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Cinnamomum camphora seed kernels (CCSKs) are rich in phytochemicals, especially plant extracts. Phytochemicals play a vital role in therapy due to their strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Extracts from CCSK can be obtained through multiple steps, including pretreatment, extraction and purification, and the purpose of pretreatment is to separate the oil from other substances in CCSKs. However, C. camphora seed kernel extracts (CKEs) were usually considered as by-products and discarded, and their potential bioactive values were underestimated. Additionally, little has been known about the effect of pretreatment on CKE. This study aimed to investigate the effects of pretreatment methods (including the solvent extraction method, cold pressing method, aqueous extraction method and sub-critical fluid extraction method) on the extraction yields, phytochemical profiles, volatile compounds and antioxidant capacities of different CKE samples. The results showed that the CKE samples were rich in phenolic compounds (15.28–20.29%) and alkaloids (24.44–27.41%). The extraction yield, bioactive substances content and in vitro antioxidant capacity of CKE pretreated by the sub-critical fluid extraction method (CKE-SCFE) were better than CKEs obtained by other methods. CKE pretreated by the solvent extraction method (CKE-SE) showed the best lipid emulsion protective capacity. Moreover, the volatile substances composition of the CKE samples was greatly influenced by the pretreatment method. The results provided a fundamental basis for evaluating the quality and nutritional value of CKE and increasing the economic value of by-products derived from CCSK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cinnamomum camphora (camphor tree) is an important non-conventional edible plant species found in East Asia. Here, a detailed characterization for the chemical composition and nutritional value of C. camphora seed kernels (CCSKs) collected from different regions in China is provided. The results showed that there were significant differences among the CCSK samples in weights (1000 fruits, 1000 seeds and 1000 kernels), proximate composition, minerals, phenolics, flavonoids and amino acid contents. The highest contents of oil (62.08%) and protein (22.17%) were found in the CCSK samples collected from Chongqing and Shanghai, respectively. The highest content of mineral in the CCSK samples was K (4345.05–7186.89 mg/kg), followed by P (2735.86–5385.36 mg/kg), Ca (1412.27–3327.37 mg/kg) and Mg (2028.65–3147.32 mg/kg). The CCSK sample collected from Guizhou had the highest levels of total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC), while that from Chongqing had the lowest levels. In addition, the most abundant fatty acid in the CCSK samples was capric acid (57.37–60.18%), followed by lauric acid (35.23–38.29%). Similarities in the fatty acid composition among the CCSK samples were found. The CCSK sample collected from Guizhou had the highest percentage (36.20%) of essential amino acids to total amino acids, and Chongqing had the lowest value (28.84%). These results indicated that CCSK may be developed as an excellent source of plant-based medium-chain oil, protein, dietary fiber, minerals, phytochemicals and essential amino acids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO) is one of the important natural medium chain triglycerides (MCT) resources, with more than 95.00% of medium chain fatty acids found in the world, and has various physiological effects. However, CCSKO has not been generally recognized as a safe oil or new food resource yet. The acute oral toxicity test and a standard battery of genotoxicity tests (mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test, Ames test, and in vitro mammalian cell TK gene mutation test) of CCSKO as a new edible plant oil were used in the study. The results of the acute oral toxicity test showed that CCSKO was preliminary non-toxic, with an LD50 value higher than 21.5 g/kg body weight. In the mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test, there was no concentration-response relationship between the dose of CCSKO and micronucleus value in polychromatic erythrocytes compared to the negative control group. No genotoxicity was observed in the Ames test in the presence or absence of S9 at 5000 μg/mL. In vitro mammalian cell TK gene mutation test showed that CCSKO did not induce in vitro mammalian cell TK gene mutation in the presence or absence of S9 at 5000 μg/mL. These results indicated that CCSKO is a non-toxic natural medium-chain oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel (CCSK), with high contents of medium-chain oil (~59%) and protein (~19%), is an excellent source for a plant-based food ingredient. To broaden the application of the protein isolate (PI) from CCSK in the food industry, the Maillard reaction products (MRPs) were prepared by PI and dextran (DX) under mild wet-heating conditions (60 °C, 5 h), and the structural and functional properties of the PI-DX conjugates were investigated. The covalent bond between PI and DX was confirmed by the degree of grafting and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Compared with the heated PI, the PI-DX conjugates had more ordered structure, with the decreased random coil content. The changes in tertiary structure of PI-DX conjugates were reflected by the results of intrinsic fluorescence