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Oxidative cleavage of exo- and endo-alkyl- and hydroxyalkyl-substituted bicyclo[n.1.0]alkan-1-ols with (diacetoxy-λ3-iodanyl)benzene gave the corresponding methyl alkenoates exclusively with E or Z configuration of the double bond. This reaction was used as the key stage in the syntheses of stereoisomerically pure components of pest insect pheromones: (E)-dodec-9-en-1-yl acetate (European pine shoot moth Rhyacionia buoliana), (Z)-tetradec-11-en-1-yl acetate (European oak leafroller Tortrix viridana), and (3E,8Z,11Z)-tetradeca-3,8,11-trien-1-yl acetate (tomato leafminer Tuta absoluta).

Experiments with the European Pine Shoot Moth2about the effect of sexualpheromon under different field conditions. Experiments were made with Rhyacionia buoliana in 5 to 8 years old scotch pine areas in the upper rhine district near Neuenburg/Baden. The solvent of sexualpheromon has an important influence of the attractivity to males. The density of attracted males reached its maximum with a concentration of 5 FE (Femal Equivalent). The solvent for these experiments was Dichlormethan with an addition of 2,3 g polyethyleneglycol-400-distearate (Emulgator BS of “Chemische Werke Huls AG”) per 10 ml. The most effective typ of the different methods to offer the sexualpheromon was the sprinkling of the pine branches. The location of the sexualpheromon was important for the number of attracted males. Zusammenfassung Die Versuche wurden an Rhyacionia buoliana in der Rheinebene bei Neuenburg (Baden) in 5-8jahrigen Kiefernbestanden durchgefuhrt. 1 Das fur die Losung des Sexualpheromons verwendete Mittel hat wesentlichen Einflus auf die Anflugsdichte. 2 Die Anflughaufigkeit erreicht bei einer Konzentration von 5 FE ihr Maximum. Als Losungsmittel fur diese Versuchsserie diente Dichlormethan, dem Polyathylen Glycol-400-distearat zugesetzt wurde. 3 Unter den verschiedenen Ausbringungsformen erwies sich das Auftropfen einer bestimmten Menge des gelosten Pheromons auf Kiefernzweige am wirksamsten. 4 Der Ausbringungsort des Sexualduftstoffes beeinflust unter bestimmten Bedingungen die Zahl der anfliegenden Falter.

The effectiveness of natural and synthetic sex pheromone on the European Pine Shoot Moth, Rhyacionia buoliana Based on the effectiveness, abdominal extracts essentially differ from the synthetic attractant trans-9-dodecenyl acetate. The total activity of the dawn-activated males including walking, wing vibration, and flying cannot be enhanced by attractants. Unlike trans-9-DDA, high concentrations of abdominal extracts (10 FE) inactivate the males. The behaviour pattern of the males is changed by attractants; wing vibration and flying proved to be typically caused by attractants. An optimal activity of wing vibration and flying is caused by 0,1 FE. Higher concentrations cause a decrease of these behaviour patterns in favour of walking. 10−9 g trans-9-DDA causes a maximum in wing vibration and flying. Higher concentrations give no further changes. With abdominal extracts a higher wing vibration and flying activity can be induced than with trans-9-DDA. It can be assumed that trans-9-DDA is not identical with the natural attractant of the investigated population. Zusammenfassung Hinterleibsextrakte von Rhyacionia buoliana unterscheidet sich in der Wirksamkeit wesentlich von dem synthetischen Lockstoff trans-9-DDA. 1 Die Gesamtaktivitat der dammerungsaktivierten Mannchen, bestehend aus Lauf- + Schwirr- + Flugaktivitat, last sich durch Lockstoffgabe nicht steigern. Im Unterschied zu trans-9-DDA wirken Hinterleibsextrakte jedoch in hoher Konzentration passivierend auf die Mannchen. 2 Das Verhaltensmuster der Tiere (der prozentuale Anteil von Lauf-, Schwirr- und Flugaktivitat) wird durch Lockstoff verandert: Schwirren und Fliegen erweisen sich als typische lockstoffbedingte Verhaltensweisen. Dabei losen 0,1 FE eine maximalc Schwirr- und Flugaktivitat aus. Bei uberoptimalen Konzentrationen nehmen diese Aktivitatsformen zugunsten der Laufaktivitat wieder ab. 10−9 g trans-9-DDA losen eine maximale Schwirr- und Flugaktivitat aus. Hohere Konzentrationen verandern sie nicht weiter; beide Aktivitatsformen erreichen eine Sattigung. 3 Mit Hinterleibsextrakten last sich eine starkere Schwirr- und Flugaktivitat auslosen, als dies mit trans-9-DDA moglich ist. 4 Es kann angenommen werden, das trans-9-DDA nicht mit dem naturlichen Lockstoff identisch ist.

