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The paper is focused on modelling and analyzing the influence of different regulatory models on the level of quality of supply in electricity distribution, as measured by the duration of interruptions. The paper offers a description of the main features of the models and of the variables that influence service quality, and estimates their effect using a balanced panel data for 9 European Countries. We observe that when companies increase their remuneration by 1%, the duration of interruptions falls by approximately 1%. Regarding the regulatory models, price-cap, revenue-cap and cost plus are seen as the most efficient models for increasing the quality of service (given other resources such as revenues and incentives). The paper controls the differences between performances in the selected Countries and shows that the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain and Austria are the most efficient countries. Additionally, the paper concludes that incentives have a significant effect on quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the development of the European electricity transmission network for different policy scenarios at the horizon 2050. We apply a bottomup techno-economic electricity sector model to determine transformation scenarios of the European electricity sector. It has a very detailed spatial disaggregation that allows for a fine representation of domestic and international electricity flows and transmission expansion. The cost-minimizing mixed-integer model calculates investments for time steps of ten years. The model results indicate that network requirements are lower than generally assumed. The largest share are domestic upgrades, rather than country interconnectors. Most investments (20bn EUR) occur in the near future, by 2030 the latest. Only the high-mitigation scenarios require large additional network investments. The timing and location of investments differ, depending on generation scenarios and cost assumptions for interconnectors. The results indicate that carbon emission reduction targets alone provide insufficient information for long-term network planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a set of digitalisation indicators focused on measuring the different digital capabilities and infrastructure of electricity distribution systems, as opposed to previous indicators which have mainly focused on performance and quality of service aspects. The indicators are classified according to the pillars of digitalisation: sensor and actuator, connectivity, data processing, and digital culture. They are use-case-agnostic and do not require a huge amount of information. In addition to this, three possible new applications of these indicators for distribution system operators and regulatory authorities are identified and discussed. The extensive use of these indicators in Europe could allow the development of fruitful collaborations between distribution system operators, allow the identification of cause–effect relations between grid performance and digital infrastructure, and improve the replicability of innovative smart grid solutions. However, this will only be possible if regulators promote the adoption of the proposed indicators and the dissemination of their results. • Smart grid indicators are required by European Directive 2019/944. • Indicators on sensors/actuators, connectivity, data processing, and digital culture. • Indicators to provide an overview of the distribution grid. • Indicators to study relation between performance and digital infrastructure. • Indicators to generate information for the replicability of solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the current state of market integration among European electricity day-ahead spot prices. In our empirical analysis we utilize a large sample of hourly spot prices of 25 European markets for the period 2010Jan01/01h- 2015Jun30/24h and combine it with other relevant data such as hourly interconnector capacities and the existence of market coupling. Firstly, empirical results from cointegration analysis indicate that market integration increased from 2010 to 2012 but then declined until 2015, despite the introduction of market coupling in many markets. Secondly, we empirically assess error correction after price shocks and reach the conclusion that markets' strength of the error correction mechanism is rather modest. In general, our findings suggest that the integration among European electricity markets has a large potential for improvements from additional capacity investments and further promotion of market coupling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ultra-wideband wireless personal area networks are expected to be most commonly employed in desktop environments. This paper presents a measurement campaign conducted on a typical office desk. A pair of omnidirectional UWB antennas and a vector network analyzer were used to measure the impulse responses over a frequency range spanning from 6 GHz to 8.5 GHz, in accordance with the UWB regulations in Europe. The coherence bandwidth and the rms delay spread are calculated from the measurement results. A significant correlation between these wideband parameters is found, but only at higher correlation thresholds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a cross-country efficiency analysis of electricity distribution companies in the East European transition countries of Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. We use common nonparametric efficiency measurement such as Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and Free Disposal Hull (FDH) under different assumptions and apply recent developments of statistical inference in nonparametric frontier models to test our hypotheses. We discuss the empirical problems of cross-country benchmarking approaches, in particular the comparability of different structures of electricity distribution companies. Our results suggest that Poland’s distribution companies are still inefficiently small; the Czech Republic features the highest efficiency; and Slovakia and Hungary occupy the middle range. We also note that privatization has had a positive effect on technical efficiency in the four countries. We use the phrase “legacy of the past” to describe the four countries in comparison to the efficiency of electricity distribution companies we studied in Germany. