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Salmonella enterica serotype Dublin (S. Dublin) is a bovine-adapted serotype that can cause serious systemic infections in humans. Despite the increasing prevalence of human infections and the negative impact on agricultural processes, little is known about the population structure of the serotype. To this end, we compiled a manually curated data set comprising of 880 S. Dublin genomes. Core genome phylogeny and ancestral state reconstruction revealed that region-specific clades dominate the global population structure of S. Dublin. Strains of S. Dublin in the UK are genomically distinct from US, Brazilian, and African strains. The geographical partitioning impacts the composition of the core genome as well as the ancillary genome. Antibiotic resistance genes are almost exclusively found in US genomes and are mediated by an IncA/C2 plasmid. Phage content and the S. Dublin virulence plasmid were strongly conserved in the serotype. Comparison of S. Dublin to a closely related serotype, S. enterica serotype Enteritidis, revealed that S. Dublin contains 82 serotype specific genes that are not found in S. Enteritidis. Said genes encode metabolic functions involved in the uptake and catabolism of carbohydrates and virulence genes associated with type VI secretion systems and fimbria assembly respectively.

Mycoplasma cynos is recognized as an emerging causative pathogen of canine infectious respiratory disease (CIRD) worldwide. We developed a new open-source real-time PCR (rtPCR) assay for M. cynos that performs well under standard rtPCR conditions. Primers and probes were designed to target the M. cynos tuf gene. Reaction efficiencies for the M. cynos tuf gene assay on 2 platforms were based on amplification of standard curves spanning 8 orders of magnitude: ABI 7500 platform, 94.3–97.9% ( r2 ≥ 0.9935); QuantStudio OpenArray platform, 119.1–122.5% ( r2 = 0.9784). The assay performed very well over a range of template input, from 109 copies to the lower limit of quantification at 4 copies of the M. cynos genome on the ABI 7500 platform. Diagnostic performance was estimated by comparison with an in-house legacy assay on clinical specimens as well as testing isolates that were characterized previously by intergenic spacer region (ISR) sequencing. Exclusivity was established by testing 12 other Mycoplasma species. To substantiate the high specificity of the M. cynos tuf gene assay, sequence confirmation was performed on ISR PCR amplicons obtained from clinical specimens. One ISR amplicon sequence revealed M. mucosicanis rather than M. cynos. The complete protocol of the newly developed M. cynos tuf assay is provided to facilitate assay harmonization.

A canine influenza A(H3N2) virus emerged in the United States in February-March 2015, causing respiratory disease in dogs. The virus had previously been circulating among dogs in Asia, where it originated through the transfer of an avian-origin influenza virus around 2005 and continues to circulate. Sequence analysis suggests the US outbreak was initiated by a single introduction, in Chicago, of an H3N2 canine influenza virus circulating among dogs in South Korea in 2015. Despite local control measures, the virus has continued circulating among dogs in and around Chicago and has spread to several other areas of the country, particularly Georgia and North Carolina, although these secondary outbreaks appear to have ended within a few months. Some genetic variation has accumulated among the US viruses, with the appearance of regional-temporal lineages. The potential for interspecies transmission and zoonotic events involving this newly emerged influenza A virus is currently unknown.

Borrelia burgdorferi can induce Lyme disease. Approved Lyme vaccines for horses are currently not available. In an effort to protect horses, veterinarians are using Lyme vaccines licensed for dogs. However, data to assess the response of horses to, or determine the efficacy of this off-label vaccine use are missing. Here, antibodies against outer surface protein A (OspA), OspC, and OspF were quantified in diagnostic serum submissions from horses with a history of vaccination with canine Lyme vaccines. The results suggested that many horses respond with low and often short-lasting antibody responses. Subsequently, four experimental vaccination trials were performed. First, we investigated antibody responses to three canine vaccines in B. burgdorferi-naïve horses. One killed bacterin vaccine induced antibodies against OspC. OspA antibodies were low for all three vaccines and lasted less than 16weeks. The second trial tested the impact of the vaccine dose using the OspA/OspC inducing bacterin vaccine in horses. A 2mL dose produced higher OspA and OspC antibody values than a 1mL dose. However, the antibody response again quickly declined, independent of dose. Third, the horses were vaccinated with 2 doses of a recombinant OspA vaccine. Previous vaccination and/or environmental exposure enhanced the magnitude and longevity of the OspA antibody response to about 20weeks. Last, the influence of intramuscular versus subcutaneous vaccine administration was investigated for the recombinant OspA vaccine. OspA antibody responses were not influenced by injection route. The current work highlights that commercial Lyme vaccines for dogs induce only transient antibody responses in horses which can also be of low magnitude. Protection from infection with B. burgdorferi should not be automatically assumed after vaccinating horses with Lyme vaccines for dogs.

Ocular lesions are common in red-tailed hawks with West Nile (WN) disease. These lesions consist of pectenitis, choroidal or retinal inflammation, or retinal necrosis, but detailed investigation of the ocular lesions is lacking. Postmortem examination of the eyes of 16 red-tailed hawks with naturally acquired WN disease and 3 red-tailed hawks without WN disease was performed using histopathology, immunohistochemistry for West Nile virus (WNV) antigen, glial fibrillary acid protein, cleaved caspase-3, and the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling method. Retinal lesions were classified as type I or type II lesions. Type I lesions were characterized by lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates in the subjacent choroid with degeneration limited to the outer retina (type Ia lesion) or with degeneration and necrosis of the outer retina or outer and inner retina (type Ib lesion) while retinal collapse, atrophy, and scarring were hallmarks of type II lesions. Type II retinal lesions were associated with a more pronounced choroiditis. Although not statistically significant, WNV antigen tended to be present in larger quantity in type Ib lesions. Type I lesions are considered acute while type II lesions are chronic. The development of retinal lesions was associated with the presence of an inflammatory infiltrate in the choroid. A breakdown of the blood-retina barrier is suspected to be the main route of infection of the retina. Within the retina, virus appeared to spread via both neuronal and Müller cell processes.