and surface hydrophobicity. Moreover, PI-DX conjugates showed better solubility, emulsifying properties, thermal stability and antioxidant activities. These results provided a theoretical basis for the development of PI-based MRPs with desirable characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There were no reports on the anti-inflammatory effect of the seed of C. camphora (CCS) and the changes in the process of processing and consumption. The aim of the study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of CCS ethanol extracts (EE), and the changes of it after simulated gastrointestinal digestion and alkaline hydrolysis in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory macrophages model in vitro. The phytochemical characteristics of EE, digested ethanol extracts (dEE) and hydrolysed ethanol extracts (hEE) were analyzed using UPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS/MS in this study, and 17 chemicals were tentatively identified from the three prepared samples. EE, dEE and hEE may have cell protection function, and both of them exhibited strong anti-inflammatory activity as significantly reduced multiple pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines secretion and expression. Although the anti-inflammatory activity of EE was decreased by digestion and hydrolysis, and hydrolysis had more negative effect than digestion, most of its anti-inflammatory activity was retained. The mitigation of inflammation of EE may be by suppressing phosphorylation levels of signaling molecules of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathways. The results suggest that the anti-inflammatory activity of EE is relatively stable undergo gastrointestinal digestion and alkaline hydrolysis, which may facilitate the processing and consumption of related products. [Display omitted] • Ethanol extracts of C. camphora seed exhibited anti-inflammatory activity. • Ethanol extracts may have the function of cell protection. • Hydrolysis and digestion reduced anti-inflammatory activity of ethanol extracts. • Ethanol extracts may mitigate inflammation through NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel protein isolate (CPI)−dextran (DX) model system was used to investigate the impacts of reaction temperatures (70−100 °C) and times (1−4 h) on the structure, functional properties and volatile compounds of Maillard reaction products (MRPs). The formation of MRPs was confirmed by SDS-PAGE, ultraviolet absorption and degree of glycation. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy showed that the secondary structure of MRPs tended to be more regular than native CPI. Moreover, MRPs had a lower free sulfhydryl group content and higher surface hydrophobicity than native CPI. Fluorescence spectra revealed that the tryptophan residues of CPI were transferred to a more hydrophobic microenvironment. The solubility and emulsifying stability of CPI were decreased, while the foaming activity, foaming stability, emulsion stability and apparent viscosity of CPI were significantly improved (p < 0.05) after Maillard reaction. Furthermore, MRPs exhibited significantly improved (p < 0.05) thermal stability and ABTS+• radical scavenging activity than native CPI, while the DPPH+ radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing power were decreased. In addition, volatile compounds, including aldehydes, ketones, benzenes and esters, were identified in MRPs. These results provide a theoretical guidance for future studies on CPI-DX conjugates. [Display omitted] • CPI-DX model system was used to prepare Maillard reaction products (MRPs). • The formation of MRPs was confirmed by SDS-PAGE, UV absorption and grafting degree. • The secondary structure of MRPs tended to be more regular than native CPI. • MRPs decreased protein solubility but increased foaming properties and emulsion stability. • Aldehydes, ketones, benzenes and esters were the main volatile compounds in MRPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to increase the proteinase activity of the strain NCU116 by combining ultraviolet irradiation and N-methyl- N′-nitro- N-nitroso guanidine treatment, in order to enhance the efficiency of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO) extraction by aqueous enzymatic method (AEM). The mutated strain, designated as NCU116-1, was screened out by the ratio of hydrolytic zone diameter to colony diameter on skim milk plate. The proteinase activity (9116.1 U/ml) of NCU116-1 was increased by 31.9% compared with the parental strain. The extracellular enzymes produced by NCU116-1 included proteinase, pectase, glucoamylase, cellulase and amylase. The proteinase had the maximum activity at 50 °C. Its optimum temperature and pH value were approximately 45 °C and 8.0 respectively. Mn was an activator of neutral proteinase. The glucoamylase had the maximum activity at 35 °C, and was activated by Cu, Fe and Mn. Its optimum temperatures and pH value were 35 °C and 8.0 respectively. The pectinase had the maximum activity at 40 °C, and was activated by Ca and Mn. Its optimum temperatures and pH value were 35-40 °C and 6.0 respectively. The optimum conditions of CCSKO extraction by AEM were also investigated. The results suggested that the best amount of enzyme solution and enzymolysis time were 20% (v/v) and 4 h, respectively. The oil extraction rate was 95.2% under these conditions. Thus, a suitable mutated strain was selected for CCSKO