On the strength of different olfactory and gustatory mechanisms of influencing phytophagous insects by food plants it is possible to use the Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) as a diversionary plant within cultures of Crimea Pine (Pinus pallasiana). The essential lower resistance of the Scotch Pine to Aradus cinnamomeus (Heteropt.), Blastophagus piniperda (Coleopt.), Rhyacionia buoliana and Dendrolimus pini (Lepidopt.) prevents these insects from attacking the Crimea Pine. Referring the latter the named insect species under this method are not pests but are indifferent members of the fauna. Zusammenfassung uber Bestandesresistenz gegen forstschadliche Insekten Verschiedenartige olfaktorische und trophische Mechanismen der Einwirkung der Nahrungspflanze auf den Schadling ermoglichen es, die Gemeine Kiefer (Pinus sylvestris) als Ablenkungsbaume innerhalb von Anpflanzungen der Krimkiefer (Pinus pallasiana) zu verwenden. Die Mischung beider — gegen Schadinsekten unterschiedlich resistenter — Kiefernarten schliest eine Anpassung der Schadlinge an die Krimkiefer aus. Bei diesem Verfahren treten Aradus cinnamomeus (Heteropt.), Blastophagus piniperda (Coleopt.), Rhyacionia buoliana sowie Dendrolimus pini (Lepidopt.) nicht als Schadlinge, sondern als indifferente Glieder der Fauna auf.

The attractiveness of six synthetic pheromones to forest Lepidoptera was studied at two locations in Czechoslovakia during 1983. The synthetic attractants tested included pheromones for Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.) (Tortricidae), Eucosma sonomana Kearf. (Olethreutidae), Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lymantriidae), Orgyia pseudotsugata (McD.) (Lymantr.), Rhyacionia frustrana (Comst.) (Olethr.) and Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff.) (Olethr.). The attractant for R. buoliana was prepared in Czechoslovakia for use with European species but the other five materials are of North American origin and intended for use with species there. Sticky traps baited with these pheromones captured some 32 species in 26 genera with significant numbers of species as follows: Traps with the C. fumiferana attractant contained Acleris sparsana (Den. et Schiff.) (Tortr.) and Cnephasia stephensiana (Doubl.) (Tortr.). Those with the E. sonomana attractant contained Enarmonia formosana (Scop.) (Tortr.) and Caradrina morpheus (Hufn.) (Noctuidae). The L. dispar material attracted L. monacha (L.) and L. dispar (L.). Traps with the O. pseudotsugata contained O. antiqua (L.) and those with the R. frustrana pheromone contained Cnephasia interjectana (Haw.) and Dichrorampha simpliciana (Haw.) (Olethr.). Traps with the R. buoliana attractant contained Gypsonoma oppressana (Treit.) (Olethr.). Our results indicate that substantial species, genus and family cross attraction occurs with some of the synthetic sex attractants tested. Zusammenfassung Forst-Lepidopteren-Fang mit 6 synthetischen Pheromonen in der CSSR Es wurde die Attraktivitat von 6 synthetischen Pheromonen fur forstliche Lepidopteren an 2 Standorten in der CSSR 1983 untersucht. Die verwendeten synthetischen Anlockstoffe enthielten Pheromone von Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.) (Tortricidae), Eucosma sonomana Kearf. (Olethreutidae), Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lymantriidae), Orgyia pseudotsugata (McD.) (Lymantr.), Rhyacionia frustrana (Comst.) (Olethr.) und Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff.) (Olethr.). Der Anlockstoff fur R. buoliana wurde in der CSSR zum Gebrauch bei europaischen Arten hergestellt, wahrend die anderen 5 Wirkstoffe aus Nordamerika stammten. Mit diesen Pheromonen versehene Leimfallen fingen 32 Arten von 26 Gattungen Lepidopteren, wobei folgende Kombinationen (Pheromon/Species) die wichtigsten waren: C. fumiferana-Pher./Acleris sparsana (Den. et. Schiff.) (Tortric.) und Cnephasia stephensiana (Doubl.) (Tortr.); E. sonomana-Pher./Enarmonia formosana (Scop.) (Tortr.) and Caradrina morpheus (Hufn.) (Noctuidae); Lymantria dispar-Pher./L. dispar (L.) und L. monacha (L.); Orgyia pseudotsugata-Pher./O. antiqua (L.); Rhyacionia-Pher./Cnephasia interjectana (Haw.) und Dichrorampha simpliciana (Haw.) (Olethr.); Rhyacionia buoliana-Pher./Gypsonoma oppressana (Treit.) (Olethr.). Die Ergebnisse zeigen, das die getesteten synthetischen Anlockstoffe im wesentlichen Umfang Arten-, Gattungen- und Familien-Kreuzanlockung aufwiesen.

