial. Learning benefits of ECEC provision vary considerably across PISA countries illustrating the importance of a country-specific policy context and the quality of their ECEC provision. The analyses of several quality indicators point out that the improved quality of ECEC programmes is associated with higher academic skills at later stages. These results highlight that mere attendance to ECEC programmes is not enough to ensure better academic performance. The quality of the educational provision, especially concerning those students from disadvantaged backgrounds, should be ensured.

This systematic review investigates the relevance of general pedagogical knowledge for successful teaching. It synthesises the empirical evidence of 10 769 teaching professionals and 853 452 students from primary to tertiary education in 21 countries. The meta-analysis of 20 quantitative studies revealed significant effects for teaching quality and student outcomes (Cohen's d = 0.64 and 0.26), indicating that more knowledgeable teachers achieve a three-month additional progress for students. The three themes emerging from 31 qualitative studies underline that general pedagogical knowledge is a crucial resource for teaching. Results also show that teaching requires knowledge about a range of topics, specific skills and other competences to transform knowledge into practice. Teachers need training and practical experience to acquire knowledge, which they apply according to the pedagogical situation at hand. The results allow for important conclusions for policy, practice and research.