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The Urbanonimia of Ukraine in the Context of DecommunizationThis article concerns the changing situation regarding toponyms in Ukraine, from the country’s regaining of independence to the present day. The article identifies two waves of decommunization. The first occured between the regaining independence in 1991 and 1995. The second wave began with the Revolution of Dignity in 2013–2014 and continues to this day. In the second part of the article, toponyms connected with Poland are presented and the reasons behind their creation are explained. Toponimia miejska na Ukrainie w kontekście dekomunizacjiArtykuł traktuje o sytuacji w zakresie zmian toponimów na Ukrainie od czasu odzyskania niepodległości do dnia dzisiejszego. Autorzy wyróżniają dwie fale dekomunizacji, pierwszą od odzyskania przez Ukrainę niepodległości w 1991 roku do 1995 roku. Druga fala rozpoczęła się wraz z rewolucją godności w latach 2013-2014 i trwa do dziś. W drugiej części artykułu przedstawiono toponimy związane z Polską, a także uzasadnienie ich powstania.

Battle of Narratives: Political Memes During the 2019 Ukrainian Presidential ElectionThe article highlights the peculiarities of political internet memes as information units that shape public opinion. The article also examines the role of memes in society. The research material includes creolized memes (including both verbal and visual elements) about the Ukrainian politicians Petro Poroshenko and Volodymyr Zelenskyi. These memes were created in 2019 during the Ukrainian presidential election. The article firstly focuses on the verbal aspects of the memes and their semantic and functional features. In addition, the peculiarities of opponent image construction are analysed. The article then examines the influence of Ukrainian politicians on the conduct of the “meme war”. The article also sheds light on the role which memes play in the polarization of society. Wojna narratywów: memy polityczne podczas wyborów prezydenckich na Ukrainie w 2019 rokuArtykuł przedstawia cechy politycznych memów internetowych jako jednostek informacji wpływających na świadomość ludzi, a także wyjaśnia ich rolę w społeczeństwie. Materiałem badań były kreolizowane memy (obecność elementów słownych i ikonicznych) o Piotrze Poroszence i Włodzimierzu Zełenskim, wygenerowane podczas kampanii prezydenckiej na Ukrainie w 2019 roku. Główny nacisk położono na werbalny aspekt memu, jego cechy semantyczne i funkcjonalne, przeanalizowano specyfikę konstruowania wizerunku przeciwnika, podkreślono znaczenie ukraińskich polityków w prowadzeniu „wojny memetycznej” oraz wyjaśniono rolę memów w polaryzowaniu społeczeństwa.

Expanding WordNet with Gloss and Polysemy Links for Evocation Strength RecognitionEvocation – a phenomenon of sense associations going beyond standard (lexico)-semantic relations – is difficult to recognise for natural language processing systems. Machine learning models give predictions which are only moderately correlated with the evocation strength. It is believed that ordinary graph measures are not as good at this task as methods based on vector representations. The paper proposes a new method of enriching the WordNet structure with weighted polysemy and gloss links, and proves that Dijkstra’s algorithm performs equally as well as other more sophisticated measures when set together with such expanded structures. Rozszerzenie WordNetu o glosy i relacje polisemiczne na potrzeby rozpoznawania siły ewokacjiEwokacja – zjawisko skojarzeń zmysłowych wykraczających poza standardowe (leksykalne) relacje semantyczne – jest trudne do rozpoznania dla systemów przetwarzania języka naturalnego. Modele uczenia maszynowego dają prognozy tylko umiarkowanie skorelowane z siłą ewokacji. Uważa się, że zwykłe miary grafowe nie są tak dobre w tym zadaniu, jak metody oparte na reprezentacjach wektorowych. Proponujemy nową metodę wzbogacania struktury WordNet o polisemie ważone i linki połysku i udowadniamy, że algorytm Dijkstry zestawiony z tak rozbudowanymi strukturami działa a także inne, bardziej wyrafinowane środki.

The Sociolinguistic Aspect of Ukrainian Russian Child Bilingualism on the Basis of a Survey of Ukrainian FamiliesThe article explores the linguistic situation in Ukraine, where a key sociolinguistic peculiarity is the large-scale spread of various types of Ukrainian–Russian bilingualism. A special focus is put on bilingualism among children speaking two closely related languages, which represents a current language situation beyond any historical or political context. The article describes the peculiarities of the formation of child bilingualism, which are a result of the changing priorities of the primary and secondary tools of communication. The article presents the findings of a survey covering the family environment, undertaken in order to identify key trends in children's speech in Ukraine. This knowledge subsequently allows for the tracing of the correlation between a mother tongue / parents' second language, the language of family communication, and the national language in Ukraine. Moreover, it helps when it comes to the decision of whether or not to introduce bilingual practices in the early stages of the linguistic personality formation of a child. The concept of a ‘bilingual linguistic personality' is covered, and certain aspects pertaining to how bilingual children perceive the world are listed. The article takes into consideration the issues and criteria of the ‘mother tongue' concept in bilingual settings. The notion of ‘linguistic code switching' is characterized, as well as its impact on the formation of bilingual communicative competence in children. A focus is laid on the use of mixed forms of Ukrainian–Russian bilingualism in the context of the communicative practices of bilingual children. The article also examines a peculiar type of bilingualism, typical of a certain category of bilingual pre-schoolers and primary school children, in which each party of a communicative act tends to preserve their dominant language in an informal setting. Socjolingwistyczny aspekt ukraińsko-rosyjskiej dwujęzyczności dzieci na podstawie badań rodzin ukraińskichW artykule przedstawiona zostaje sytuacja językowa na Ukrainie, gdzie kluczową osobliwością socjolingwistyczną jest masowe rozprzestrzenianie się różnych typów i rodzajów dwujęzyczności ukraińsko-rosyjskiej. Szczególny nacisk kładzie się na dwujęzyczność dzieci, posługujących się blisko spokrewnionymi językami, która reprezentuje rzeczywistą sytuację językową poza jakimkolwiek kontekstem historycznym lub politycznym. Opisano specyfikę formowania się dwujęzyczności dzieci przez pryzmat zmieniającego się priorytetu pierwotnego i wtórnego medium społecznego dla dziecka. Wyniki badania obejmują środowisko rodzinne, którego analiza jest metodą identyfikacji kluczowych trendów w mowie dzieci na Ukrainie, co pozwala następnie na śledzenie korelacji między językiem ojczystym / drugim językiem rodziców, językiem komunikacji rodzinnej a językiem narodowym na Ukrainie. Ponadto pomaga rozważyć możliwość wprowadzenia / niewprowadzania praktyk dwujęzycznych na wczesnych etapach kształtowania się osobowości językowej dziecka. Omówiono też koncepcję „dwujęzycznej osobowości językowej” i wymieniono pewne aspekty postrzegania świata przez dzieci dwujęzyczne. Rozważono kwestie i kryteria koncepcji „języka ojczystego” w środowiskach dwujęzycznych. Scharakteryzowano pojęcie „przełączania kodu językowego”, a także jego wpływ na kształtowanie się dwujęzycznych kompetencji komunikacyjnych u dzieci. Nacisk położono na wykorzystanie mieszanych form dwujęzyczności ukraińsko-rosyjskiej w kontekście praktyk komunikacyjnych dzieci dwujęzycznych. Poddano analizie osobliwy typ dwujęzyczności, typowy dla pewnej kategorii dwujęzycznych przedszkolaków i dzieci ze szkół podstawowych, kiedy każda strona aktu komunikacji ma tendencję do zachowania swojego dominującego języka w nieformalnym otoczeniu.