Zusammenfassung 1 Die durch freundschaftliche Kontakte miteinander verbundenen Verfasser, uber 1½tausend km voneinander entfernt an den gleichen Problemen arbeitend, fuhrten 1959/60 eine gemeinsame Untersuchung uber Rhyacionia (Evetria) buoliana und dessen Parasiten in Serbien durch. Hinsichtlich der Parasiten wurde das Ziel einer Bestandsaufnahme verfolgt, die erforderlich ist, ehe weitere Masnahmen in Richtung einer biologischen Bekampfung in Frage kommen, sei es, das sie als spezielle Begunstigung vorhandener Gegenspieler oder in Form des Imports zusatzlicher Arten geplant werden. Biologisch interessant wurde die durchgefuhrte Aufgabe dadurch, das sie im serbischen Bergland mit einem ausgesprochen kontinentalen Klima als Pendant zu den vom zweitgenannten Verfasser vorher in gleicher Form im maritim beeinflusen nordwestdeutschen Flachland unternommenen Untersuchungen gelten kann. Die gemeinsamen Arbeiten erstreckten sich auf 10 Forstorte in 7 Forstamtern (Abb. 1, Tab. 1 u. 2), ausgehend von Beograd bis 300 km sudlich von der Hauptstadt. 2 Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg warden in Serbien auf Tausenden von Hektar groszugige Aufforstungen in Karstgebieten und auf ehemaligen schlechten Weideflachen uberwiegend mit Pinus nigra var. austriaca und in geringem Umfang mit P. silvestris durchgefuhrt (beide Spezies kommen dort autochthon vor). Die Pinus-Kulturen waren fur den Befall durch Rhyacionia buoliana disponiert, da sie auf degradierten Gebirgsboden und unter oft extrem schwierigen Witterungsbedingungen heranwuchsen. Es kam zu ausgesprochenen R. buoliana-Kalamitaten, vor allem in Pflanzungen im Alter von 3–15 Jahren, in denen diese eine Hohe von 0,5 bis etwa 3 m erreichen. Diese ungunstigen Umweltbedingungen durften auch die Ursache dafur sein, das die in Mitteleuropa als wuchsig bekannte und vom Wickler R. buoliana nur wenig geschadigte Pinus nigra in Serbien stark unter diesem Kleinschmetterling zu leiden hat. 1959 ergab sich an 7 Untersuchungsplatzen ein Besatz der Terminaltriebe von 12–61% (Tab. 2); durchschnittlich war der Terminaltrieb jeder 3. Kiefer zerstort. Bei dem eine Reihe von Jahren anhaltenden Befall wird die ganze Kultur verseucht. Die bekannten Deformationen bewirken einen volligen Verlust der Geradschaftigkeit und damit auch der Nutzholztauglichkeit. Uber die Verteilung des Schadlingsbesatzes an Terminal- und Seitentrieben sowie die Haufigkeit einer oder mehrerer Larven bzw. Puppen je Knospenquirl gibt Tab. 4 Auskunft. 3 Im Beobachtungsjahr 1959 - welches im Gegensatz zu Nordwesteuropa mit seiner damaligen Durreperiode in Serbien witterungsmasig annahernd normal verlief - schlupften die Imagines in Lagen von 300 m u. NN bereits Ende Mai, in den Lagen uber 1000 m u. NN bis zu 4 Wochen spater (Abb. 2, Tab. 3). Im niederen Bergland dauerte die Schlupfperiode eine Woche langer als im hoheren Bergland, wo die Tiere im Vorsommer entwicklungsmasig “aufholten” (Abb. 2). Die Weibchen erscheinen 3–4 Tage spater als die Mannchen. Der Weibchenanteil war stets geringer als derjenige der Mannchen (Tab. 2), die Ursache hierfur ist nicht bekannt. Der Ei-Vorrat der Weibchen betrug im Laboratorium 39–326, durchschnittlich 101 Eier; ob diese jedoch in der freien Natur alle zur Ablage kommen, ist ungewis. 4 Wie in Mitteleuropa so sind auch in Serbien die Hauptparasiten von R. buoliana Cremastus interruptor und Orgilus obscurator (Synonyme s. Abs. 5.1). In nennenswerter Anzahl treten unter den Ichneumoniden Ephialtes-Arten auf, insbesondere E. roborator. Im Gegensatz zu Mitteleuropa, wo die Dipteren Actia nudibasis und Lypha dubia ortlich recht haufig vorkommen, fehlten diese beiden Arten in Serbien. Dagegen machte uber 1/10 des gesamten Parasitenbesatzes die relativ grose Tachine Pseudoperichaeta insidiosa aus. Einen fast gleichen prozentualen Anteil nahm der Puppenparasit Tetrastichus turionum ein. Wir erhielten ihn aber nicht in den hoheren kuhleren Lagen (Tab. 5). Auffallig ist die Tatsache, das in unseren Zuchten (rund 300 Parasiten, ohne die Chalcidier) der in Mitteleuropa haufige Hyperparasit Perilampus tristis fehlte - ein in Hinblick auf eventuellen Parasiten-Ex- oder -Import biologisch sehr positiv zu wertender Befund, dessen Ursachen ergrundet werden sollten. Summary 1 In 1959/60 the authors, separated by more than 1500 kilometers but drawn closer by a common problem in forest protection, undertook a joint investigation into R. buoliana Schiff. and its parasites in Serbia (Yugoslavia). In the case of the parasites, the main object was to examine the resident Serbian parasite species with a view to evaluating possibilities of biological control, either through measures aimed to encourage indigenous species or by the introduction of exotic ones. The work was carried out in the Serbian mountain area where the prevailing extreme Continental climatic conditions provided valuable opportunity for the collection of biological data complementary to a similar, earlier, investigation made by the second author in maritime Lower Saxony (West Germany). The joint work was carried out in ten areas, within seven forest districts, all in the mountain region extending as far as 300 kilometers south of Belgrade (Figure 1, Table 1 and 2). 2 After World War II in Serbia, thousands of hectares of Karst and poor pasture land were, with considerable difficulty and effort, reforested mostly with Pinus nigra var. Austnaca and some P. silvestris, both indigenous tree species. The health of the two species growing on stony eroded mountain soils and in the pitiless sun and drought of the South Balcan was poor, and attack of the Pine shoot moth inevitable. Severe outbreaks took place whilst the plantations were between 3–15 years old and 0.5 and 3 metres in height. Environmental conditions presumably account for thefact that P. nigra - a species known in Central Europe for its strong growth and relative resistance to R. buoliana - is subject to similar intensity of attack as that upon P. silvestris in Serbia. In 1959 in seven areas, 12–61% of the terminal shoots were damaged (Table 2) and on average one in three terminals were affected. As the outbreak continues over a period of years the whole stand becomes infested, the persistent attack resulting in characteristic deformations of the main stem and consequent loss of timber quality. The distribution of larval activity among terminal and side shoots, as well as an impression of the intensity of attack to the bud whorl, may be seen in Table 4. 3 In 1959 the weather in Serbia was fairly normal, in contrast to the large rainfall deficit and drought experiences in North West Europe. Moth adult emergence at low altitudes, circa 300 metres above sea level, began at the end of May, but was some 4 weeks later at 1000 metres (Figure 2). Females emerged three or four days later than males. Males always outnumbered females (Table 2) but the cause of this is not known. Females examined in the laboratory were found to contain from 39–326 eggs, with an average of 101; it should not be assumed, however, that all these eggs would necessarily be laid under field conditions. 4 As in Central Europe, the most important parasites of R. buoliana are the ichneumonid Cremastus interruptor and the braconid Orgilus obscurator (for synonyms see Chapter 5.1). Ichneumonids of the genus Ephialtes were also numerous, particularly E. roborator. Whilst in Central Europe the tachinids Actia nudibasis and Lypha dubia may be locally very numerous, they are absent in Serbia. Instead, the relatively large tachinid Pseudoperichaeta insidiosa accounts for about 10% of total parasitism. The eulophid, Tetrastichum turionum, was responsible for a similar proportion of pupal parasitism, although the species was absent in the higher mountain areas of Karaula and Kukavica (Table 5 and Table 2, Nos. 5 and 7); one might guess that the climate at over 1000 metres is unfavourable to an insect group known to prefer a warm habitat. It is noteworthy that at no time did we find a single specimen of the chalcid hyperparasite, Perilampus tristis, which is elsewhere so common in R. buoliana outbreak areas. This absence of P. tristis might be most important if either import or export of parasites into or from Serbia were to be considered. The reason for the absence is of great interest and worth investigation. There appears to be plenty of work for entomologists everywhere.