Volunteer monitoring in the Hudson River watershed since 2012 has identified that the Wallkill River and Rondout Creek tributary complex have elevated concentrations of the fecal indicator bacteria, enterococci. Concentrations of enterococci do not provide insight into the sources of pollution and are imperfect indicators of health risks. In 2017, the regular monthly volunteer monitoring campaign for culturable enterococci at 24 sites on the Wallkill and Rondout expanded to include: (1) culturable measurements of E. coli and quantification of E. coli and Enterococcus specific markers vis nanoscale qPCR, (2) microbial source tracking (MST) assays (avian, human, bovine, and equine) via real time PCR and nanoscale qPCR, and 3) quantification of 12 gastrointestinal pathogens including viruses, bacteria, and protozoa via nanoscale qPCR. Three human associated MST markers (HumM2, HF183, and B. theta) corroborated that human pollution was present in Rondout Creek and widespread in the Wallkill River. The presence of B. theta was associated with increased concentrations of culturable E. coli. Genes for adenovirus 40 and 41 conserved region, rotavirus A NSP3, E. coli eae and stx1, and Giardia lamblia 18S rRNA were detected in >45% of samples. Abundance of rotavirus A NSP3 genes was significantly correlated to the bovine marker gene, CowM3, though wild bird sources cannot be ruled out. This is the first study to investigate potential fecal pollution sources and pathogen concentrations in Hudson tributaries during the months of peak recreational use.

Salmonella enterica serotypeDublin (S.Dublin) is a bovine-adapted serotype that can cause serious systemic infections in humans. Despite the increasing prevalence of human infections and the negative impact on agricultural processes, little is known about the population structure of the serotype. To this end, we compiled a manually curated dataset comprising of 880S.Dublin genomes. Core genome phylogeny and ancestral state reconstruction revealed that region-specific clades dominate the global population structure ofS.Dublin. Strains ofS.Dublin in the UK are genomically distinct from US, Brazilian and African strains. The geographical partitioning impacts the composition of the core genome as well as the ancillary genome. Antibiotic resistance genes are almost exclusively found in US genomes and is mediated by an IncA/C2 plasmid. Phage content and theS.Dublin virulence plasmid were strongly conserved in the serotype. Comparison ofS.Dublin to a closely related serotype,Salmonella enterica serotypeEnteritidis, revealed thatS.Dublin contains 82 serotype specific genes that are not found inS. Enteritidis. Said genes encode metabolic functions involved in the uptake and catabolism of carbohydrates and virulence genes associated with type VI secretion systems and fimbria assembly respectively.IMPORTANCES.Dublin is a bovine-adapted strain that can also cause human infections. TypicalS.Dublin human infections are characterized by invasion of tissue that ultimately traverses to the bloodstream causing life-threatening systemic cases. The preferred course of treatment for such infection is the administration of antibiotics. Thus, it is important to study the population structure of the serotype to monitor and identify which strains present the greatest threats to public health. Consequently, in this work, it was found thatS.Dublin genomic features are greatly influenced by the region in which they populate. Our analysis found that mostS.Dublin isolates from the US are distinct and have gained multidrug resistance through a new hybrid plasmid. Thus, it would be expected that infections in the US would respond less favorably to the first line of therapy and the region acts as the major source of a multidrug-resistantS.Dublin.

Avian-origin H3N2 canine influenza virus (CIV) transferred to dogs in Asia around 2005, becoming enzootic throughout China and South Korea before reaching the United States in early 2015. To understand the posttransfer evolution and epidemiology of this virus, particularly the cause of recent and ongoing increases in incidence in the United States, we performed an integrated analysis of whole-genome sequence data from 64 newly sequenced viruses and comprehensive surveillance data. This revealed that the circulation of H3N2 CIV within the United States is typified by recurrent epidemic burst–fade-out dynamics driven by multiple introductions of virus from Asia. Although all major viral lineages displayed similar rates of genomic sequence evolution, H3N2 CIV consistently exhibited proportionally more nonsynonymous substitutions per site than those in avian reservoir viruses, which is indicative of a large-scale change in selection pressures. Despite these genotypic differences, we found no evidence of adaptive evolution or increased viral transmission, with epidemiological models indicating a basic reproductive number, R0, of between 1 and 1.5 across nearly all U.S. outbreaks, consistent with maintained but heterogeneous circulation. We propose that CIV9s mode of viral circulation may have resulted in evolutionary cul-de-sacs, in which there is little opportunity for the selection of the more transmissible H3N2 CIV phenotypes necessary to enable circulation through a general dog population characterized by widespread contact heterogeneity. CIV must therefore rely on metapopulations of high host density (such as animal shelters and kennels) within the greater dog population and reintroduction from other populations or face complete epidemic extinction. IMPORTANCE The relatively recent appearance of influenza A virus (IAV) epidemics in dogs expands our understanding of IAV host range and ecology, providing useful and relevant models for understanding critical factors involved in viral emergence. Here we integrate viral whole-genome sequence analysis and comprehensive surveillance data to examine the evolution of the emerging avian-origin H3N2 canine influenza virus (CIV), particularly the factors driving ongoing circulation and recent increases in incidence of the virus within the United States. Our results provide a detailed understanding of how H3N2 CIV achieves sustained circulation within the United States despite widespread host contact heterogeneity and recurrent epidemic fade-out. Moreover, our findings suggest that the types and intensities of selection pressures an emerging virus experiences are highly dependent on host population structure and ecology and may inhibit an emerging virus from acquiring sustained epidemic or pandemic circulation.

The equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) ORF1 and ORF71 genes have immune modulatory effects in vitro. Experimental infection of horses using virus mutants with multiple deletions including ORF1 and ORF71 showed promise as vaccine candidates against EHV-1. Here, the combined effects of ORF1 and ORF71 deletions from the neuropathogenic EHV-1 strain Ab4 on clinical disease and host immune response were further explored. Three groups of EHV-1 naive horses were experimentally infected with the ORF1/71 gene deletion mutant (Ab4ΔORF1/71), the parent Ab4 strain, or remained uninfected. In comparison to Ab4, horses infected with Ab4ΔORF1/71 did not show the initial high fever peak characteristic of EHV-1 infection. Ab4ΔORF1/71 infection had reduced nasal shedding (1/5 vs. 5/5) and, simultaneously, decreased intranasal interferon (IFN)-α, interleukin (IL)-10 and soluble CD14 secretion. However, Ab4 and Ab4ΔORF1/71 infection resulted in comparable viremia, suggesting these genes do not regulate the infection of the mononuclear cells and subsequent viremia. Intranasal and serum anti-EHV-1 antibodies to Ab4ΔORF1/71 developed slightly slower than those to Ab4. However, beyond day 12 post infection (d12pi) serum antibodies in both virus-infected groups were similar and remained increased until the end of the study (d114pi). EHV-1 immunoglobulin (Ig) G isotype responses were dominated by short-lasting IgG1 and long-lasting IgG4/7 antibodies. The IgG4/7 response closely resembled the total EHV-1 specific antibody response. Ex vivo re-stimulation of PBMC with Ab4 resulted in IFN-γ and IL-10 secretion by cells from both infected groups within two weeks pi. Flow cytometric analysis showed that IFN-γ producing EHV-1-specific T-cells were mainly CD8+/IFN-γ+ and detectable from d32pi on. Peripheral blood IFN-γ+ T-cell percentages were similar in both infected groups, albeit at low frequency (~0.1%). In summary, the Ab4ΔORF1/71 gene deletion mutant is less virulent but induced antibody responses and cellular immunity similar to the parent Ab4 strain.

Rapid screening for enteric bacterial pathogens in clinical environments is essential for biosecurity. Salmonella found in veterinary hospitals, particularly Salmonella enterica serovar Dublin, can pose unique challenges for culture and testing because of its poor growth. Multiple Salmonella serovars including Dublin are emerging threats to public health given increasing prevalence and antimicrobial resistance. We adapted an automated food testing method to veterinary samples and evaluated the performance of the method in a variety of matrices including environmental samples ( n = 81), tissues ( n = 52), feces ( n = 148), and feed ( n = 29). A commercial kit was chosen as the basis for this approach in view of extensive performance characterizations published by multiple independent organizations. A workflow was established for efficiently and accurately testing veterinary matrices and environmental samples by use of real-time PCR after selective enrichment in Rappaport–Vassiliadis soya (RVS) medium. Using this method, the detection limit for S. Dublin improved by 100-fold over subculture on selective agars (eosin–methylene blue, brilliant green, and xylose–lysine–deoxycholate). Overall, the procedure was effective in detecting Salmonella spp. and provided next-day results.

Neonatal foals respond poorly to conventional vaccines. These vaccines typically target T-helper (Th) cell dependent B-cell activation. However, Th2-cell immunity is impaired in foals during the first three months of life. In contrast, neonatal basophils are potent interleukin-4 (IL-4) producers. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel vaccine triggering the natural capacity of neonatal basophils to secrete IL-4 and to evaluate if vaccination resulted in B-cell activation and antibody production against EHV-1 glycoprotein C (gC). Neonatal vaccination was performed by oral biotinylated IgE (IgE-bio) treatment at birth followed by intramuscular injection of a single dose of streptavidin-conjugated gC/IL-4 fusion protein (Sav-gC/IL-4) for crosslinking of receptor-bound IgE-bio (group 1). Neonates in group 2 received the intramuscular Sav-gC/IL-4 vaccine only. Group 3 remained non-vaccinated at birth. After vaccination, gC antibody production was not detectable. The ability of the vaccine to induce protection was evaluated by an EHV-1 challenge infection after weaning at 7 months of age. Groups 1 and 2 responded to EHV-1 infection with an earlier onset and overall significantly increased anti-gC serum antibody responses compared to control group 3. In addition, group 1 weanlings had a decreased initial fever peak after infection indicating partial protection from EHV-1 infection. This suggested that the neonatal vaccination induced a memory B-cell response at birth that was recalled at weanling age after EHV-1 challenge. In conclusion, early stimulation of neonatal immunity via the innate arm of the immune system can induce partial protection and increased antibody responses against EHV-1., Funding for this project was provided by the Harry M. Zweig Memorial Fund for Equine Research at Cornell University ‘A Novel Strategy to Boost Antibody Production to EHV-1 in Neonates’ (http://vet.cornell.edu/research/Zweig/). Monoclonal antibody development for horse cell surface markers and cytokines was supported by USDA grant #2005-01812 ‘The US Veterinary Immune Reagent Network’ and #2015-67015-23072 ‘Equine Immune Reagents: Development of monoclonal antibodies to improve the analysis of immunity in horses’ (https://nifa.usda.gov/).