Larysa Masenko, “Surzhyk: Mizh Movoju i Jazykom”. Vydavnychyĭ Dim “Kiievo-Mohylians'ka Akademiia”, Kyiv 2019, Ss. 232The reviewed monography is the first vast paper on the phenomenon of the Ukrainian–Russian linguistic contacts. The second edition is extended to include new scientific publications and completed with the respondents answers. The study as a whole depicts the etymology of the name of the phenomenon (Surzhyk), tries to place the phenomenon in the theory of linguistic contacts and gives examples of the use in the respondents answers, literature and the Internet. Larysa Masenko, “Surzhyk: Mizh movoju i jazykom”. Vydavnychyĭ dim “Kiievo-Mohylians'ka Akademiia”, Kyiv 2019, ss. 232Recenzowana monografia jest pierwszą obszerną pracą nad zjawiskiem kontaktów językowych ukraińsko-rosyjskich. Druga edycja jest bardziej rozbudowana o nowe prace naukowe i zilustrowana odpowiedziami respondentów.

The Perception and Comprehension of Audiovisual Advertisements Among Learners of PolishThe main aim of this article is to examine the extent to which international learners of the Polish language are able to understand audio-visual advertisements based on idiomatic phrases. To answer this question, research was conducted amongst students of B2 level or higher, according to the Common European Framework of References for Languages (Council of Europe, 2002). This paper joins two distinct but inseparable disciplines in this field of study – namely marketing and language – in order to demonstrate audio-visual commercial advertising as a language discourse. Postrzeganie i rozumienie reklam audiowizualnych wśród uczących się języka polskiego jako obcegoCelem artykułu jest zbadanie, w jakim stopniu uczący się języka polskiego jako obcego są w stanie zrozumieć audiowizualne przekazy reklamowe, oparte na związkach idiomatycznych. Aby odpowiedzieć na to pytanie, przeprowadzono badania wśród studentów na poziomie B2 lub wyższym, zgodnie z Europejskim systemem kształcenia językowego (Rada Europy, 2002). Artykuł ten łączy dwie odrębne, ale nierozłączne dyscypliny nauki – marketing i lingwistykę – w celu przedstawienia reklamy audiowizualnej jako dyskursu językowego.

Languages and cultures in contact. The place of new speakers in the education system in Upper Lusatia Upper Sorbs are a Slavic minority group living in eastern Germany. The number of Upper Sorbian speakers is diminishing. Upper Sorbs, the majority of whom are Catholics, have a strong ethnic identity based on language, faith, and tradition and they form a rather closed community in relation to the surrounding German population. To counteract the process of language loss, the Sorbs have established an educational project called ‘ Witaj ’. The continuation of this project is the `2 plus’ program of bilingual education in schools, which has been implemented by the federal state of Saxony. The idea behind these initiatives is to connect native Upper Sorbian speakers and learners in order to facilitate the achievement of language competence and to break down existing ethnic boundaries. The realisation of this concept has encountered numerous problems. The German-speaking pupils involved often feel unmotivated to learn Sorbian and are often rejected by the Sorbian-speaking community as (potential) members. This article presents the results of a research project examining the way young people from German-speaking homes who attend one of the Upper Sorbian middle schools acquire Sorbian language competence and how they create an identity in relation/opposition to their Sorbian-speaking peers. The analysis is based on the sociolinguistic observations of language practices conducted in the school in 2017 and on interviews with both native speakers and learners of Upper Sorbian. The article focuses on the following issues: relations between language practices, the necessary conditions for the active use of minority languages by learners, language and interpersonal contact, the acceptance of new speakers, and the creation of ‘communities of practice’. Jezyki i kultury w kontakcie. Miejsce nowomowcow w systemie edukacji na Gornych Łuzycach Łuzyczanie są slowianską mniejszością zamieszkującą we wschodniej cześci Niemiec. Liczba osob poslugujących sie jezykami luzyckimi, w tym jezykiem gornoluzyckim, stale maleje. Gornoluzyczanie, w przewazającej mierze katolicy, tworzą raczej zamknietą wspolnote, opartą o silną tozsamośc etniczną, jezyk, wiare i tradycje. Aby przeciwdzialac procesowi utraty jezyka, Łuzyczanie stworzyli program „ Witaj ”, ktorego kontynuacją byl stworzony przez land Saksonii program dwujezycznego nauczania „2 plus”. Celem tych programow bylo polączenie rodzimych uzytkownikow luzyckiego oraz dzieci uczących sie go, aby umozliwic tym ostatnim zdobywanie kompetencji jezykowych i przelamac istniejące granice etniczne. Realizacja tego pomyslu napotyka jednak liczne problemy. Uczniowie niemieckojezyczni czesto czują sie niezmotywowani do uczenia sie gornoluzyckiego, czesto są tez odrzucani przez luzyckojezyczną wspolnote jako (potencjalni) uzytkownicy luzyckiego. Artykul przedstawia wyniki badan dotyczących sposobu, w jaki mlodzi ludzie z niemieckojezycznych domow chodzący do jednej z gornoluzyckich szkol średnich, zdobywają kompetencje jezykowe i jak tworzą swoją tozsamośc w relacji lub opozycji do ich luzyckojezycznych kolegow. Analiza oparta jest o socjolingwistyczne obserwacje praktyk jezykowych, prowadzonych w szkole w 2017 roku, i na wywiadach z uczniami gornoluzycko- i niemieckojezycznymi. Tekst koncentruje sie na relacji miedzy praktykami jezykowymi, warunkami niezbednymi do tego, zeby jezyk mniejszościowy mogl byc aktywnie uzywany przez uczących sie i tworzeniem relacji miedzy ludźmi, poczucia akceptacji oraz wspolnot praktyki.

The representation of the “emotive-I” of Christina Rossetti’s identity in her children’s poetryThis article concerns the construction of the “emotive-I” of the identity of Christina Rossetti, who wrote children’s poetry. It is revealed that the construction of the “emotive-I” includes the following components: cognitive (knowledge, beliefs, motives, and ideas), affective (emotional and evaluative attitudes towards knowledge and beliefs, and towards oneself and children), and behavioural (the corresponding reaction that stimulates an intentional emotional influence on the object of the texts and is represented in the author’s poetic speech). On the basis of these components it is possible to distinguish the types of the “emotive-I” of C. Rossetti’s identity. The different types of the “emotive-I” include “lyricist”, “optimist”, “prankster”, “humourist”, “dreamer”, “fantasizer”, “cardiocentric”, “pessimist”, and “ingenuous”. The actualization of these types covers a wide range of linguistic means and stylistic techniques in the author’s poetic texts for children. The peculiarities of the poetic speech provoke the desired emotions in the readers, influencing the formation of children’s emotional sphere. Reprezentacja „emocjonalnego ja” tożsamości Christiny Rossetti w jej poezji dziecięcejTen artykuł jest analizą struktury „emocjonalnego ja” tożsamości Christiny Rossetti, autorki poezji dziecięcej. Stwierdza się, że konstrukcja „emocjonalnego ja” obejmuje elementy: poznawcze (wiedza, przekonania, motywy i idee), afektywne (emocjonalne i oceniające postawy wobec wiedzy i przekonań oraz wobec siebie i dzieci) oraz behawioralne (odpowiednia reakcja, która stymuluje celowy emocjonalny wpływ na przedmiot tekstów i jest reprezentowana w poetyckiej mowie autora). Na podstawie wyżej wymienionych elementów możliwy staje się opis różnych typów „emocjonalnego ja” tożsamości C. Rossetti. Różne typy „emocjonalnego ja” obejmują między innymi „autora tekstów”, „optymistę”, „dowcipnisia”, „humorystę”, „marzyciela”, „pesymistę” i „pomysłowy”. Wariacje tożsamości związane są ze stosowaniem szerokiego zakresu środków językowych i technik stylistycznych. Osobliwości poetyckiej mowy wywołują pożądane emocje u czytelników, wpływając na kształtowanie się sfery emocjonalnej dzieci.