The life cycle of Tetrastichus turionum, a pupal endoparasitoid of the European pine shoot moth Rhyacionia buoliana, was studied in Spain in the field, prior to its use as a potential biological control agent of this pest in Chile. T. turionum showed two generations acting on the same host generation. Adults from the overwintering generation emerged and dispersed from mid- to late spring and gave rise to a fast developing, current year generation. Adults of this generation emerged and oviposited in early to mid-summer, producing progeny that overwintered as fourth instar larvae inside their host. Both generations appeared highly synchronized to the presence of pupae in the host population. The role of decreasing day length in the induction of diapause is also discussed. Laboratory bioassays showed that T. turionum did not oviposit on R. buoliana larvae already parasitized by Orgilus obscurator, a major larval parasitoid, already introduced in Chile. The results reinforce the suitability of T. turionum as a promising parasitoid that would complement O. obscurator in the biological control of European pine shoot moth.

Attract and kill technology was tested for management of European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana (DenisSchiffermüller), in 4-6-yr-old Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris L., plantations managed by Jablonna and Pultusk Forest Districts, Poland. In 2001, two formulations based on ricinoleic acid and hydrocarbon fraction (petroleum jelly) in combination with (E)-9-dodecenyl acetate, the sex pheromone of the pine shoot moth; permethrin as a contact insecticide; and Tinuvin UV absorber were used. In 2002, different formulations and application rates of the attracticide based on petroleum jelly were tested. Significantly reduced trap catches occurred in plots treated with three attracticide formulations [Rhykil-1 (with Tinuvin UV absorber), Rhykil-2 (with a new UV absorber, 3,3'-dihydroxy-2,2'-bipyridyl), and Rhykil-3 (without the insecticide)] at 3,000 droplets per hectare in comparison with those in control plots, suggesting that all formulations were highly effective. Significantly lower catches than in control plots also were observed when Rhykil-1 was applied at 1000, 2,000, and 3,000 droplets per hectare. However, only slight reduction of shoot damage in treated plots was observed in both experiments. The formulation without the insecticide had similar efficacy to that of the formulation combined with the insecticide. In 2003, the Rhykil-2 attracticide was tested at 250, 500, and 1000 droplets per hectare. Although there were no significant differences in trap catches between treated and control plots, shoot damage level was reduced substantially in all treated plots. These results suggest that attract and kill technology may be used at rates lower than 1000 droplets per hectare for management of R. buoliana; however, its "kill" effect should be confirmed in further studies.