Fifteen bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and 3 golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos) were diagnosed with West Nile disease based on 1) presence of lesions in brain, eyes, and heart, 2) viral antigen detection in brain, eyes, heart, kidney, and/or liver by immunohistochemical staining, 3) detection of viral RNA in tissue samples and/or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by polymerase chain reaction, and/or 4) detection of West Nile virus (WNV)-specific antibodies in CSF by serum neutralization assay. West Nile virus–associated gross lesions included cerebral pan-necrosis with hydrocephalus ex vacuo (7/15 bald eagles), fibrin exudation into the fundus in 1 golden eagle, retinal scarring in 1 bald eagle, and myocardial pallor and rounded heart apex in 4 bald eagles. Histologic lesions included lymphoplasmacytic encephalitis, most prominently in the cerebrum (17 eagles), lymphoplasmacytic pectenitis and choroiditis (15 and 8 eagles, respectively), and myocarditis (12 eagles). West Nile virus antigen was detected in the majority of the eagles in neurons of the brain (cerebrum and cerebellum), and less commonly present in neurons of the retina, tubular epithelial cells of the kidney, and cardiomyocytes. West Nile disease was diagnosed in 2 bald eagles based on the presence of cerebral pan-necrosis and WNV-specific antibodies in the CSF despite lacking viral antigen and RNA. In conclusion, WNV infection causes a fatal disease in bald and golden eagles. A variety of gross and histologic lesions are highly suggestive of WN disease in most eagles. A combination of detection of viral antigen and/or RNA or virus-specific antibodies proved useful in confirming the diagnosis.

Nanoliter scale real-time PCR uses spatial multiplexing to allow multiple assays to be run in parallel on a single plate without the typical drawbacks of combining reactions together. We designed and evaluated a panel based on this principle to rapidly identify the presence of common disease agents in dogs and horses with acute respiratory illness. This manuscript describes a nanoscale diagnostic PCR workflow for sample preparation, amplification, and analysis of target pathogen sequences, focusing on procedures that are different from microliter scale reactions. In the respiratory panel presented, 18 assays were each set up in triplicate, accommodating up to 48 samples per plate. A universal extraction and pre-amplification workflow was optimized for high-throughput sample preparation to accommodate multiple matrices and DNA and RNA based pathogens. Representative data are presented for one RNA target (influenza A matrix) and one DNA target (equine herpesvirus 1). The ability to quickly and accurately test for a comprehensive, syndrome-based group of pathogens is a valuable tool for improving efficiency and ergonomics of diagnostic testing and for acute respiratory disease diagnosis and management.

Changes in ELISA serology are frequently used to determine antibiotic treatment success for Lyme disease in horses. This concept was based upon a previous report showing a marked decline in ELISA values in experimentally infected and antibiotic-treated ponies. Changes in Lyme serology following antibiotic treatment in naturally infected horses have not been reported. The objective of this study was to compareBorreliaELISA antibody concentrations in naturally exposed horses both before and following antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease. A retrospective study was performed comparing oxytetracycline- or doxycyclinetreated (n = 68) and untreated (n = 183) horses from a single equine practice and their change inBorreliaELISA values over a similar time period. Antibiotictreated horses had a decline in ELISA values in comparison to control horses (P ≤ 0.05) and untreated horses were twice as likely to have their ELISA values increase (OR = 0.5; 95% C.I. = 0.3–0.9) compared to treated horses. The magnitude of the decline in ELISA units following treatments was small compared to that previously reported in experimentally infected and treated ponies. Field-exposed horses with highBorrelia burgdorferiELISA values who are treated with either oxytetracycline or doxycycline can be expected to have only a small decline in ELISA values following treatment. Persistently high ELISA titres following appropriate treatments for Lyme disease may not, without appropriate clinical signs, be a reason for more prolonged treatment.

A previously unrecognized virus belonging to the subfamily Pneumovirinae and most closely related to murine pneumovirus (MPV) was identified in domestic dogs in 2 related animal shelters. Additional diagnostic testing yielded 3 new viral isolates and identified 6 additional PCR positive dogs from other USA locations indicating that its distribution is not geographically limited. Nucleotide sequences encompassing 9 of the 10 genes were compared to the only 2 available MPV strains, 15 and J3666. Several features distinguished the canine pneumovirus (CnPnV) from the murine strains. Two regions of diversity were identified in the amino-proximal region of P and the overlapping P2 ORF was only 54 amino acids (aa) compared to 137aa in MPV. The G protein had an amino-terminal cytoplasmic tail 18aa longer than in the MPV strains. The CnPnV SH protein showed the highest divergence with only 90.2% aa identity when compared to MPV strain 15. Like strain 15, the CnPnV SH ORF coded for a protein of 92aa while J3666 has a 114aa variant. Comparison of CnPnV isolates at culture passages 4 and 17 revealed 7nt differences within the 8598nt sequenced. Of note was a substitution at nt 364 in G resulting in a termination codon that would produce a truncated G protein of 122aa. Analysis of early passage and ex vivo samples showed the termination codon in G to be predominant after 6 days in culture indicating rapid selection of the mutation in A72 cells.