extraction by AEM and the optimum extraction conditions were determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO) was found to reduce body fat deposition and improve blood lipid in both healthy and obese rats. The study was aimed to investigate the antioxidative stress and anti-inflammatory effects of CCSKO in high-fat-diet-induced obese rats. The obese rats were treated with CCSKO, lard, and soybean oil, respectively, for 12 wk. The level of total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase, and catalase, and levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ, interleukin (IL)-6, and P65 were compared among CCSKO, lard, and soybean oil groups. Our results showed that the level of T-AOC and activities of SOD and catalase were significantly increased and the level of MDA was significantly decreased in CCSKO group. In addition, CCSKO treatment reduced the activities of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and glutamate-pyruvate transaminase, and levels of serum TNF-α, IL-6, and P65 through raising the level of PPAR-γ. In conclusion, CCSKO has, for the first time, been found to ameliorate oxidative stress and inflammation in high-fat-diet-induced obese rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A novel structural lipid was produced from CCSKO, PBST and PSO. • EIE had significantly lower SMP and SFC values than NIE. • The crystal forms of lipids were changed after enzymatic interesterification. • EIE showed improved rheological behavior than NIE. The study aimed to investigate the effect of enzymatic interesterification on the lipid composition, physicochemical properties and rheological behavior of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO), Pangasius bocourti stearin (PBST) and perilla seed oil (PSO) blends. The results showed that the interesterification process significantly changed the TAG profile of the blends. Lipid products from the enzymatic interesterification (EIE) had significantly lower slide melting point and solid fat content than the non-interesterification (NIE) lipid products. Interesterification process changed the crystal polymorphic forms from β > β′ of NIE to β < β′ of EIE. The crystal morphology of EIE was smaller and more diffuse compared to the NIE. Moreover, EIE showed improved rheological behavior, which was more suitable for food margarine preparation. The findings have provided a theoretical basis for the potential application of Lipozyme TL IM modified lipid products in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to investigate the effects of processing methods on oil yield, chemical composition, physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity and volatile compounds of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO). The processing methods used were hot pressing (HP), cold pressing (CP), solvent extraction (SE), aqueous extraction (AE), sub-critical fluid extraction (SCFE) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). The results showed that the extraction efficiencies from different processing methods ranged from 44.48% to 97.93%, with the highest efficiency from SCFE. All CCSKO samples were found to be rich in medium-chain saturated fatty acids (> 96%), and capric acid-capric acid-lauric acid accounting for the largest proportion of triacylglycerols (77.54%−78.74%). However, the total polyphenol content, δ-tocopherol content and antioxidant activity of AE, α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol content of CP, and squalene content of SCFE were all significantly higher than those of the other samples. Additionally, the thermal behaviors and spectral profiles of all samples were similar. Furthermore, there were significant differences in the volatile compounds of CCSKO with different processing methods (p < 0.05). Linalool, 2-nonanol, and ethyl caprate were determined to be the key aroma compounds of CCSKO. Overall, the results provide a theoretical reference for further processing of CCSKO. • Six processing methods for Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO) were explored. • CCSKO obtained by aqueous extraction showed the highest antioxidant activity. • Processing methods had a significant effect on the volatile compounds of CCSKO. • Linalool, 2-nonanol and ethyl caprate were the key odor contributors of CCSKO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Protein isolate (PI) and purified polyphenol extract (PPE) were prepared from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel. • Preheat treatment decreased the sulfhydryl group content and particle size of PI. • Preheat-treated PI exhibited more compact structure and higher thermal stability. • PPE modification changed the structure and conformation of PI. • PPE modification improved the antioxidant activity and thermal stability of PI. In this study, protein isolate (PI) and purified polyphenol extract (PPE) were prepared from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel (CCSK). The effects of preheat treatment (50–90 °C) combined with polyphenol grafting (5 % PPE, w/w) on the structural, emulsifying and rheological properties of PI were investigated. Results demonstrated the preheat treatments at 80 and 90 °C significantly increased the extent of protein aggregation of PI. Fluorescence spectra and thermal behavior analysis revealed that preheat-treated PI exhibited more compact structure and higher thermal stability. Moreover, the emulsifying stability