The main biological attributes of two Neotropical egg parasitoids, the arrhenotokous Trichogramma nerudai and the thelytokous Trichogramma sp., were assessed under controlled laboratory conditions. Developmental time from egg to adult, and parasitoid survival, fecundity and fertility were studied using life tables. Results showed that T. nerudai had a faster developmental time than Trichogramma sp. (13.014±0.4019 and 13.595±0.4931 days, respectively). Both species showed similar life table statistics, r m was 0.222 and 0.225 for T. nerudai and Trichogramma sp., respectively. Parasitoid survival averaged 95% for both species. The results obtained are discussed in the context of selecting one of these natural enemies as a potential biological control agent for the European pine shoot moth Rhyacionia buoliana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in pine forests and the codling moth Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in apple orchards in Argentina.

The recently discovered species Trichogramma nerudai Pintureau and Gerding (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) could be useful in biological control programs of forest and agricultural insect pests ( Rhyacionia buoliana Denis and Schiffermuller, Tuta absoluta Meyrick, Plutella xylostella Linnaeus, Cydia pomonella Linnaeus). The possibility of storing T. nerudai at low temperatures and the effects of such storage on the quality of the parasitoid and its progeny were studied. T. nerudai pupae were stored 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, and 150 days at 4 ± 1 °C in a refrigerator, RH=75 ± 5% and in full darkness. T. nerudai pupae were tolerant to cold storage. The numbers of emerged adults, the proportions of deformed adults and the mobility capacity of T. nerudai were greatly affected from 50 days of cold storage onwards. The single quality traits were combined to show the added effect of low emergence, deformation of emerging individuals, and loss of mobility of the non-deformed individuals. The usefulness to cold store T. nerudai pupae up to 50 days is discussed.

Multispecies sex pheromone trapping (trapping of more than one species in the same trap) for the pine shoot moth Rhyacionia buoliana , the pine moth, Dendrolimus pini , the nun moth, Lymantria monacha , the pine beauty moth, Panolis flammea and the pine sawflies Diprion pini and Neodiprion sertifer was evaluated. The catch from traps baited with the pheromone of a single species was compared with the catch from traps baited with pheromones for several species. The catch in the multispecies traps was significantly reduced in comparison with the single species traps for Dendrolimus pini , L. monacha and N. sertifer . Neodiprion sertifer was most likely inhibited by the Diprion pini pheromone. A follow-up study of Dendrolimus pini and L. monacha showed no pheromonal interference between them. Further studies are needed to evaluate the feasibility of multispecies monitoring. However, for practical applications a slight decrease in catch, due to pheromonal interference, could probably be tolerated as long as the catch reflects total population density.

Bacillus thuringiensis is a major microbial insecticide and a source of genes encoding several proteins toxic to insects. In this paper the authors give a brief summary ofBacillus thuringiensis used on the integrated pest management in forestry. The derivatives of Bt strain HD1 subspkurstaki have been widely used to control the forest pests such as the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), the pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa), the European pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana) and the nun moth (Lymantria monacha). Some progresses of transferring and expressing Bt toxin gene in forest trees are offered with a discussion on the limits and future prospects of using Bt products in forestry.

Inundative releases of Trichogramma exiguum Pinto and Platner were evaluated for suppression of the Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock), in first-year loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., plantations. Three releases, spaced 7 d apart, were made in three 0.4-ha plots during second-generation R. frustrana egg deposition. Each release included three cohorts of T. exiguum developmentally separated by 25 degree-days. Mean ± SD field release rate for each cohort was 328 238 ± 88 379 females/ha. Mean T. exiguum emergence under laboratory conditions for released cohorts was 96 ± 2%, with 74 ± 3% females, of which 1 ± 1% of females displayed brachyptery; female longevity was 18 ± 3 d. Field emergence averaged 96 ± 4%. Parasitism of R. frustrana eggs was significantly increased, ranging from 40 ± 19 to 73 ± 22% in T. exiguum-treated plots and 17 ± 17 to 67 ± 21% in control plots. Data from all treated plots combined showed R. frustrana egg survival (hatching) was significantly reduced by 46%, and larval populations were significantly reduced by 60%. There was no significant difference in the percentage of terminals damaged between T. exiguum-treated (31 ± 16%) and control plots (45 ± 10%); however, length of terminal damage was significantly lower in treated plots. The percentage of damage to top whorl shoots was significantly lower in T. exiguum-treated plots compared with control plots, but there was no significant difference in length of tunneling damage. Damage to remaining shoots was not significantly different between T. exiguum-treated and control plots. Microhabitat significantly influenced both mean maximum and minimum temperature and the number of consecutive hours per day that were at or above 35 °C (critical temperature for T. exiguum survival). Soil surface with no cover had the greatest number of hours at or above 35 °C, followed by soil surface with herbaceous cover, and canopies of small trees (0.4 m tall). Canopy habitats in larger trees (0.9–1.8 m tall) had the most moderate temperature conditions. Parasitoid emergence was significantly reduced in response to increasing number of consecutive hours at or above 35 °C. Predation of parasitoids prior to emergence was significantly affected by microhabitat and by the length of time capsules were in the field before T. exiguum emergence (i.e., cohort number).