Summary West Nile virus (WNV) is transmitted between avian hosts in enzootic cycles by a mosquito vector. The virus has significant disease effects on humans and equines when it bridges into an epizootic cycle. As the initial epidemic of WNV in 1999, perennial outbreaks in New York State suggest the local establishment of natural foci with perpetuation of the virus among susceptible hosts rather than reintroduction of the virus. The factors that play a role in the perpetuation of the virus are not fully understood. American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) are known to be highly susceptible to infection with the virus. We investigate the factors that put crows at risk of infection in Tompkins County, New York during the period of 2000‐2008 in a case‐control study. Cases were crow carcasses that were found dead and tested positive for WNV using real time reverse transcription or VecTest � . Data on putative risk factors were collected and assessed for significance of association with the presence of WNV using logistic regression analysis to evaluate the significance of each factor while simultaneously controlling for the effect of others. The risk of a crow carcass testing WNV positive varied with age, season of the year and ecological area where the carcass was found. Crows that were more than 1-year-old were four times more likely to be WNV positive in comparison to birds that were less than 1 year of age. It was three times more likely to find WNV positive carcasses in residential areas in comparison to rural areas. The risk of testing WNV positive did not vary by sex of the crow carcasses.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic pathogen of global importance. In horses with neurological signs, detection of WNV-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) in serum is widely used to identify clinical cases of WNV encephalitis. Here, we describe the development of two monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to equine IgM which were used in a WNV IgM-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Their performance was compared to an established assay based on polyclonal anti-IgM. Check test serum samples from the National Veterinary Service Laboratory (NVSL) were used to evaluate the performance of the three anti-IgM antibodies. The anti-IgM 1-22 mAb correctly identified all NVSL samples. Both the polyclonal antibody and monoclonal anti-IgM 2B-63 identified eight out of ten samples correctly. The three assays were then compared using serum samples from clinically healthy animals (n=33) and horses with neurological signs (n=21). High Spearman rank correlations (0.76-0.86) were found among the ELISA results. Inter-test agreements (weighted kappa) for assay interpretation resulted in strong agreement (0.95) of the results obtained by the mAbs and moderate agreements when monoclonal and polyclonal anti-IgM-based assays were compared. To determine the analytical sensitivities of anti-WNV IgM detection, serial dilutions of WNV IgM-positive serum samples were analyzed. The highest sensitivity was obtained by using the anti-IgM 1-22 mAb to capture IgM from equine serum. In conclusion, the use of monoclonal anti-IgM antibodies can improve the sensitivity of IgM detection in the acute phase of WN disease.

Greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber ruber), an endangered and popular zoo bird species, are susceptible to West Nile virus (WNV) infection, often with a fatal outcome. To determine whether vaccination of greater flamingos produced an immunologic response with measurable antibody titers and to monitor for adverse effects of vaccination on health status, a vaccine trial against WNV infection, using a killed vaccine licensed for use in horses, was performed in 1-month-old flamingo chicks. Fifteen chicks determined to be seronegative for WNV were divided into 2 groups: Group A (n = 8) received 2, 1-ml IM doses of vaccine 3 weeks apart; and Group B (n = 7) received 1, 0.5-ml IM dose, followed by 2, 1-ml IM doses, all given 3 weeks apart. A booster vaccination of 1 ml was administered to all birds 280 days after the initial vaccination series. Antibody titers were measured after the initial immunization and before and 3 weeks after the booster vaccination by plaque-reduction neutralization testing ...

OBJECTIVE To compare antibody responses of horses naturally infected with West Nile virus (WNV) and those vaccinated against WNV, to identify whether vaccination interferes with the ability to diagnose WNV infection, and to determine the duration of antibody responses after vaccination. SAMPLE Sera from horses naturally infected with WNV (n = 10) and adult WNV-naïve horses before and after vaccination with a live canarypox virus–vectored vaccine (7) or a killed virus vaccine (8). PROCEDURES An established WNV IgM capture ELISA was used to measure IgM responses. Newly developed capture ELISAs were used to measure responses of 8 other WNV-specific immunoglobulin isotypes. A serum neutralization assay was used to determine anti-WNV antibody titers. RESULTS WNV-specific IgM responses were typically detected in the sera of WNV-infected horses but not in sera of horses vaccinated against WNV. Natural infection with and vaccination against WNV induced an immunoglobulin response that was primarily composed of IgG1. West Nile virus–specific IgG1 was detected in the sera of most horses 14 days after vaccination. Serum anti-WNV IgG1 and neutralizing antibody responses induced by the killed-virus vaccines were higher and lasted longer than did those induced by the live canarypox virus–vectored vaccine. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE On the basis of these findings, we recommend that horses be vaccinated against WNV annually near the beginning of mosquito season, that both IgM and IgG1 responses against WNV be measured to distinguish between natural infection and vaccination, and that a WNV IgG1 ELISA be used to monitor anti-WNV antibodies titers in vaccinated horses.

Phylogenetic and antigenic analyses indicate that recent circulating equine-2 influenza viruses in the United States have been alternating between two genetic and antigenic distinct lineages since 1996. The evolution rates for these two lineages, the Kentucky and the Florida lineage, are very similar. For the earlier isolates in the Kentucky lineage, there are multiple and sequential nonsynonymous substitutions at antigenic sites B and D. However, there are no changes at any of these antigenic sites for KY98 and OK00. In the Florida lineage, except for NY99 with one amino acid substitution at antigenic site B, viruses in this lineage do not have nonsynonymous substitutions at any of the antigenic sites. The lack of amino acid substitutions at these antigenic sites suggests a mechanism other than immune selection is responsible for the maintenance of these viral lineages. Serological analysis indicates that these two lineages are antigenic distinct, and the pattern of reactivity of horse sera towards these two lineages alternates in consecutive years, parallel to the "switching" of virus lineage seen in the phylogenetic tree. This alternate circulation may play a role in the maintenance of these two lineages of equine-2 influenza virus.