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing numbers of very small generators are being connected to electricity distribution systems around the world. Examples include photovoltaics (PV) and gas-fired domestic-scale combined heat and power (micro-CHP) systems, with electrical outputs in the region of 1 to 2 kW. These generators are normally installed within consumers' premises and connected to the domestic electricity supply network (230 V single-phase in Europe, 120 V in North America). There is a growing need to understand and quantify the technical impact that high penetrations of such generators may have on the operation of distribution systems. This paper presents an approach to analyzing this impact together with results indicating that considerable penetrations of micro-generation can be accommodated in a typical distribution system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes development and experiences from the Nordic region and the current status and trend toward an integrated and open electricity market comprising most of Europe. The paper describes practical experiences as well as theoretical investigations and modeling studies. We focus on the following subjects: Congestion management: There are a variety of arrangements for transfer across national borders and for congestion management in Europe. A common future system based on an improved version of the Nordic market splitting system can be a good alternative. Management of ancillary services: We see certain trends concerning ancillary services in the Nordic market: 1) more focus on cost effectiveness and a move toward market arrangements including cross border trade in ancillary services; 2) increased use of the demand side in the provision of ancillary services: and 3) increased flexibility in defining the demand for ancillary services. Investment incentives." Experience as well theoretical investigations indicate that investment in generating capacity is a problem in an open electricity market, where investors are exposed to high risk and uncertainty. One important conclusion from our studies is that end user response (elasticity) to electricity prices is important in an open market. We also discuss how additional incentive mechanisms can be used as a measure to achieve capacity adequacy, when the market fails to provide sufficient signals for new investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interdependence of electricity and natural gas is becoming a major energy policy and regulatory issue in all jurisdictions around the world. The increased role of gas fired plants in renewable-based electricity markets and the dependence on natural gas imports make this issue particular important for the European energy market. In this paper we provide a comprehensive combined analysis of electricity and natural gas infrastructure with an applied focus: We analyze three different scenarios of the long-term European decarbonization pathways, and analyze the interrelation between electricity and natural gas markets on investments in the long run and spatial aspects in the short run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Large scale integration of wind energy poses new challenges to the European power system due to its stochastic nature and often remote location. In this paper a multivariate uncertainty analysis problem is formulated for the integration of stochastic wind energy in the European grid. By applying copula theory a synthetic set of data is generated from scarce wind speed reanalysis data in order to achieve the increased sample size for the subsequent Monte Carlo simulation. In the presented case study, European wind power samples are generated from the modeled stochastic process. Under the precondition of a modeled perfect market environment, wind power impacts dispatch decisions and therefore leads to alterations in power balances. Stochastic power balances are implemented in a detailed model of the European electricity network, based on the generated samples. Finally, a Monte Carlo method is used to determine power flows and contingencies in the system. An indicator is elaborated in order to analyze risk of overloading and to prioritize necessary grid reinforcements. Implications for the Swiss power grid are investigated in detail, revealing that the current system is significantly put at risk in certain areas by the further integration of wind power in Europe. It is the first time that the results of a probabilistic model for wind energy are further deployed within a power system analysis of the interconnected European grid. The method presented in this paper allows to account for stochastic wind energy in a load flow analysis and to evaluate deterministic indicators, such as the N −1 criterion, on a probabilistic basis. Thus, it constitutes an important extension of deterministic models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Building