A lexicographical approach to the contrastive analysis of Bulgarian and Polish phraseology This article discusses the concept behind The Lexicon of Active Bulgarian and Polish Phraseology [Leksykon aktywnej frazeologii bulgarskiej i polskiej] and provides an overview of the key aspects of the methodology used for selecting and composing the dictionary’s entries. The authors outline the theoretical underpinnings of this project, touching on the issue of interlingual equivalence, and explain both the process of selecting and verifying phraseological material and the methodology of presenting lexicographical information in the Lexicon . The article includes various examples of active phraseological units from both languages. Konfrontacja jezykowa bulgarskiej i polskiej frazeologii – podejście leksykograficzne W artykule przedstawiono podstawowe zalozenia koncepcji i metodologii ukladania Leksykonu aktywnej frazeologii bulgarskiej i polskiej . Autorzy prezentują teoretyczne podstawy badania, poruszają problem ekwiwalencji miedzyjezykowej, zasad wyboru i weryfikacji prezentowanego materialu frazeologicznego, metodologii przedstawienia informacji leksykograficznej w Leksykonie . Material jest zilustrowany roznorodnymi przykladami aktywnych jednostek frazeologicznych w jezyku bulgarskim i polskim.

Settings and participants: analogous semantic extensions in conceptually remote domains This article concerns a phenomenon, claimed to be semantic in nature, which can be observed in expressions from conceptually distant categories. The phenomenon in question consists in the modification of lexical categories in which the form of the words is retained, but their meanings undergo essential, yet analogous, shifts. The two domains selected for the purpose of this study are so-called meteorological expressions (e.g., it’s raining , snow fell etc.) and the names of political states ( France , Mexico , Vietnam etc.). These domains are mutually independent and constitute unrelated areas of knowledge. What is intriguing, however, is the similarity of the semantic shifts, also known as conversion or zero-derivation, which occur in these categories. The term “semantic extension” has been chosen as a convenient shorthand for the phenomenon in question. The article argues that due to altered profiles imposed on essentially the same base, the semantic extension under investigation results in shifts between the profiles of a “setting”, a “participant” and a “process”. In a comparative perspective between the two domains in question, zero-derived settings and participants alternate on a regular basis. The analysis applied here adopts tools exploited in cognitive grammar (e.g., profile, base). If semantic extensions towards settings and participants can be confirmed in such distant domains, further research can be undertaken in other domains. If related semantic effects are found in more domains, the semantic categories of a setting and a participant should be included in descriptive grammars. Scenerie i uczestnicy: analogiczne rozszerzenia semantyczne w pojeciowo odleglych domenach Artykul dotyczy zjawiska o charakterze semantycznym, pojawiającego sie w wyrazeniach z pojeciowo odleglych kategorii. Omawiane efekty stanowią modyfikacje kategorii leksykalnych, w ktorych forma pozostaje zachowana, ale ich znaczenia ulegają istotnym, ale tez analogicznym zmianom. Dwie domeny wybrane do celow tego badania to tak zwane wyrazenia meteorologiczne (np. pada deszcz , spadl śnieg itp.) oraz nazwy panstw ( Francja , Meksyk , Wietnam itd.). Domeny te są od siebie niezalezne i stanowią niepowiązane ze sobą obszary wiedzy. Intrygujące jest jednak podobienstwo semantycznych zmian, zwanych rowniez konwersją lub derywacją zerową, widoczne w tych wyrazeniach. Termin ‘rozszerzenie semantyczne’ bedzie uzywany jako dogodny skrot dla omawianego zjawiska. Artykul dowodzi, ze ze wzgledu na zmienne profile nakladane na zasadniczo te samą baze, badane rozszerzenie semantyczne powoduje przesuniecia miedzy profilami ‘scenerii’, ‘uczestnika’ i ‘procesu’. W perspektywie porownawczej miedzy dwiema domenami, scenerie i uczestnicy regularnie sie zmieniają. Zastosowana analiza uzywa narzedzi wykorzystywanych w gramatyce kognitywnej (np. profil, baza). Jeśli semantyczne rozszerzenia w kierunku scenerii i uczestnikow zostaną potwierdzone w tak odleglych domenach, mozna podjąc dalsze badania w innych domenach. Jeśli powiązane efekty semantyczne wystepują w wiekszej liczbie domen, kategorie semantyczne scenerii i uczestnika powinny zostac uwzglednione w gramatykach opisowych.

The cognitive premises of myth-oriented semiosisThis article addresses the cognitive premises of designation units denoting mythic concepts in a variety of texts and discourses. The article focuses on myth-oriented semiosis as a cognitive and cultural phenomenon reflected in the semantic transformations of lingual signs, resulting in the development of noematic senses relevant to the states of affairs in diverse worldviews or modelled alternative realities. This article provides an analysis of the basic cognitive models and procedures responsible for irrational cognition. The reconstructed cognitive models are then discussed in terms of their correspondence with the universal patterns of open system interaction and information exchange. Poznawcze przesłanki semiozy zorientowanej na mitTen artykuł dotyczy poznawczych przesłanek jednostek desygnacyjnych oznaczających mityczne pojęcia w różnych tekstach i dyskursach. Artykuł koncentruje się na semiozie zorientowanej na mit jako zjawisku poznawczym i kulturowym odzwierciedlonym w semantycznych przekształceniach znaków językowych, co skutkuje rozwojem noematycznych zmysłów związanych ze stanami rzeczy w różnych światopoglądach lub modelowanych alternatywnych rzeczywistościach. Ten artykuł zawiera analizę podstawowych modeli i procedur poznawczych odpowiedzialnych za irracjonalne poznanie. Zrekonstruowane modele poznawcze są następnie omawiane pod kątem ich zgodności z uniwersalnymi wzorcami interakcji otwartego systemu i wymiany informacji.

Forms of Address as Discrete Modal Operators The category of expressions of politeness includes, among others, forms of address. Forms of address express honorification. Honorification can be defined as a special type of meaning that consists of information about the social and interpersonal relations between the speaker and the addressee, the speaker and the hearer, and the speaker and the protagonist of the predication. As far as their place in the syntactic structure is concerned, forms of address can either be integrated with the other elements of a predication or not. However, they are always part of a predication’s semantic structure. Moreover, forms of address convey the speaker’s attitude to the meaning of the predicate that they want to convey, which consequently means that forms of address also carry a modal element. Modality can be defined as a situation in which an individual is in a particular mental state, i.e. exhibits some kind of attitude to a situation or a type of situations. Forms of address can be categorised as modal operators conveying imperatives, requests, suppositions, etc. The term "operator" can be used for a unit of language when it changes the semantic structure of the predication. My research on honorification is mainly based on contemporary corpora, both monolingual and multilingual. In the present study, I analyse forms of address which carry imperative and optative meanings. Formy adresatywne jako dyskretne operatory modalne W obrebie wyrazen realizujących funkcje grzecznościowe znajduje sie grupa form adresatywnych. Są one cześcią kategorii honoryfikatywności rozumianej jako szczegolny rodzaj znaczenia zawartego w treści wypowiedzi, informacje o towarzysko-spolecznej relacji miedzy nadawcą a odbiorcą, nadawcą a sluchaczem oraz nadawcą a bohaterem wypowiedzi. Gramatycznie formy adresatywne mogą byc zarowno zintegrowane, jak i niezintegrowane syntaktycznie z resztą wypowiedzi, ale zawsze są cześcią semantycznej struktury zdania. Wyrazają one takze stosunek mowiącego do komunikatu, jaki przekazuje odbiorcom komunikatu, i tym samym mają przekaz modalny. Przez modalnośc autor rozumie sytuacje, w ktorej dane indywiduum (osoba) znajduje sie w danym stanie mentalnym, tj. ma określony stosunek do szeregu sytuacji i typow sytuacji. Formy adresatywne mozna uznac za dyskretne operatory modalne zawierające takie treści, jak: rozkazuje ci, zycze sobie, przypuszczam i in. Termin ,,operator" uzywany jest w przypadkach, w ktorych mozemy go wskazac jako nośnika zmian w semantycznej strukturze zdania. Wspolczesne badania nad honoryfikatywnością autor opiera glownie na obecnie opracowywanych narodowych korpusach wielojezycznych rownoleglych i jednojezycznych i analizuje formy adresatywne o znaczeniu imperatywnym i optatywnym.