During 1995 and 1996, the levels of establishment and parasitism by Orgilus obscurator Ness. were evaluated. An increase in Rhyacionia buoliana population density and a decrease in parasitism levels by O. obscurator from southern to northern provinces were detected. The best parasitism results were found in the Xt h Region, together with the lowest populations of R. buoliana. The VIIIth Region, which has the main concentration of pine resources, currently exhibits the greatest problem, as the parasite populations are high (over 10,000 larvae per hectare). The percentages of parasitoid establishment were 35% in 1995 and 24% in 1996. In the same region, parasitism values fluctuate between an average of 1% and 11%. A statistical analysis found significant differences depending on the inoculation tactics and the date when they were implemented. Better results were obtained with implanted parasite larvae, principally those released several years ago., Se evaluaron, en 1995 y 1996, los niveles de establecimiento y parasitismo alcanzados por Orgilus obscurator Ness., entre la Séptima y Décima Regiones del país. Se determinaron un aumento de la densidad poblacional de Rhyacionia buoliana de sur a norte y una disminución de los niveles de parasitismo en esa misma dirección. Los mejores resultados de parasitación se encontraron en la Décima Región, junto con las más bajas densidades poblacionales de R. buoliana. La Octava Región, que concentra el mayor porcentaje del recurso pino, es la que presenta los mayores problemas, puesto que las densidades poblacionales de R. buoliana son muy altas (mayor a 10.000 larvas promedio por hectárea); los porcentajes de establecimiento del parasitoide comprenden un 35% de los predios en 1995 y un 24% en 1996 y los valores de parasitismo fluctúan en promedio de un 1 a un 11%. El análisis estadístico determinó diferencias significativas entre formas de inoculación y año de inoculación. Los mejores resultados se presentaron en la modalidad de implante con data más antigua.

The Canadian Entomologist 131: 53 - 63 (1999) South American Trichogrammatidae are poorly known. In this paper we describe a new species of Trichogramma and two new species of Uscana from Chile. The Trichogramma species belongs to the perkinsi group and parasitizes the eggs of Rhyacionia buoliana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). One Uscana species belongs to the senex group (new name proposed for the B group) and parasitizes eggs of Pseudopachyrnerina spinipes (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), and the other Uscana species belongs to the furnipennis group (new name proposed for the C group) and parasitizes eggs of Bruchus pisorum (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). These new species might be useful in biological control, especially against R.. buoliana and B. pisorum, important pests of pines and peas, respectively, in Chile. Pintureau, B., M. Gerding et E. Cisternas. 1999. Description de trois nouvelles esptces de Trichogrammatidae (Hymenoptera) du Chile. The Canadian Entomologist 131 : 53-63. Les Trichogrammatidae sud amkricains sont peu connus. Dans cette Ctude, une nouvelle espbce de Trichogramrna et deux nouvelles espbces d'Uscana du Chili sont dCcrites. L'espbce de Trichogramma appartient au groupe perkinsi et parasite les oeufs de Rhyacionia buoliana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Une espbce d' Uscana appartient au groupe senex (nouveau nom proposC pour le groupe B) et parasite les oeufs de Pseudopachymerina spinipes (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), et l'autre espbce d' Uscana appartient au groupe fumipennis (nouveau nom proposC pour le groupe C) et parasite les oeufs de Bruchus pisorum (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Ces nouvelles espbces pourraient &tre utilisCes en lutte biologique, particulibement contre R. buoliana et B. pisorum, importants ravageurs respectivement du pin et du pois au Chili.

From the position of trophical niche concept, the process of forming of an infestation spot of the winter pine shoot moth in a space of a pine stand as well as the process of degradation of this spot was studied. It was shown that the process begins with the emergance of separate microspots in a stand. With increasing age of the affected stand, the area of these microspots grows, and they unite themselves in lager ones together with growing pest density. The process of growth of both the area and the density continues to an age of 15 years of the pine stands. After that, the reverse process of degradation begins when the area and density decreases. On all the stages of the process, a distribution of density of the pest attacks on trees has contagious character, and stabilisation of an affected ecosystem is finished at the age of 20–30 years.

Creation of the big trophical niches of the winter pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana Schiff.) on susceptible trees of Pinus silvestris L. provoked the mass outbreak of the pest in the south areas in Ukraine. In its turn, high density of the pest induced processes of the aggressivity's growth of population. In so doing the wide range of adaptive zones represented by groups of the pines with different resistance is favourable for formation of aggressive biotypes. The spreading of the pest from weakened to more resistant groups on the pines is similar to the process of “drift”. This problem will be considered more detaily in the second part of this article.