energy use accounts for almost 50% of the total CO2 emissions in the UK. Most of the research has focused on reducing the operational impact of buildings, however in recent years many studies have indicated the significance of embodied energy in different building types. This paper primarily focuses on illustrating the relative importance of operational and embodied energy in a flexible use light distribution warehouse. The building is chosen for the study as it is relatively easy to model and represents many distribution centres and industrial warehouses in Europe. A carbon footprinting study was carried out by conducting an inventory of the major installed materials with potentially significant carbon impact and material substitutions covering the building structure. Ecotect computer simulation program was used to determine the energy consumption for the 25 years design life of the building. This paper evaluates alternative design strategies for the envelope of the building and their effects on the whole life emissions by investigating both embodied and operational implications of changing the envelope characteristics. The results provide an insight to quantify the total amount of CO2 emissions saved through design optimisation by modeling embodied and operational energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper investigates the role of CCS technologies as part of a portfolio for reducing CO2 emissions from the European electricity supply system until the year 2050. The analysis is carried out with the aid of a techno-economic model (with the objective to minimize the total system cost) including a detailed description of the present stationary European electricity supply system (power plants) and potential CO2 storage sites as obtained from the Chalmers Energy Infrastructure databases. The ability of different EU Member States and regions to facilitate and to benefit from CCS will most likely depend on local conditions in terms of current energy mix, fuel supply chains and distance to suitable storage locations. Special emphasis is therefore put on analyzing turn-over in capital stock of the existing power plant infrastructure, timing of investments and the infrastructural implications of large scale introduction of CCS on a regional perspective. The paper discusses the role of and the requirements on CCS for meeting strict CO2 emission reduction targets of 85% reduction from power generation by 2050 relative 1990 emissions in three different scenarios. All analysed scenarios apply the same cap on CO2 emissions. The first scenario includes a continued growth in electricity demand (as presented in EU base-line projections). The second scenario includes stated EU targets for 2020 and indicative targets for 2050 with respect to increased energy efficiency, and thus, considers a lower growth in electricity demand compared to the base-line. The third scenario includes EU targets (to 2020 and indicative targets to 2050) on energy efficiency, equal to the second scenario, and EU targets of electricity from renewables. The results show that it is possible for the European electricity generation system to meet an 85% CO2 reduction target by 2050 with a potentially large contribution from CCS. Up to 50% of the electricity generation will come from plants with CCS with a peak capture estimated to 1.8GtCO2 per year and cumulative CO2 capture of about 39GtCO2 between 2020 and 2050 (it is assumed that CCS will be commercially available from 2020). As expected, countries which currently have high carbon intensity and which are located nearby suitable storage sites will benefit the most from CCS implementation. Hence, the results suggest that Italy has the largest demand for CCS with annual peak capture at around 0.5GtCO2 in the base-line scenario. The model results indicate a steep ramp-up of CCS post-2020, which imposes challenges for timely investments in corresponding CCS infrastructure including transportation and storage. A continued growth in electricity demand can lead to demand for CCS to such extent (in the base-line capacity build up is about 300GW of CCS between 2020 and 2050) that the actual penetration level could be limited by fuel markets and power industries’ ability to supply fuel and CCS power plants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Off-grid power systems are often used to supply electricity to remote households, cottages, or small industries, comprising small renewable energy systems, typically a photovoltaic plant whose energy supply is stochastic in nature, without electricity distributions. This approach is economically viable and conforms to the requirements of the European Green Deal and the Fit for 55 package. Furthermore, these systems are associated with a lower short circuit power as compared with distribution grid traditional power plants. The power quality parameters (PQPs) of such small-scale off-grid systems are largely determined by the inverter's ability to handle the impact of a device; however, this makes it difficult to accurately forecast the PQPs. To address this issue, this work compared prediction models for the PQPs as a function of the meteorological conditions regarding the off-grid systems for small-scale households in Central Europe. To this end, seven models—the artificial neural network (ANN), linear regression (LR), interaction linear regression (ILR), quadratic linear regression (QLR), pure quadratic linear regression (PQLR), the bagging decision tree (DT), and the boosting DT—were considered for forecasting four PQPs: frequency, the amplitude of the voltage, total harmonic distortion of the