Between Galileo and Darwin, or Towards a Unified Mode of Idealization in Cognitive Linguistics The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that Cognitive Linguistics is in need of a coherent model through which the meaning of symbolic units can be represented. Departing from the premise that scientific theorizing requires taking a stance on the nature of idealization, the current discussion concentrates on cognitive linguists’ perspectives on the process, and reveals a lack of uniformity in the models proposed. On the whole, generalizations in Cognitive Linguistics are conducted in a manner reflecting the basic commitments of the approach, and hence the idealized models discussed strive to capture the embodied nature of cognition reflected in the semantic poles of symbolic units. However, a detailed analysis shows that a number of significant choices underlying the process of abstraction are random. Consequently, the modes of idealization revealed through semantic frames and cognitive domains lead to the emergence of barely compatible semantic categories which are assumed to represent the meaning of the same symbolic unit. It is thus postulated that if Cognitive Linguistics aspires to become a mature scientific theory, whose constructs and hypotheses can be operationalized and falsified, it needs to develop a more unified framework in which the situated and distributed natures of meaning are accounted for in a motivated manner. Miedzy Galileuszeam a Aarwinem albo o spojnym modelu idealizacji w jezykoznawstwie kognitywnym Celem niniejszego artykulu jest wskazanie konieczności stworzenia spojnego modelu reprezentacji znaczeniowej jednostek symbolicznych w obrebie jezykoznawstwa kognitywnego. Przyjmując jako punkt wyjścia zalozenie, ze podstawą budowania teorii naukowych jest idealizacja, dokonany zostaje przegląd modeli reprezentacji semantycznej, proponowanych przez czolowych jezykoznawcow kognitywnych. Analiza wyidealizowanych modeli kognitywnych w ujeciu Fillmore’a (1985), Lakoffa (1987) i Langackera (1987) wskazuje na zbiezności na poziomie ogolnym, czyli na zgodnośc, iz biegun semantyczny jednostki symbolicznej winien odzwierciedlac ucieleśnioną nature poznania. Na poziomie szczegolowym jednakze mozna zauwazyc szereg rozbiezności miedzy omawianymi modelami, wynikających z nieuzasadnionych wyborow badaczy dotyczących sposobu abstrahowania. W rezultacie wykazano, ze znaczenie tej samej jednostki symbolicznej jest w jezykoznawstwie kognitywnym definiowane odmiennie, w zalezności od przyjetej procedury idealizacji. Zaobserwowane niekonsekwencje metodologiczne podają w wątpliwośc dojrzalośc jezykoznawstwa kognitywnego jako teorii naukowej.

Towards the Application of Speech Act Theory to Opinion Mining The paper refers to the pragmatics’ perspective on opinion mining in Polish and English, inspired by the discrepancy between the coverage of sentiment analysis and the market demand. An analysis of speech acts expressed in opinion texts reveals that almost half of all opinions include ways of indirect evaluation that might not get extracted while applying traditional methods of sentiment analysis based on direct evaluative vocabulary and polarity lexicons. Coding of sentiment with respect to speech acts could vastly broaden data mining results within an NLP-system. O zastosowaniu teorii aktow mowy w ekstrakcji danych z tekstow opinii internetowych Jedno z aktualnych zagadnien jezykoznawstwa komputerowego, jakim jest automatyczne badanie wydźwieku wypowiedzi, nie uwzglednilo dotychczas w wystarczającym stopniu pragmatyki jezykoznawczej, np. aktow mowy Austina (1961) i Searla (1969), a zatem rowniez implicytnych sposobow wyrazania ewaluacji. Tymczasem podejście od pragmatyki ku konstrukcjom przelozonym na reguly programistyczne umozliwiloby nie tylko szersze spojrzenie na analize sentymentu, ale tez zblizyloby automat do sposobu, w jaki odbiera go czlowiek. W szczegolności chodzi tu sposoby wyrazania (nie)zadowolenia wykraczające poza poziom leksykalny (bez nacechowanej negatywnie leksyki), typu Nigdy wiecej tam nie pojde . Artykul prezentuje: 1. aktualne podejścia do analizy wydźwieku w lingwistyce komputerowej, 2. propozycje zastosowania podejścia pragmatycznego, 3. wyniki badania probki tekstow opinii internetowych pod kątem wystepowania w nich aktow mowy, 4. propozycje utworzenia regul ekstrakcji danych na ich podstawie. Zaprezentowane podejście zaklada hipoteze wtornej oralności, czyli tego, ze jezyk opinii jest zapisanym jezykiem mowionym.

A Short History of Polish-Ukrainian Terminography Specialised dictionaries fulfil a plethora of linguistic and cognitive functions in specialised communication. In particular, such reference works help introduce, harmonise and standardise national terminologies, thus playing an indispensable role in disseminating high quality specialised knowledge. An even more important role may be attributed to bilingual and multilingual specialised dictionaries, whose primary goal is to facilitate the flow of scientific and technical information at an international level. This function has come to the fore in today’s multinational and interconnected professional world. In light of the developing and ever stronger cooperation between Poland and Ukraine, an attempt is being made to evaluate bilingual and multilingual terminographic works containing Polish and Ukrainian which have been published in Poland to date. The aim is to assess the positive developments and to identify the gaps in Polish-Ukrainian terminography. It is hoped that the findings presented in this paper will be applied by terminographers in order to compile terminological dictionaries of higher quality, which satisfy the needs of specific users and follow terminographic principles. Krotka historia terminografii polsko-ukrainskiej Slowniki specjalistyczne pelnią wazne funkcje lingwistyczne i kognitywne w komunikacji specjalistycznej. W szczegolności dziela terminograficzne umozliwiają rozpowszechnianie, harmonizacje i standaryzacje terminologii narodowych, stając sie niezbednym narzedziem w transferze wysokiej jakości wiedzy specjalistycznej. Jeszcze wazniejszą role mozna przypisac dwu- i wielojezycznym slownikom specjalistycznym, ktorych prymarnym celem jest ulatwienie przeplywu informacji naukowej i technicznej w wymiarze globalnym, szczegolnie w dzisiejszym jednoczącym sie, wielonarodowościowym świecie. W świetle rozwijającej sie coraz ściślejszej wspolpracy miedzy Polską i Ukrainą w niniejszym artykule autor podejmuje sie proby oceny opublikowanych w Polsce dwu- i wielojezycznych dziel terminograficznych z jezykami polskim i ukrainskim. Celem badania byla ewaluacja pozytywnych oraz negatywnych aspektow praktyki terminograficznej polsko-ukrainskiej. Autor ma nadzieje, ze wnioski przedstawione w niniejszej pracy znajdą zastosowanie w praktyce przy tworzeniu slownikow coraz lepszej jakości, odpowiadających potrzebom konkretnych grup odbiorcow oraz stosujących zasady wspolczesnej terminografii.