and apparent viscosity of PI were enhanced after preheat treatments at 50, 60 and 70 °C. After modification by PPE, the secondary structural changes of preheat-treated PI were confirmed by FTIR. PPE modification improved the thermal stability and antioxidant activities of preheat-treated PI. These results provide a novel way to combine the advantages of preheat treatment and polyphenol grafting in developing a novel protein ingredient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A strain with a high yield of neutral proteinase and low yield of lipase, resistance to medium chain fatty acid triglycerides is the key to increasing yield and quality of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO) with aqueous enzymatic extraction technology. A bacterial strain, NCU116 isolated from the waste residue produced in CCSKO production through primary screening with plate and secondary screening with shake-flask fermentation. It was found to be suitable for the extraction of CCSKO or other medium-chain triglycerides by using the extraction technology. Its activity of neutral proteinase was 4536.5 U/mL, and only 0.088 U/mL for lipase production. The strain was identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens by morphological, physiological, biochemical and 16S rDNA molecular identification. The extracellular enzymes produced by NCU116 included neutral proteinase, pectinase, glucoamylase, cellulase, amylase and lipase. The neutral proteinase had the maximum activity at 50 °C, but was unstable. Its optimum temperature and pH value were approximately 40 °C and 7.0 respectively. Mn 2+ was an activator of neutral proteinase. The glucoamylase had the maximum activity at 45 °C, and was activated by Ca 2+ , Zn 2+ , Fe 3+ and Mn 2+ . Its optimum temperatures and pH value were 45–50 °C and 6.0 respectively. The pectinase had the maximum activity at 40 °C, and was activated by Cu 2+ , Fe 2+ , Mn 2+ and Ca 2+ . Its optimum temperatures and pH value were 35–40 °C and 7.0 respectively. The cellulase had the maximum activity at 35 °C, and was activated by Ca 2+ and Mn 2+ . Its optimum temperatures and pH value were 30–40 °C and 7.0 respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytate, an anti-nutritional factor in Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel protein isolate (CPI), chelated with minerals and proteins to form complexes that reduced their bioavailability. The study aimed to evaluate the effects of phytase treatment on the structural and functional properties and in vitro digestibility of CPI. The results showed that the degree of phytate degradation was improved with the increase in phytase treatment time. Most of the original secondary structures were retained in the treated CPI samples. The removal of phytate increased the Zeta potential of CPI, and the protein isoelectric point was increased. Low phytate CPI samples showed higher thermal stability and higher Ca2+ content. In terms of functional properties, foaming capacity was positively correlated with phytate content, whereas foam stability, emulsifying activity index and emulsion stability index were negatively correlated with phytate content. The reduction of phytate content had a positive effect on in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, and the bioavailability of CPI was significantly improved. These results have demonstrated that phytase treatment retained most of the original structure, and improved functional properties and digestibility of the protein isolate from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel. • The decrease in phytate content changed the ζ-potential of CPI samples. • Most of the secondary structure of the protein was retained after phytase treatment. • Phytase treatment improved functional properties of CPI samples. • The decrease in phytate content improved in vitro digestibility and the availability of protein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, protein isolate (PI) and protein-phenolic complex (PPC) were prepared from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel (CCSK). The effects of naturally present phenolic compounds on the structural characteristics, functional properties and antioxidant activities of CCSK protein before and after hydrolysis by Alcalase were evaluated. The formation of PPC was confirmed by the ultraviolet–visible and intrinsic fluorescence spectra. The resultant PPC hydrolysates (PPHs) had higher degree of hydrolysis values than PI hydrolysates (PHs). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis showed that PHs and PPHs had more disordered structure, with the increase of random coil content. PI and PPC had similar solubility curves in the pH range of 2.0–9.0. However, hydrolysis led to a decrease in the solubility of PHs and PPHs at pH 2.0 and 3.0, and the solubility of PPHs was higher than that of PHs at pH 6.0 and 7.0. In addition, PPC exhibited better emulsifying properties and stronger antioxidant activities than those of PI before and after hydrolysis. These results indicated that PPC and PPHs obtained from CCSK may have great application potential in food industry as functional ingredients. • Protein products PI and PPC were prepared from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel. • Protein hydrolysates PHs and PPHs were obtained by hydrolysis with Alcalase. • PPHs had higher degree of hydrolysis values than PHs. • Hydrolysis increased the random coil contents