It has been considered the forming process of an aggressive biotype in the winter pine shoot moth. It consists of a number of consecutive in time the mechanisms and types of natural selection. The process is conditioned by existance in this region two species of pines (Pinus silvestris L. and Pinus pallasiana Lamb.) that have different level of resistance and are characterized by wide range of variability. The initial cause of the formative process was high density of the winter pine shoot moth in the stands of P. silvestris L. It stimulated growth of the aggressiveness and formation of initial aggressive group in the pest population. This group was initial one for gradual adaptation on P. silvestris L. and then on susceptible trees of P. pallasiana. The aggressive group which had been developing had a distinction by flight period in comparison with the normal population. This change served as a cause of its reproductive isolation from the normal population and led to the process of divergence. In so doin...

International audience; Surveillance using attractants for invasive species can allow early detection of new incursions and provide decision support to response programs. Simultaneous trapping for multiple species, by baiting traps with several lures, is expected to increase the number of species that can be targeted in surveillance programs and improve the cost-effectiveness without affecting surveillance coverage. We tested this hypothesis by choosing four potential forest and urban lepidopteran pest species that are present in Europe but not yet in New Zealand and many other countries. We deployed traps in central and southern Europe with single lures or all possible species combinations (up to four lures per trap). There was only limited interference, apparently due to trap saturation, but no evidence for interspecific repellency among lures for gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, pine processionary moth, Thaumetopoea pityocampa, and pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana. To assess what factors may be important in species compatibility/suitability for multiple-species trapping, we combined our results with those of previous studies conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture. For 75 combinations of pheromones, tested singly or in combination, 19 % showed no effect on trap catch for any of the species tested. In the other cases, either one or both species showed a reduction in trap catch. However, few lure combinations caused complete or nearly complete suppression. For most combinations, catches were still sufficiently high for detection purposes. Species from the same superfamily exhibited more interference than more distantly related species. Together, these results suggest that there are opportunities to improve the range of exotic pests under surveillance, at little additional cost, by multiple-species trapping for which compatibility has been demonstrated.

Population density of the European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff), on Pinus radiata D. Don plantations, established in 1986 in two different sites are analyzed, monitoring permanent plots during six years. Survival and mortality of the moth were also determined. Changes in density reveal annual increments and significant differences between sites. The influence of denso­ independent factors and the absence of natural enemies as regulators of the population leves are discussed. The survival increase trough time is interpreted as a consequence of the good adaptation of the species to different site conditions. The highest mortality rate occurred during the exposed periods of the moth's life cycle and principally at the early larvae stage mostly due to dehydration, resination and predation., Se analiza la densidad poblacional, sobrevivencia y mortalidad de la polilla del brote del pino, Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff.), en dos sitios con plantaciones de Pinus radiata D. Don, establecidas en 1986. Los datos se registraron durante seis años consecutivos en parcelas permanentes. Los cambios de la densidad revelan incrementos anuales sostenidos y diferencias significativas entre sitios. Se comenta además la influencia de factores densoindependientes y ausencia de enemigos naturales como reguladores de la población. La sobrevivencia ha sido creciente a través del tiempo, revelando una mejor adaptación de la polilla a las diferentes condiciones de sitio. La mortalidad ocurre en los períodos en que los diversos estadios larvales están expuestos, principalmente en larvas tempranas, y mayoritariamente por deshidratación, resinación y depredación.