A Semantic-Cognitive Analysis of the Concept of Ukraine in the Speeches of B. Obama (2014) This article presents a semantic-cognitive analysis of the concept of Ukraine, verbally represented in the speeches of the American President, Barack Obama. The peculiarities of the President’s worldview are highlighted. The objective of the article is as follows. Firstly, it aims to demonstrate that the concept of Ukraine is verbally represented in the speeches of Obama. This means that Ukraine as a country, moving towards democracy despite the war with Russia, is an object of focus for American leaders. Secondly, the article suggests that there is a connection between the concept described, its pragmatic orientation and its cognitive processes. Thirdly, it describes the semantic peculiarities of the concept of Ukraine in the political speeches of the American leader, which are due to the role Ukraine plays in the local and regional context. Our research is based on the content-analysis of political speeches delivered by American President. The functional, communicative and pragmatic orientation of the speeches is highlighted. In line with the approaches of cognitive scholars, the article concludes that the concept of Ukraine is a complex semantic-cognitive structure that consists of core, transition zone and periphery. During the research for this article, fifteen speeches made by Obama in 2014 were analysed. This research presupposes the application of content analysis. It is relevant in the analysis of international relations with respect to the notions used by President Obama in his speeches delivered during 2014 in the relations between: the USA - Ukraine, Ukraine - Russia, the USA - Russia, and Europe - Ukraine. Semantyczno-kognitywna analiza konceptu „Ukraina” w przemowieniach B. Obamy (2014) Artykul przedstawia semantyczno-kognitywną analize konceptu „Ukraina”, werbalnie zaprezentowanego w przemowieniach amerykanskiego prezydenta B. Obamy. Autor podkreśla cechy szczegolne konceptualnego obrazu świata prezydenta Stanow Zjednoczonych. Cele artykulu są nastepujące: 1. Pokazanie, ze koncept „Ukraina” jest werbalnie obecny w przemowieniach B. Obamy. Oznacza to, ze Ukraina jako panstwo kroczące drogą demokracji mimo wojny z Rosją lezy w kregu zainteresowan amerykanskich liderow. 2. Zasugerowanie, ze istnieje powiązanie pomiedzy opisywanym konceptem, jego orientacją pragmatyczną i procesami kognitywnymi. 3. Koniecznośc opisu semantycznych cech szczegolnych konceptu „Ukraina” w przemowieniach politycznych amerykanskiego lidera ze wzgledu na role Ukrainy w lokalnym i regionalnym kontekście. Podkreślam funkcjonalną, komunikatywną i pragmatyczną orientacje politycznych przemowien. Zgodnie z podejściem badaczy kognitywnych dochodze do wniosku, ze koncept „Ukraina” jest kompleksem semantyczno-kognitywnej struktury zawierającym strefe przejściową i peryferyjną. Podczas przeprowadzonego badania autor przejrzal pietnaście przemowien wygloszonych przez amerykanskiego prezydenta B. Obame w 2014 roku. Badanie zaklada zastosowanie analizy treści. Jest przydatne w analizie stosunkow miedzynarodowych, w odniesieniu do pojec uzytych przez prezydenta Obame w przemowieniach wygloszonych w 2014 roku w nastepujących formatach: USA-Ukraina, Ukraina-Rosja, USA-Rosja i Europa-Ukraina.

The data-driven Bulgarian WordNet: BTBWNThe paper presents our work towards the simultaneous creation of a data-driven WordNet for Bulgarian and a manually annotated treebank with semantic information. Such an approach requires synchronization of the word senses in both - syntactic and lexical resources, without limiting the WordNet senses to the corpus or vice versa. Our strategy focuses on the identification of senses used in BulTreeBank, but the missing senses of a lemma also have been covered through exploration of bigger corpora. The identified senses have been organized in synsets for the Bulgarian WordNet. Then they have been aligned to the Princeton WordNet synsets. Various types of mappings are considered between both resources in a cross-lingual aspect and with respect to ensuring maximum connectivity and potential for incorporating the language specific concepts. The mapping between the two WordNets (English and Bulgarian) is a basis for applications such as machine translation and multilingual information retrieval. Oparty na danych WordNet bułgarski: BTBWNW artykule przedstawiono naszą pracę na rzecz jednoczesnej budowy opartego na danych wordnetu dla języka bułgarskiego oraz ręcznie oznaczonego informacjami semantycznymi banku drzew. Takie podejście wymaga uzgodnienia znaczeń słów zarówno w zasobach składniowych, jak i leksykalnych, bez ograniczania znaczeń umieszczanych w wordnecie do tych obecnych w korpusie, jak i odwrotnie. Nasza strategia koncentruje się na identyfikacji znaczeń stosowanych w BulTreeBank, przy czym brakujące znaczenia lematu zostały również zbadane przez zgłębienie większych korpusów. Zidentyfikowane znaczenia zostały zorganizowane w synsety bułgarskiego wordnetu, a następnie powiązane z synsetami Princeton WordNet. Rozmaite rodzaje rzutowań są rozpatrywane pomiędzy obydwoma zasobami w kontekście międzyjęzykowym, a także w odniesieniu do zapewnienia maksymalnej łączności i możliwości uwzględnienia pojęć specyficznych dla języka bułgarskiego. Rzutowanie między dwoma wordnetami (angielskim i bułgarskim) jest podstawą dla aplikacji, takich jak tłumaczenie maszynowe i wielojęzyczne wyszukiwanie informacji.

The semantic classification of adjectives in the Bulgarian Wordnet: Towards a multiclass approachThe paper presents an attempt at semantic classification of adjectives in the Bulgarian wordnet. Although designed for the Bulgarian wordnet, the classification can be applied to other wordnets which are developed in parallel to the Princeton WordNet. The classification relies on information that is already available in WordNet from other synsets (noun, verb, and other adjective synsets) that are linked to the adjective synsets via lexico-semantic relations - including their semantic classes, as well as definitions and usage examples. The first stage of the work was already presented at the workshop "Challenges for WordNets" within the conference "Language, Data and Knowledge 2017". The continuation of the effort as described in this article, covers a proposal for introducing additional semantic classes to the adjective synsets (if applicable). Semantyczna klasyfikacja przymiotników w bułgarskim Wordnecie: w kierunku podejścia wielopłaszczyznowegoW pracy przedstawiono próbę semantycznej klasyfikacji przymiotników w bułgarskim wordnecie. Chociaż została ona zaprojektowana dla wordnetu bułgarskiego, klasyfikacja może być zastosowana w innych wordnetach, które są rozwijane równolegle do Princeton WordNet. Klasyfikacja opiera się na informacjach, które są już dostępne w bułgarskim wordnecie pozyskanych z innych synsetów (rzeczownikowych, czasownikowych i innych przymiotnikowych), powiązanych z synsetami przymiotnikowymi poprzez relacje leksykalno-semantyczne, w tym ich klasy semantyczne, a także definicje i przykłady użycia. Pierwszy etap pracy został już przedstawiony, a kolejny obejmuje propozycję wprowadzenia dodatkowych klas semantycznych w synsetach przymiotnikowych (w stosownych przypadkach).

The coral of your lips, the stars of your eyes – the function of the genitive case in a particular kind of genitive metaphor compared to other semantic functions of this case (based on examples in the Polish language) This paper attempts to explicate the meanings of expressions representing a specific type of genitive metaphor – binding two notions by the rule of conventional, surface sameness. This article aims to prove that the genitive function that appears in this kind of expression is part of a general pattern modelling the semantic roles of this case. This pattern presents the genitive as a lingual indicator of the relation between a "smaller range" object and a "larger range" object and explains the essence of the semantic function appearing not only in this particular type of genitive metaphor, but also in structures such as genetivus definitivus . Ust korale, gwiazdy oczu – rola dopelniacza w szczegolnym typie metafory dopelniaczowej na tle innych rol semantycznych tego przypadka (na przykladach w jezyku polskim) Artykyl prezentuje probe eksplikacji znaczen wyrazen reprezentujących pewien szczegolny typ metafory dopelniaczowej – wiązącej dwa pojecia na zasadzie umownej, pozornej, tozsamości. Proba ta ma na celu udowodnienie, ze rola dopelniacza, ktora ujawnia sie w opisywanym typie wyrazen, wpisuje sie w ogolny schemat modelujący role semantyczne tego przypadka. Schemat ten ujmuje dopelniacz jako jezykowy wykladnik stosunku obiektu o „mniejszym zakresie” do obiektu mającego „wiekszy zakres” i pozwala wyjaśnic istote roli semantycznej uwidoczniającej sie nie tylko w szczegolnym typie metafory dopelniaczowej, ale takze w konstrukcjach takich, jak genetivus definitivus .