voltage ( T H D u ), and current ( T H D i ). The computation times of these forecasting models and their accuracies were also compared. Each forecasting model was used to forecast the PQPs for three sunny days in August. As a result of the study, the most accurate methods for forecasting are DTs. The ANN requires the longest computational time, and conversely, the LR takes the shortest computational time. Notably, this work aimed to predict poor PQPs that could cause all the equipment in off-grid systems to respond in advance to disturbances. This study is expected to be beneficial for the off-grid systems of small households and the substations included in existing smart grids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Regional electricity markets (REM) are a natural step towards the creation of a single European electricity market. There are seven Electricity Regional Initiatives (ERI) launched by European Regulators Group for Electricity and Gas (ERGEG). This paper brings the focus to the eight REM covering the South East European (SEE) countries initiated by the European Commission. The congestion management and capacity allocation are used as an example to show that the SEE REM deals with the same priority issues as the other REMs do, and that the progress of this eight REM is great despite the short time of its existence. Given the EU membership perspective of the SEE countries and the expectation that the SEE REM shall become part of the internal electricity market, as well as the overlap between some members of the SEE REM and the other ERGEG ERI, the work of both initiatives shall be organized in a manner that uses the best practices and experience gained in each of them. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper investigates how the European electricity generation system can meet deep cuts in CO2 emissions until the year 2050 with special focus on national conditions for CCS. An 85% reduction in CO2 emissions until 2050 is imposed. The analysis is carried out with a techno-economic model (minimizing the system cost) including a detailed description of the present stationary European electricity generation system (power plants) and potential CO2 storage sites as obtained from the Chalmers Energy Infrastructure Database. The modeling puts a cap on CO2 emissions from the system which gives a price on these emissions, i.e. similar to the effect of the European Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS), which is the main policy instrument for controlling GHG emissions within EU. Emphasize is put on analyzing turn-over in capital stock of the existing power plant infrastructure, timing of investments and the infrastructural implications of large scale introduction of CCS on a regional perspective, including the effect of investing in new transmission capacity between member states. The work compares two scenarios, one used in a previous work with significant growth in electricity consumption and one assuming that energy efficiency measures are successfully applied in line with the recent EU energy policy package. The results show that it is possible to meet an 85% CO2 reduction target by 2050 at a cost of some 50 to 80 € /ton CO2 over the period up to 2050, but this will require large contributions from CCS and electricity from renewable sources (mainly wind and biomass). Yet, without significant energy efficiency measures it is questionable if such large investments in generation technologies are feasible. Thus, to reach an 85% reduction in CO2 emissions from the electricity generation system by 2050 is not a matter of choice between different technologies and energy efficiency measures but all of these are required and the crucial point is if there will be a high enough price on CO2 emissions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The paper presents the status of electricity transmission grids in the Energy Community of South East Europe (ECSEE): Albania, Bosnia–Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, UNM in Kosovo. It overviews political and legal aspects of transmission, explaining the impact of the Energy Community Treaty and of the acquis communautaire on energy on the transmission sector. It summarizes the status and the capacity of the interconnections among countries and the current level of cross-border electricity trades. It discusses the need and criteria for electricity transmission investments in the ECSEE. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We employ a detailed two-stage model to simulate the operation of the Central Eastern European electricity market and network. Implementing different cases of coordination in congestion management between national transmission system operators, numerical results show the beneficial impact of closer cooperation. Specific steps comprise the sharing of network and dispatch information, crossborder counter-trading, and multilateral redispatch in a flow-based congestion management framework. Efficiency gains are accompanied by distributional effects. Closer economic cooperation becomes especially relevant against the background of changing spatial generation patterns, deeper international integration of national systems, and spillovers of national developments to adjacent systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In January 2009, the German Federal Network Agency introduced incentive regulation for the electricity distribution sector based on results obtained from econometric and nonparametric benchmarking analysis. One main problem for the regulator in assigning the relative efficiency scores is unobserved firm-specific factors such as network and