To determine which respiratory viruses circulate among confined dogs, we analyzed nasal and pharyngeal swab specimens from shelter dogs with acute respiratory disease. An unknown virus was isolated. Monoclonal antibody testing indicated that it was probably a pneumovirus. PCR and sequence analysis indicated that it was closely related to murine pneumovirus.

Lyme disease, a bacterial illness caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, is thought to be most prevalent in the heavily tick-infested areas of the northeastern United States. Serum samples from 196 asymptomatic horses residing in the Pacific northwest were tested for the presence of antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi , using the canine SNAP 4DX (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., Maine) and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Positive samples were confirmed by Western blot analysis. The ELISA and Western blot analyses identified 29 of 196 horses that had antibodies for Borrelia burgdorferi, whereas the Canine SNAP 4DX only identified 2 of 196 horses as positive for an antibody titer. These results indicate that 14.8% of horses residing in the northwestern United States have been exposed to B. burgdorferi.

Summary Clinical, pathological, immunohistochemical, serological and microbiological findings are described for 2 geographically and temporally distinct equine arteritis virus (EAV) epidemics in newborn foals. Outbreak A occurred at a commercial Standardbred breeding facility; Outbreak B began in a group of research animals. Clinical signs were severe and primarily referrable to the respiratory tract. Fever and leucopenia and/or thrombocytopenia were observed in foals surviving for more than 24 h. The most common gross pathological findings were limited to the respiratory tract. Common histopathological findings included interstitial pneumonia, lymphocytic arteritis and periarteritis with fibrinoid necrosis of the tunica media. Renal tubular necrosis was noted in 2 foals. Immunoperoxidase histochemistry combined with virus isolation was diagnostic in all cases.

West Nile virus (WNV) was detected by Taqman reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in 4 of 85 (4.7%) blood-engorged (n = 2) and unengorged (n = 2) Icosta americana (Leach) hippoboscid flies that were collected from wild raptors submitted to a wildlife rehabilitation center in Mercer County, NJ, in 2003. This report represents an additional detection of WNV in a nonculicine arthropod in North America and the first documented detection of the virus in unengorged hippoboscid flies, further suggesting a possible role that this species may play in the transmission of WNV in North America.

Johne's disease (JD) is prevalent worldwide and has a significant impact on the global agricultural economy. In the present study, we evaluated the protective efficacy of a leuD (Δ leud ) mutant and gained insight into differential immune responses after challenge with virulent M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in a caprine colonization model. The immune response and protective efficacy were compared with those of the killed vaccine Mycopar. In vitro stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with johnin purified protein derivative showed that Mycopar and Δ leuD generated similar levels of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) but significantly higher levels than unvaccinated and challenged phosphate-buffered saline controls. However, only with Δ leuD was the IFN-γ response maintained. Flow cytometric analysis showed that the increase in IFN-γ correlated with proliferation and activation (increased expression of CD25) of CD4, CD8, and γδT cells, but this response was significantly higher in Δ leuD -vaccinated animals at some time points after challenge. Both Mycopar and Δ leuD vaccines upregulated Th1/proinflammatory and Th17 cytokines and downregulated Th2/anti-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines at similar levels at almost all time points. However, significantly higher levels of IFN-γ (at weeks 26 and 30), interleukin-2 (IL-2; week 18), IL-1b (weeks 14 and 22), IL-17 (weeks 18 and 22), and IL-23 (week 18) and a significantly lower level of IL-10 (weeks 14 and 18) and transforming growth factor β (week 18) were detected in the ΔleuD -vaccinated group. Most importantly, Δ leuD elicited an immune response that significantly limited colonization of tissues compared to Mycopar upon challenge with wild-type M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis . In conclusion, the Δ leuD mutant is a promising vaccine candidate for development of a live attenuated vaccine for JD in ruminants.

Objective—To determine the prevalence of infectious diseases of animal and zoonotic importance in cats and dogs rescued and transferred from the Gulf Coast region following Hurricane Katrina. Design—Cross-sectional study. Animals—414 dogs and 56 cats rescued and transferred from the Gulf Coast region within 4 months after the hurricane. Procedures—EDTA-anticoagulated blood and serum samples were tested via PCR and serologic assays for infectious diseases. Results—In dogs, prevalence was highest for anti-West Nile virus (WNV) antibodies (218/390 [55.9%]), Dirofilaria immitis antigen (195/400 [48.8%]), anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies (92/366 [25.1%]), and hemotropic mycoplasma DNA (40/345 [11.9%]). The DNA of Bartonella spp, Ehrlichia spp, or Babesia spp or anti-canine influenza virus antibodies were identified in < 2% of dogs. In cats, prevalence was highest for antibodies against Bartonella spp and DNA of Bartonella spp combined (49/55 [89.1 %]), anti–T gondii antibodies (13/55 [23.6%]), hemotropic mycoplasma DNA (5/47 [10.6%]), anti-WNV antibodies (5/48 [10.4%]), D immitis antigen (4/50 [8.0%]), and anti–FIV antibodies (4/56 [7.1%]). A total of 308 (74.4%) dogs and 52 (92.9%) cats had evidence of previous or current vector-borne infections. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Cats and dogs rescued from the disaster region had evidence of multiple infectious diseases. The dispersal of potentially infectious animals to other regions of North America where some infections were not typically found could have contributed to new geographic ranges for these organisms or to underdiagnosis in affected animals because of a low index of suspicion in regions with low disease prevalence.