Sustainable long-term WordNet development and maintenance: Case study of the Czech WordNetCzech WordNet represents one of the first national wordnets created during the EuroWordNet and BalkaNet projects. However, the data contains various issues that affect the use of Czech WordNet in NLP applications. Since the publication of the first CzWN version, the semantic network was augmented in several phases, however, complex final editing and publishing process has not been finished. In 2017, we have started a project to evaluate and update the Czech WordNet, followed by a connection to the Collaborative Interlingual Index. In this paper, we provide an overview of Czech WordNet data updates and extensions, and present the roadmap to publish a revised version of the Czech WordNet under open license. Moreover, we introduce a developed concept for long-term updates and maintenance of the data based on crowdsourcing activities. Zrównoważony i długafalowy proces rozwoju i utrzymania wordnetu na przykładzie wordnetu czeskiegoCzeski WordNet jest jednym z pierwszych narodowych wordnetów powstałych podczas projektów EuroWordNet i BalkaNet. Jednakże dane zawierają błędy, które wpływają na używanie czeskiego wordnetu w aplikacjach NLP. Od momentu opublikowania pierwszej wersji czeskiego wordnetu sieć semantyczna została rozszerzona w kilku etapach, jednak złożony proces końcowej edycji i publikacji nie został jeszcze zakończony. W roku 2017 zaczęliśmy projekt mający na celu ocenę i aktualizację czeskiego wordnetu, a następnie połączenie go z Collaborative Interlingual Index. W danym artykule przedstawiamy ogólny zarys uaktualnień i rozszerzeń zawartości czeskiego wordnetu, a także prezentujemy plan działania, który doprowadzi do publikacji udoskonalonej wersji czeskiego wordnetu na otwartej licencji. Ponadto prezentujemy opracowaną koncepcję długoterminowych uaktualnień i utrzymania danych w oparciu o działania crowdsourcingowe.

Empirical Verification of the Polish Formula of Text DifficultyThe aim of the study was to verify the accuracy of the formula for assessing the difficulty of texts written in Polish (Pisarek 1969). The study involved 1,309 persons aged between 15 and 84. 15 texts were used, each approximately 300 words long, representing different subjects and varied difficulty level. Text comprehension was checked with multiple choice tests, the cloze procedure and open-ended questions. Significant correlations between the difficulty of a text and its comprehension were found (rmc(15) = -0.529, p = 0.043; ropen = -0.519, p = 0.047; rcloze = -0.656, p = 0.008). The results confirmed relative accuracy and usefulness of Pisarek's readability formula. The discussion includes proposed ways of improving the current form of the formula.

On Redundancy in Describing Linguistic SystemsThe notion of system of linguistic elements figures prominently in most post-Saussurian linguistics up to the present. A “system” is the network of the contrastive (or, distinctive) features each element in the system bears to the remaining elements. The meaning (valeur) of each element in the system is the set of features that are necessary and jointly sufficient to distinguish this element from all others. The paper addresses the problems of “redundancy”, i.e. the occurrence of features that are not strictly necessary in describing an element in a system. Redundancy is shown to smuggle into the description of linguistic systems, this infelicitous practice illustrated with some examples from the literature (e.g. the classical phonemic analysis of Russian by Cherry, Halle, and Jakobson, 1953). The logic and psychology of the occurrence of redundancy are briefly sketched and it is shown that, in addition to some other problems, redundancy leads to a huge and unresolvable ambiguity of descriptions of linguistic systems (the Buridan’s ass problem).

Lexical Means in Communicating Emotion in Suicide Notes - on the Basis of the Polish Corpus of Suicide NotesPolish Corpus of Suicide Notes (PCSN) is a relatively large set of authentic suicide notes that are linguistically annotated on several levels. In order to identify features characteristic for this genre we compared PCSN with the collected subcorpus of counterfeited suicide notes. In this paper we focus on the lexical means of expressing emotions. Our goal was to analyse ways of expressing emotions in this specific genre. Our initial list of lexical markers was based on Markowski’s list of the lexis common for different genres. The list was next expanded with the help of the plWordNet 2.0 — a lexico-semantic network. The expansion was based on the manually selected noun and verb hypernymy branches according to their correspondence to the elements of the initial list. For words from the extended list, a quantitative analysis was performed for both authentic and fake suicide notes. We have also analysed the use of the lexical markers of emotions, feelings and emotional states, as well as emotion operators, and ways of expressing personal evaluation, affection and hate.

Digital Lexicographic Systems and Traditional Paper Dictionaries (From Traditional Paper Dictionaries to Digital Lexicographic Systems)Main problems of modern lexicography are under analysis. The theory of lexicographical systems is presented as well as its applications for the description of the structure of lexicographical systems for new digital Ukrainian Explanatory Dictionary and Etymological Dictionary of Ukrainian Language. The concept of virtual lexicographical laboratories is presented. The implementation of two virtual lexicographical laboratories is given (the first for Ukrainian Explanatory Dictionary and next for Etymological Dictionary of Ukrainian Language).

Digital Corpora and their Applications in Semantic Studies and LexicographyThe paper describes the first Bulgarian-Polish digital resources — parallel and comparable corpora, and their applications in the semantic studies and lexicography for creation of Bulgarian-Polish digital dictionary, a significant part of these bilingual resources. Some examples show how valuable the links between the bilingual aligned corpus and the digital dictionary are. The first Bulgarian-Polish digital resources are the main result of collaborative work between the Institute of Mathematics and Informatics of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (IMI-BAS) and the Institute of Slavic Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences (ISS-PAS), established for the first time in 2006.

Towards the Methodology for Extending Princeton WordNetThe paper presents the methodology and results of the first, pilot stage of the extension of Princeton WordNet, a huge electronic English language thesaurus and lexico-semantic network based on synsets, ie. sets of synonymous lexical units, or lemma sense pairs. The necessity for such extension arose in the course of mapping plWordNet (Polish WordNet — Słowosieć) onto Princeton WordNet, which produced a large number of inter-lingual hyponymy links signalling differences in the structure and lexical coverage of the two networks. The proposed strategy uses I-hyponymy links as pointers to presumed gaps in the lexical coverage of PrincetonWordNet and offers strategies of filling them in with new lexical units and synsets.

English Language Error Analysis of the Written Texts Produced by Ukrainian Learners: Data CollectionRecently, the studies of second language acquisition have tended to focus on learners errors as they help to predict the difficulties involved in acquiring a second language. Thus, teachers can be made aware of the difficult areas to be encountered by the students and pay special attention and devote emphasis to them. The research goals of the article are to define what error analysis is and how it is important in L2 teaching process, to state the significance of corpus studies in identifying of different types of errors and mistakes, to provide the results of error analysis of the corpus of written texts produced by Ukrainian learners. In this article, major types of errors in English as a second language for Ukrainian students are mentioned.

Ways of Conceptualising Male and Female Genitalia in Spanish and Polish: a Contrastive StudyThe article deals with the reconstruction of the ways of conceptualising male and female genitalia encoded in Spanish and Polish lexicon. In order to carry out our investigation we propose a 5-stage analytical procedure based on the ideas developed previously by Pragglejaz Group in 2007 and by the investigators from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul in 2009. We pretend to demonstrate that the metalexicographic analysis applied to cognitive studies enables us to observe some interesting linguistic trends which reflect sociocultural attitudes towards, among others, erotic issues.

On the Benefits of Foreign Language Learning Based on Parallel Language CorpusA recently observed strong interest in language corpora, which can be defined as a collection of texts in an electronic format, as well as my work within the European Project Clarin on ‘The Parallel Polish-Bulgarian-Russian Corpus’ became the reason for writing the text concerning the use of the parallel language corpus for learning a foreign language. The article discusses the benefits resulting from the use of such a corpus in learning a foreign language, describes selected corpus language tools supporting the learning process as well as indicates some threats arising from the wrong use of the corpus.

Towards a Linguistically-Oriented Textual Entailment Test-Suite for Polish Based on the Semantic Syntax ApproachThe aim of this programmatic position paper is to show that the semantic syntax tradition of Polish linguistics associated with the name of Stanisław Karolak may be a basis for the development of a taxonomy of entailment types and a corresponding test-suite of entailment examples. The article also puts forward some initial desiderata for such a test-suite.