technological differences. Comparing the efficiency of different firms usually assumes that they operate under the same production technology, thus unobserved factors might be inappropriately understood as inefficiency. To avoid this type of misspecification in regulatory practice, estimation is carried out in two stages: in the first stage observations are classified into two categories according to the size of the network operators. Then separate analyses are conducted for each subgroup. This article shows how to disentangle the heterogeneity from inefficiency in one step, using a latent class model for stochastic frontiers. As the classification is not based on a priori sample separation criteria it delivers more robust, statistically significant, and testable results. Against this background, we analyze the level of technical efficiency of different subgroups from a sample of 200 regional and local German electricity distribution companies for a balanced panel data set (2001-2005). Testing the hypothesis if larger distributors operate under a different technology than smaller ones, we assess if a single step latent class model provides new insights to the use of benchmarking approaches within the incentive regulation schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We estimate the benefits of electricity locational marginal pricing (LMP) that arise from better coordination of day-ahead commitment decisions and real-time balancing markets in adjacent power markets when there is significant uncertainty in demand and wind forecasts. To do so, we formulate a series of stochastic models for committing and then dispatching electric generators subject to transmission limits. In the unit commitment stage, the models optimise day-ahead generation schedules under either the full set of network constraints or a simplified net transfer capacity (NTC) constraint, where the latter represents the present approach for limiting forward electricity trade in Europe. A subsequent redispatch model then creates feasible real-time schedules. Benefits of LMP arise from decreases in expected start-up and variable generation costs resulting from consistent consideration of the full set of network constraints both day-ahead and in real time. Meanwhile, coordinating adjacent balancing markets provides benefits because intermarket flows can be adjusted in real-time in response to changing conditions. To quantify these benefits, we analyse a stylised four-node network, examining the effects of varying system characteristics on the magnitude of the locational-based unit commitment benefits and the benefits of intermarket balancing. We conclude that both categories of benefits are situation dependent, such that small parameter changes can lead to large changes in expected benefits. Although both can amount to a significant percentage of operating costs, we find that the benefits of coordinating balancing markets generally exceed unit commitment benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes organizational change in electricity distribution and retail businesses and its impact on public service issues. Organizational change has resulted from the European electricity directives, especially the EU Electricity directive 2003/54/EC , which has imposed major transformations on these activities, requiring legal unbundling of electricity distribution networks by 1 July 2007. Organizational change has also resulted from an adaptation of companies to the newly competitive environment. This has led to a diversity of organizational choices across Europe. We analyze this diversity by using a modular approach, which decomposes reforms in electricity distribution and retail into logical ‘blocks’. We then examine how European countries have dealt with two policy and regulatory issues related to customer protection in that new environment: the regulation of quality of distribution, which is a task of regulators, and energy affordability policies for vulnerable customers, which are a central aspect of public service policies in the electricity sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empowered by the emergence of novel information and communication technologies (ICTs) such as sensors and high-performance digital communication systems, Europe has adapted its electricity distribution network into a modern infrastructure known as a smart grid (SG). The benefits of this new infrastructure include precise and real-time capacity for measuring and monitoring the different energy-relevant parameters on the various points of the grid and for the remote operation and optimization of distribution. Furthermore, a new user profile is derived from this novel infrastructure, known as a prosumer (a user that can produce and consume energy to/from the grid), who can benefit from the features derived from applying advanced analytics and semantic technologies in the rich amount of big data generated by the different subsystems. However, this novel, highly interconnected infrastructure also presents some significant drawbacks, like those related to information security (IS). We provide a systematic literature survey of the ICT-empowered environments that comprise SGs and homes, and the application of modern artificial intelligence (AI) related technologies with sensor fusion systems and actuators, ensuring energy efficiency in such systems. Furthermore, we outline the current challenges and outlook for this field. These address new developments on microgrids, and data-driven energy efficiency that leads to better knowledge representation and decision-making for smart homes and SGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]