The American crow ( Corvus brachyrhynchos) is a common urban and rural inhabitant of the Northeast and Midwest United States that is commonly infected with West Nile virus (WNV). The current study was initiated to determine non–WNV-associated causes of mortality in the American crow. All animals (40/40) tested negative for WNV infection via polymerase chain reaction and had no evidence of infection based on immunohistochemistry. Common gross necropsy findings included external trauma (6/40), hepatosplenomegaly (6/40), poxviral dermatitis (5/40), and pneumonia (3/40). Common histologic findings included endoparasitism (32/40), multifocal hepatic and splenic necrosis (7/40), pigment accumulation in the spleen (5/40), and disseminated bacterial infection (3/40). The most significant and debilitating diseases included fungal pneumonia and poxvirus-associated lesions. The present report increases the knowledge of diseases present in the American crow population.

Three classes of IgG have been described for camelids. IgG1 has a conventional four-chain structure, while IgG2 and IgG3 do not incorporate light chains. The structures and antigen-binding affinities of the so-called heavy-chain classes have been studied in detail; however, their regulation and effector functions are largely undefined. The aim of this study was to examine the participation of conventional and heavy-chain IgG antibodies in the camelid immune defense directed against West Nile virus (WNV). We found that natural infection or vaccination with killed WNV induced IgG1 and IgG3. Vaccination also induced IgG1 and IgG3; IgG2 was produced during the anamnestic response to vaccination. When purified IgGs were tested in plaque-reduction neutralization titer (PRNT) tests, IgG3 demonstrated PRNT activities comparable to those of conventional IgG1. In contrast, IgG2 demonstrated only suboptimal activity at the highest concentrations tested. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that macrophages bound IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3. Furthermore, subneutralizing concentrations of all three isotypes enhanced WNV infection of cultured macrophages. Our results document distinctions in regulation and function between camelid heavy-chain isotypes. The reduced size and distinct structure of IgG3 did not negatively impact its capacity to neutralize virus. In contrast, IgG2 appeared to be less efficient in neutralization. This information advances our understanding of these unusual antibodies in ways that can be applied in the development of effective vaccines for camelids.

Objective—To assess ophthalmologic features and ocular lesions in red-tailed hawks and Cooper's hawks naturally infected with West Nile virus (WNV). Design—Original study. Animals—13 hawks. Procedures—All hawks underwent complete ophthalmic examinations including slit lamp biomicroscopy and binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy. Eleven hawks were euthanized because of a grave prognosis; complete necropsies were performed. Eyes, brain, heart, and kidneys were processed for histologic and immunohistochemical examinations. Pooled tissue homogenates and aqueous humor samples were assessed for WNV nucleic acid via PCR assay, and anti-WNV antibody titers in aqueous humor and plasma were determined. Results—All birds had similar funduscopic abnormalities including exudative chorioretinal lesions and chorioretinal scarring in a geographic or linear pattern. Eleven birds were euthanized, and 2 birds were released. Plasma from both released hawks and plasma and aqueous humor of all euthanized hawks that were evaluated contained anti-WNV antibodies. Except for 1 hawk, all euthanized hawks had WNV-associated disease (determined via detection of WNV antigen or nucleic acid in at least 1 organ). Histopathologic ocular abnormalities, most commonly pectenitis, were detected in all euthanized birds; several birds had segmental choroiditis, often with corresponding segmental retinal atrophy. West Nile virus antigen was detected in the retinas of 9 of the euthanized birds. In 2 hawks, WNV antigen was detected in the retina only. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results indicated that funduscopically detectable chorioretinal lesions appear to be associated with WNV disease in hawks. Detection of ocular lesions may aid in antemortem or postmortem diagnosis of this condition.

West Nile virus has been associated with numerous bird mortalities in the United States since 1999. Five avian species at three zoological parks were selected to assess the antibody response to vaccination for West Nile virus: black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus), little blue penguins (Eudyptula minor), American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber), Chilean flamingos (Phoenicopterus chilensis), and Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri). All birds were vaccinated intramuscularly at least twice with a commercially available inactivated whole virus vaccine (Innovator). Significant differences in antibody titer over time were detected for black-footed penguins and both flamingo species.

One hundred and ninety-one sera from horses that recently were exposed to West Nile virus (WNV) by either vaccination or natural infection or that were not vaccinated and remained free of infection were used to evaluate fluorescent microsphere immunoassays (MIAs) incorporating recombinant WNV envelope protein (rE) and recombinant nonstructural proteins (rNS1, rNS3, and rNS5) for detection of equine antibodies to WNV. The rE MIA had a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, respectively, of 99.3% and 97.4% for detection of WNV antibodies in the serum of horses that were recently vaccinated or naturally infected with WNV, as compared to the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). The positive rE MIA results were assumed to be WNV-specific because of the close agreement between this assay and the PRNT and the fact that unvaccinated control horses included in this study were confirmed to be free of exposure to the related St Louis encephalitis virus. The NS protein–based MIA were all less sensitive than either the rE MIA or PRNT (sensitivity 0–48.0), although the rNS1 MIA distinguished horses vaccinated with the recombinant WNV vaccine from those that were immunized with the inactivated WNV vaccine ( P < 0.0001) or naturally infected with WNV ( P < 0.0001). The rE MIA would appear to provide a rapid, convenient, inexpensive, and accurate test for the screening of equine sera for the presence of antibodies to WNV.