Discursive and communicative strategies of persuasion in opinion forming media: the case of film reviews This study aims at analysing the discourse as a way of using language for specific purposes. On the basis of a corpus consisting of forty reviews of the French comedy Intouchables (2011) selected from various film magazines and web pages, the author offers a reflection on the nature and functions of the genre “film review”. Thus, different invariant elements of the mentioned genre can be established in the light of discursive and communicative strategies whose persuasive dimension is connected both with the presence of informative and evaluative elements about the film and the situation of the participants. Thanks to the described strategies, activating various kinds of hidden and connotative meaning i.e. implications, presuppositions, cultural associations, the journalist contributes to the co-creation of human perception. Dominika Topa-Bryniarska

The Slavic Translation Lexicography Theory and Practice: on the Material of the Stable Word UnitsThe paper deals with the idea of the need for the dictionaries of stable units in each of the Slavic language. The register of the lexicographical works must include the word equivalents, phraseological units terminological units. For a new type of the dictionary the principles its arrangement are established. It is proved that such work will open new horizons for the further theoretical observations on the properties of the language system as well as its practical mastering. The dictionaries of the stable units will be of particular importance to the field of Slavic translation.

Quality of Multilingual Specialised Lexicography in PolandThe aim of this paper is to evaluate the state of multilingual specialised lexicography in Poland over a period of almost 70 years. Based on the analysis of macro- and microstructures of multilingual dictionaries published in Poland since 1945, the study offers a thorough insight into the key parameters of such works, including their general lexicographic structure, presentation of the content as well as potential usefulness for users. Compared with the achievements of theoretical lexicography, the terminographic analysis has enabled the author to draw meaningful conclusions and put forward applicative proposals for future dictionaries.

Force Dynamics of Verb ComplementationThe concepts of motion and force are both extensively discussed in cognitive linguistics literature. But they are discussed separately. The first usually in the context of ‘motion situations’ (Talmy, Slobin, Zlatev), the other as part of the Force Dynamics framework, which was developed by Talmy. The aim of this paper is twofold: first, to argue that the concepts of force and motion should not be isolated but considered as two inseparable parts of force-motion events. The second goal is to prove that the modified Force Dynamics (force-motion) framework can be used for precise characterization of the verb complementation patterns. To this end, a random sample of 50 sentences containing the verb ‘went’ is analyzed, demonstrating the differences between the categories of intensive and intransitive complementation with respect to the linguistically coded parameters of force and motion.

Towards an event annotated corpus of PolishThe paper presents a typology of events built on the basis of TimeML specification adapted to Polish language. Some changes were introduced to the definition of the event categories and a motivation for event categorization was formulated. The event annotation task is presented on two levels – ontology level (language independent) and text mentions (language dependant). The various types of event mentions in Polish text are discussed. A procedure for annotation of event mentions in Polish texts is presented and evaluated. In the evaluation a randomly selected set of documents from the Corpus of Wrocław University of Technology (called KPWr) was annotated by two linguists and the annotator agreement was calculated. The evaluation was done in two iterations. After the first evaluation we revised and improved the annotation procedure. The second evaluation showed a significant improvement of the agreement between annotators. The current work was focused on annotation and categorisation of event mentions in text. The future work will be focused on description of event with a set of attributes, arguments and relations.

How to analyze contextuality of metatextual language units? Notes on the relation: TRS – particle semanticsThe presented article is devoted to further (after Kisiel 2010) discussion about contextuality of metatextual language units, especially particles. Having selected contextual particles as an example, the author shows how specific structuralisation of TRS is strictly connected with particle meaning. The observation leads to the conclusion that examination of TRS cannot be avoided when analysing particles. Untangling particles meaning has to be based on describing the TRS they work on. Such a procedure has been only recently applied to Polish lexicography.

The linguistic aspect of strategic framing in modern political campaignsThe following article describes the role of semantics in political marketing, emphasizing the mechanism of framing and perspectivising in discourse. The complexity of the framing process is discussed in the introduction, then the linguistic aspect of political framing is debated and the technique of wording formulation in political discourse analyzed. Finally, implications and conclusions for further research are presented. Examples of political framing provided within the paper are based on the analysis of contemporary public discourses.

Interpretation formulas for conjunctions and particles in the explanatory Ukrainian language dictionaryInterpretation formulas for conjunctions and particles in the Ukrainian Language Dictionary are defined. The peculiarities of presenting lexical semantics for these parts of speech in the explanatory part of the dictionary entry are described. The way of presenting interpretation formulas using synonyms is also described.

A contrastive view of adjectives in Croatian, Polish and English: subjectification as a local phenomenonA study of English adjectives (Athanasiadou 2006) suggested that subjectification (defined as the degree to which the conceptualizer plays a role in construing the objective scene; Langacker 2000) may be helpful in examining the various uses of adjectives in English. In this paper we attempt to do the same, comparing and contrasting three languages: English (as the point of reference), and Croatian and Polish. Croatian and Polish were selected because they allow relatively free combinations, with the caveat that Polish uses postposition for classifying senses. We examine whether subjectification may be taken as the organizing principle behind the prenominal, postnominal and predicative positions found in the three languages, i.e. whether the role of subjectification is global – working across constructions, or local – working within a construction. Examples from three languages showed that although subjectification does play a role in the various positions, it may not be taken as the organizing principle behind the differences. We argue that this is due to the fact that subjectification is a local phenomenon which works within a single construction, which is delimited formally and functionally. This is corroborated by other subjectified constructions. We believe that this is due to the gradual nature of subjectification, which requires recoverable links to previous stages.

Syntactic-semantic treebank for domain ontology creationThis paper focuses on the creation of a domain treebank for the purposes of compiling a domain ontology. The domain treebank is viewed as a suitable resource for extracting of semantic relations from syntactic structures. First, the steps for ontology building are considered. Then, the processing over glossaries and standards is described with regard to their syntactic annotation. The utility of deriving semantic knowledge from the Treebank is also illustrated via the basic phrases. The idea is that the domain knowledge is represented in the domain data, but via treebanking more linguistic patterns can be extracted, which to be mapped to concepts and relations in a domain ontology.

Lexical exponents of hypothetical modality in Polish and LithuanianThe article focuses on the lexical exponents of hypothetical modality in Polish and Lithuanian. The purpose for comparing and contrasting the lexical exponents of hypothetical modality is not only to identify all the lexemes in both languages but also find the answer to the following question: whether the morphological exponents of hypothetical modality (so-called modus relativus) familiar to the Lithuanian language have/had an influence on limiting the number of the lexical exponents and the frequency of using these exponents in the Lithuanian language (in comparison with Polish).To analyse both the languages there is used the method of theoretical contrastive studies, which the most important features are: (1) orienting the studies from the content grounds to the formal grounds, (2) using a semantic interlanguage as tertium comparationis. First of all, the content of hypothetical modality and its definition and paraphrase is given here. Next, the gradational character of this category is discussed. There are distinguished six groups of lexemes expressing the corresponding degrees of hypothetical modality — from a shadow of uncertainty (minimal degree of probability) to an almost complete certainty (maximum degree of probability). The experimental Polish-Lithuanian corpus is widely applied in the studies.