of PHs and PPHs. • PPHs showed better emulsifying properties and antioxidant activities than PHs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Covalent modification of PI by PPE at different concentrations was investigated. • A total of 15 bioactive compounds in PPE were tentatively identified by UPLC-ESI-MS n. • Secondary and tertiary structures of PI were changed by the formation of PI-PPE complexes. • PI-PPE complexes exhibited stronger thermal stability and antioxidant activities than those of PI. In this study, protein isolate (PI) and purified phenolic extract (PPE) were prepared from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel (CCSK). The effects of covalent modification of PI by PPE at different concentrations (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5%, w/w) were investigated with respect to structural properties and antioxidant activities of protein. Fifteen bioactive compounds in PPE were tentatively identified by UPLC-ESI-MS n. With the increase of PPE concentration, the turbidity, covalent binding rate, phenolic content and color intensity of the PI-PPE complexes were gradually increased. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and circular dichroism spectroscopy analysis showed that the secondary and tertiary structures of the complexes were changed and became greater order than PI. Furthermore, the complexes exhibited stronger thermal stability and antioxidant activities than those of PI. These results suggested that the protein–phenolic covalent complexes obtained from CCSK may have great potential to be used in food formulations as functional ingredients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel (CCSK) was rich in phenolics and saponins. • CCSK ethanol extracts were stable to alkali and digestive enzymes. • CCSK ethanol extracts exhibited strong bioactivity after hydrolysis and digestion. The aim of the study was to evaluate the changes of potential bioactivities of ethanol extracts (EE) from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel (CCSK) after alkaline hydrolysis and simulated gastrointestinal digestion. A total of 13 compounds in EE, mainly phenolics and saponins were tentatively identified using HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS2 analysis. The total phenolic and total flavonoid contents in EE decreased by 30.6%, 1%, 33% and 11.8% after hydrolysis and digestion, respectively. The total saponins content decreased by 17% after hydrolysis while increased by 48% after digestion. The total condensed tannin contents increased by 70.3% and 17.2% after hydrolysis and digestion, respectively. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), cupric ion reducing activity (CUPRAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and metal chelating activity (MCA) were used to determine antioxidant activity. Overall, the changes of antioxidant activities by hydrolysis and digestion were consistent with the changes of their total phenolic and flavonoid contents. The α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities in EE increased by 817% and 33.3% after digestion while decreased by 12.3% and 19% after hydrolysis, respectively. Although the inhibitory activities of cholinesterase, tyrosinase and xanthine oxidase were decreased by hydrolysis and digestion, most of these activities were retained. These results showed that CCSK ethanol extracts had strong bioactivities and were reasonably stable to alkali and digestive enzymes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cinnamomum camphora seeds are abundant in China. For high value utilization of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel (CCSK) protein, the effects of phenolic compounds on physicochemical and functional properties of protein isolate (PI) from CCSK were investigated in this study. A total of 12 phenolic compounds in CCSK have, for the first time, been tentatively identified by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS2. PI had a higher level of protein content compared to that of protein-phenolic complex (PPC). The formation of PPC resulted in a reduction of free sulfhydryl groups content and surface hydrophobicity as well as an increase of particle size and zeta potential. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy showed that the contents of secondary structure of PI and PPC were not obviously different. However, a remarkable increase in β -sheet and a decrease in random coil of PPC compared to PI were found by circular dichroism. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis revealed that PPC was thermally more stable than that of PI. PI and PPC exhibited superior essential amino acid composition and similar protein subunits. Furthermore, PPC exhibited higher solubility, better foaming and emulsifying properties than those of PI. These results suggested that the protein products from CCSK may be used as natural functional materials in the food industry. Image 104850 • Protein products of PI and PPC were prepared from Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel. • Presence of phenolic compounds in PI had a significant effect on its purity. • Physicochemical properties of PI were significant influenced by the formation of PPC. • Both PI and PPC exhibited superior essential amino acid composition. • PPC had the higher solubility, better foaming and emulsifying properties than those of PI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]