Salem virus (SalV) is a recently identified equine virus belonging to the family Paramyxoviridae. The only known isolate was obtained from a horse that was involved in a disease outbreak of undetermined nature and the circumstances of its isolation suggested an etiologic role. However, the experimental infection of a colostrum-deprived foal failed to reproduce the disease; only mild neutropenia and temperature elevation were recorded. An additional attempt to establish an etiological relationship with the disease was made by conducting a retrospective evaluation of the serological profiles of animals involved in the outbreak. Animals reported as being affected by the disease according to a comprehensive United Sates Department of Agriculture (USDA) database were found to be 48% (n=27) positive for antibodies to SalV, but the percent positive for all horses, affected and unaffected, was actually higher at 56% (n=62). For 15 affected horses for which paired acute and convalescent serum specimens were available, no unequivocal seroconversions to SalV were identified. Furthermore, the horse from which SalV was isolated was not listed as one of the animals affected by the disease. In total, the evidence suggests that SalV was not the etiological agent of the disease and that its isolation was fortuitous.

A virus that could not be identified as a previously known equine virus was isolated from the mononuclear cells of a horse. Electron microscopy revealed enveloped virions with nucleocapsid structures characteristic of viruses in the Paramyxoviridae family. The virus failed to hemadsorb chicken or guinea pig red blood cells and lacked neuraminidase activity. Two viral genes were isolated from a cDNA expression library. Multiple sequence alignments of one gene indicated an average identity of 45% as compared to Morbillivirus N protein sequences. A weaker relationship was found with Tupaia paramyxovirus (TPMV) and Hendra virus (HeV) N proteins. In the second gene, multiple open reading frames (ORFs) were identified, corresponding to the arrangement of the P, V, and C ORFs in the Morbillivirus and Respirovirus viruses. Short stretches in the C-terminal regions of the P and C proteins showed limited homologies to viruses in the Morbillivirus genus but no obvious relationship to viruses in other genera. The V ORF translation product contained a highly conserved, cysteine-rich domain that is common to most viruses in the Paramyxovirinae subfamily. Sequencing of P gene cDNA clones confirmed the use of a cotranscriptional editing mechanism for the regulation of P/V expression. Based on the location of its origin it has been named Salem virus (SalV).

Johnes disease (JD), caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis (MAP), occurs worldwide as chronic granulomatous enteritis of domestic and wild ruminants. To develop a cost effective vaccine, in a previous study we constructed an attenuated Salmonella strain that expressed a fusion product made up of partial fragments of MAP antigens (Ag85A, Ag85B and SOD) that imparted protection against challenge in a mouse model. In the current study we evaluated the differential immune response and protective efficacy of the Sal-Ag vaccine against challenge in a goat model as compared to the live attenuated vaccine MAP316F. PBMCs from goats vaccinated with Sal-Ag and challenged with MAP generated significantly lower levels of IFN-γ, following in vitro stimulation with either Antigen-mix or PPD jhonin, than PBMC from MAP316F vaccinated animals. Flow cytometric analysis showed the increase in IFN-γ correlated with a significantly higher level of proliferation of CD4, CD8 and γδT cells and an increased expression of CD25 and CD45R0 in MAP316F vaccinated animals as compared to control animals. Evaluation of a range of cytokines involved in Th1, Th2, Treg, and Th17 immune responses by quantitative PCR showed low levels of expression of Th1 (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-12) and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, TNF-α) in the Sal-Ag immunized group. Significant levels of Th2 and anti-inflammatory cytokines transcripts (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, TGF-β) were expressed but their level was low and with a pattern similar to the control group. Over all, Sal-Ag vaccine imparted partial protection that limited colonization in tissues of some animals upon challenge with wild type MAP but not to the level achieved with MAP316F. In conclusion, the data indicates that Sal-Ag vaccine induced only a low level of protective immunity that failed to limit the colonization of MAP in infected animals. Hence the Sal-Ag vaccine needs further refinement to increase its efficacy.

West Nile Virus (WNV) infection manifests itself clinically a nd pathologically differently in various species of birds. The clinicopathologic findings and WNV antigen tissue distribution of six great gray owls (Strix nebulosa) and two barred owls (Strix varia) with WNV infection are described in this report. Great gray owls usually live in northern Canada, whereas the phylogenetically related barred owls are native to the midwestern and eastern United States and southern Canada. Naturally acquired WNV infection caused death essentially without previous signs of disease in the six great gray owls during a mortality event. Lesions of WNV infection we re dominated by hepatic and splenic necrosis, with evidence o f disseminatedintravascular coagulation in the great gray owls. WNV antigen was widely distributed in th e organs of the great gray owls and appeared totarget endothelial cells, macrophages, and hepatocytes. The barred owls represented two sporadic cases. They had neurologic disease with mental dullness that led to euthanasia. These birds had mild to moderate lymphoplasmacytic encephalitis with glial nodules and lymphoplasmacytic pectenitis. WNV antigen was sparse in barred owls and only present in a few brain neurons and renaltubular epithelial cells. The cause of the different manifestations of WNV disease in these fairly closely related owl species is uncertain.