Analytic tendencies in modern Polish and RussianModern Polish and Russian are characterized by some features which demonstrate an increasing level of analitism. In the process of transformation from synthetic to analytical language, a crucial role is played by prepositional units. In this research, analitism is understood in a traditional way as a morphological and syntactic phenomenon. The fact that the synthetic structure of a language may, in some conditions, turn into an analytical one, as happened in the case of Bulgarian and Macedonian, has been intriguing linguists ever since, and has made me attempt to answer the question: What is the condition of modern Polish and Russian, which are languages with a rich literary tradition and solid grammatical norms, which belong to a group of synthetic languages? The analytical tendencies in morphology include the following: a decrease in the number of cases in all inflected parts of speech; a more frequent use of uninflected nouns and adjectives; the growing importance of nouns with common gender, and, in particular, the use of forms of masculine gender to depict feminine gender; differences in expressing collectiveness in a group of nouns (using collective meaning for forms that have singular meaning; substituting case forms with prepositions; substituting case forms with subordinate clauses; substituting case forms with “helper” words. Analytical tendencies in the area of numeral functioning include: substituting inflected forms of ordinal numerals with cardinal ones; the gradual disappearing inflection of numerals; confusing the forms of noun cases after numerals; the disappearing declination of collective numerals; displacing other cases with so-called simple cases; changing the syntactical position which the numeral should be inflected in; abandoning the declination of first elements of collective numerals. During the study of analytic tendencies in morphology, it was necessary to examine personal pronouns as this part of speech seems to be the most stable as far as other forms except nominative are concerned. Having analysed the material, it can be claimed that analitism in Slavic pronouns is observed at the level of the replacement of short forms with full ones, through the use of various forms after prepositions and eliminating all the alternative forms of personal pronouns. This review of analytic tendencies has also involved studying the article and its role in analytic languages, as the article is the area of a language which should be filled while the inflection disappears. Having analysed the material, I have concluded that there is a possibility that the article may appear in Polish and Russian.The most important part of speech in analytic languages is the preposition. An increase in the number of prepositional units is said to be an essential element of syntactic transformation in 20th century Polish and Russian i.e. their ongoing transformation from synthetic into analytic languages. In accordance with this tendency, secondary prepositions are gradually replacing proper prepositions and case forms in their traditional usage. The secondary preposition has been defined as a lexical unit, not being a preposition initially but used secondarily in this function. Such a definition requires adopting a functional perspective in the description, more so because the transformation of various language units (nouns, prepositional phrases, adverbs, conjunction, phraseological nexuses) into prepositions takes place gradually and the same set can be interpreted otherwise in different contexts. This comprehensive analysis of two modern Slavonic languages shows that the number of prepositional units in both languages has grown and is still increasing.

The Bulgarian-Polish-Russian parallel corpusThe Semantics Laboratory Team of Institute of Slavic Studies of Polish Academy of Sciences is planning to begin work on the creation of a Bulgarian-Polish-Russian parallel corpus. The three selected languages are representatives of the main groups of Slavic languages: Bulgarian represents the southern group of Slavic languages, Polish – the western group of Slavic languages, Russian – the eastern group of Slavic languages. Our project will be the first parallel corpus of these three languages. The planned corpus will be based on material, dating from one period (the 20th century) and will have a synchronous nature. The project will not constitute the sum of the separate corpora of selected languages.One of the problems with creating multilingual parallel corpora are different proportions of translated texts between the selected languages, for example, Polish literature is often translated into Bulgarian, but not vice versa.Bulgarian, Russian and Polish differ typologically – Bulgarian is an analytic language, Polish and Russian are synthetic. The parallel corpus should have compatible annotation, while taking into account the characteristic features of the selected languages.We hope that the Bulgarian-Polish-Russian parallel corpus will serve as a source of linguistic material of contrastive language studies and may prove to be a big help for linguists, translators, terminologists and students of linguistics. The results of our work will be available on the Internet.

Polish-Bulgarian-Russian, Bulgarian-Polish-Russian or Russian-Bulgarian-Polish dictionary?The trilingual dictionary (M. Duszkin, V. Koseska, J. Satoła and A. Tzoneva) is being elaborated based on a working Polish-Bulgarian-Russian electronic parallel corpus authored by Maksim Duszkin, Violetta Koseska-Toszewa and Joanna Satoła-Staśkowiak, and works by A. Tzoneva. It is the first corpus comparing languages belonging to three different Slavic language groups: western, southern and eastern. Works on the dictionary are based on Gramatyka konfrontatywna bułgarsko-polska (Bulgarian-Polish confrontative grammar ) and the proposed there semantic-oriented interlanguage. Two types of classifiers have been introduced into the dictionary: classic and semantic. The trilingual dictionary will present a consistent and homogeneous set of facts of grammar and semantics. The Authors point out that in a traditional dictionary it is not clear for example whether aspect should be understood as imperfective / perfective form of a verb or as its meaning. Therefore in the dictionary forms and meaning are separated in a regular way. Imperfective verb form has two meanings: state and configuration of states and events culminating in state. Also perfective verb form has two meanings: event and configuration of states and events culminating in event. These meanings are described by the semantic classifiers, respectively, state and event, state1 and event1. The way of describing language units, mentioned in the article, gives a possibility to present language material (Polish, Bulgarian, Russian) in any required order, hence the article’s title.

From momentarity to perfective multiplicity. Different aspects of the aoristThe aim of this work is a analysis of temporal meanings, and aspectual research. That problems raised in the article are analysed on concrete examples of past sentences translated from the Polish language into the Bulgarian language.

Multilingual digital resources with Bulgarian languageThe paper presents in brief Bulgarian language resources as a part of multilingual digital resources developed in the frame of some international projects, among them parallel annotated and aligned corpora, comparable corpora, morpho-syntactic specifications for corpora annotation and dictionaries encoding, lexicons, lexical databases, and electronic dictionaries.

Bulgarian sense-annotated corpus – between the tradition and noveltyThe Bulgarian Sense-annotated Corpus (BulSemCor) is compiled according to the general methodology established by the SemCor project. It is a subset of the Brown Corpus of Bulgarian semantically annotated with a corresponding synonym set (synset) in the Bulgarian wordnet. Unlike the bulk of sense-annotated corpora where only (sets of) content words are annotated, in BulSemCor each lexical unit has been assigned a sense. The main contributions achieved in the work on BulSemCor are briefly decides in the presented paper: definition of an annotation schema, compilation of an input corpus, development of a sense-annotated corpus, Bulgarian wordnet enlargement.

Functional class (so called “part of speech”) assignment as a kind of meaning-bound word syntactic informationThe traditional division of the lexicon into parts of speech which seems to satisfy the requirements of a syntactic description, on the one hand, and a word formation description, on the other hand, cannot be looked upon as a result of a strict classification covering the totality of the lexicon and being based on a coherent set of criteria. Making the criteria more precise or correcting them is an issue of extreme importance and urgency in the work on the theory of language. Such achievements can help solve many other problems, in particular, syntactic ones. The article presents a scheme of several preliminary steps of an amelioration program (a scheme which has been improved compared to the author’s earlier attempts going in the same direction). The program is based on combinability characteristics of words, i.e. on those properties that are responsible for the tasks to be accomplished by a given class of expressions in making up a higher order unit, i.e. a syntagm (the author emphasizes this point: it is syntagm rather than sentence which is the category the recommended approach is focusing on), and that, importantly, determine the limits of syntactic rules, i.e. the ins and outs of the rules (the limits concerning the overall stock of words).

Towards a construction grammar account of the distributive PO in PolishPolish distributive constructions involving the form po are well known for their syntactic and semantic idiosyncrasy. The aim of this paper is to show that, contrary to the received wisdom, two different lexemes po take part in such constructions: a preposition and an adnumeral operator. This explains some of the idiosyncratic behaviour, namely, the apparent ability of po to combine with different grammatical cases. A preliminary Construction Grammar analysis is proposed which eschews the potential problem of missed generalisations that such a dual account of po might engender.

The conceptual images of erotic relations in Spanish. Analysis of some linguistic aspects of The Turkish passion by Antonio GalaIn this paper we try to systematize the contemporary Spanish expressions related to the erotic relations. The corpus is based on the novel by Antonio Gala The Turkish Passion (orig. La pasión turca) which, thanks to its plot with higly erotic content, constitutes an important source of linguistic material for our investigation. The analysis we propose reflects the methodology developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their studies concerning the cognitive theory of metaphor. According to them, every concept consists of a source and a target domain and while expressing one idea we refer to another. Our analysis focuses on the reconstruction of the conceptual domains by means of which the Spanish writer describes the erotic relations. Although the book does not include all the erotic vocabulary and expressions which exist in contemporary Spanish, it enables us to observe some regularities in the use of metaphors in Spanish and reveal some sociocultural phenomena encoded in the linguistic material.