Pine stands younger than 15 years were examined for infestations by tip moths in three localities in southern and western Bohemia (360–510 m a.s.l.) in April-June 1985–1988. Rhyacionia buoliana (Den. et Schiff.) was predominant in south Bohemia, near Kolný and Třeboň, Blastesthia spp. [especially B. posticana (Zett.)] in west Bohemia, near Plzeň. Insolated aftergrowth proved to be a reservoir of R. buoliana (53.1% dominance), aftergrowth shaded by old trees was the reservoir of Retinia resinella (L.) (46.1% dominance). Blastesthia spp. were found in plantations as well as in naturally seeded stands, especially insolated ones. Their dominance (25.7%) was highest along the southern edges of plantations. Zusammenfassung Untersuchungen zur Verteilung der durch Rhyacionia, Blastesthia und Retinia (Lep., Tortricidae) verursachten Schaden in Abhangigkeit von der Lage der gepflanzten oder naturlich verjungten Kiefernbestande An drei Standorten in Sud- und Westbohmen (Kolný, 510 m, Třeboň-Vranin, 450 m, und Plzeň-Bolevec, 360 m) wurden von 1985 bis 1988 in den Monaten April bis Juni Kiefernbestande bis zum Alter von 15 Jahren auf Wicklerbefall untersucht. In Sudbohmen, in der Umgebung von Kolný, trat uberwiegend Rhyacionia buoliana (Den. & Schiff.) mit 4,4 Beschadigungen pro 100 Baumen auf. Auch in der Umgebung von Třeboň uberwog R. buoliana (3,8 Beschadigungen pro 100 Baume). In Westbohmen, in der Nahe von Plzeň dominierte die Gattung Blastesthia mit 3,9 Beschadigungen pro 100 Baume, davon 3,3 von B. posticana (Zett.) verursacht und 0,6 von B. turionella (L.). Besonnte Kiefernnaturverjungungen erwiesen sich als ein Reservoir fur R. buoliana; ihre Dominanz betragt hier 53,1%. Von Uberhaltern beschattete Kiefernnaturverjungungen werden von Retinia resinella (L.) bevorzugt (Dominanz 46,1%). Blastesthia spp. konnte sowohl auf Aufforstungsflachen wie in Naturverjungungen festgestellt werden, insbesondere, wenn diese Flachen besonnt waren. Diese Art erreicht mit 25,7% an den sudexponierten Randern der Aufforstungsflachen ihre hochste Dichte.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses how parasitoids seek their hosts. The chemicals produced by insect hosts that serve as cues to parasitoids are kairomones because the parasitoid exploits them to the host's detriment. Usage and context are important here. A sex pheromone may be beneficial in the context of reproduction to attract a male moth to a female, but if a parasitoid cues on this chemical, the substance also functions in the context of interactions between hosts and parasitoids as a kairomone. A female parasitoid may find herself far from potential hosts. This could occur if the host stage she emerges from is different from the one attacked. Also, many parasitoid females have a preoviposition period before eggs are ready to be laid. During this interval of a few days to several weeks, the parasitoid may leave the vicinity of the host to mate and obtain nourishment. For example, the ichneumonid wasp, Pimpla ruficollis , is a parasitoid of the European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana . Yet for the first few weeks of her adult life, she is repelled by the odor of pine, and thus avoids the forest where the host is located. As a consequence, the initial stage in host seeking in many parasitoids is to search for locations where the host is likely to occur. Parasitoids often respond to general stimuli such as light, humidity, or vegetation form, leading them to meadows, forests, swamps, ponds, soil, or different vegetation strata. These behaviors considerably narrow the areas that must be actually searched for hosts.

A linear regression model for predicting pheromone trap catch of male European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana (Denis & Schiffermuller), based on accumulated heat units is presented. The model was developed from 3 yr of maximum–minimum air temperature and pheromone trap data collected in western Oregon during 1986–1988. Data collected the following years, 1989–1990, were used to evaluate the model. A lower threshold (base) temperature of −2.2°C was used in calculating daily degree-days since 1 January. The model successfully predicted accumulated male moth catch to within 1–3 d during 1989. Predicted degree-day requirements (above −2.2°C) are 1,712 for 10% catch, 1,958 for 50% catch, and 2,205 for 90% catch.

Se estudió la relación entre la acumulación de días grado (DG) y las capturas de los machos de la mariposa europea del brote del pino (Rhyacionia buoliana Den. & Schiff.) en trampas de feromonas en Esquel, provincia de Chubut, en la zona andino-patagónica de Argentina, como un indicador para el control de esta especie plaga. En una plantación de Pinus radiata se monitoreó la emergencia de machos dos veces por semana mediante el recuento de las capturas en las trampas, durante tres temporadas (diciembre a febrero de 1999-2000, 2000-2001 y 2001- 2002). En la temporada 2000-2001 se recolectaron también dos veces por semana 100 ramillas con brotes infestados para construir la curva de emergencias de machos y de hembras. Los DG se calcularon en base a las temperaturas mínima y máxima diarias. Se estimaron los requerimientos de DG acumulados (por encima de -2,2 °C) para el período de vuelo del insecto. Los DG acumulados pronosticados por el modelo de regresión sigmoídea fueron 252,26 DG, 288,22 DG y 434,53 DG para el 40, 50 y 80% de las capturas de machos.

The landscape of the southcentral part of Chile is dominated by fast-growing plantations of radiata pine (Pious radiata D. Don), and in lesser extent bluegum eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.), Italian poplar, and willows. Radiata pine was first introduced in 1885 as an ornamental species. During 1940–1960 it was used to control erosion in the Coastal Range. Finally, since the 1960s it has been used for commercial plantations. The present extent of the plantation resource is 1,694,104 ha, of which 80.9 percent is radiata pine. During 1991, 1992, and 1993, this species was planted at rates of 75,416 ha, 81,868 ha, and 71,411 ha, respectively. Even though the soils are eroded to different degrees, exhibit a variety of nutritional disorders, and contain some physical restrictions, the productivity of radiata pine ranges from 18 m3/ha/yr to 35 m3/ha/yr. Additional stress comes from some potentially serious pests; for example, the European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana, has presented a real threat to radiata pine. The main products obtained from radiata pine are exported to Japan, Korea, Middle and Far East countries, and Europe. Sawlogs, sawntimber, pulpwood, clearwood, and wood chips are some of the products comprising sales in 1994 of U.S.$1,564 billion.

Exo- and Endohormones. V. Synthesen des Sexualpheromons des Kiefernknospentriebwicklers (Rhyacionia buoliana) durch Grignard-Reaktionen Grignard-Kopplungen zwischen zwei entsprechenden Synthonen fuhren zum (E)-9-Dodecen-1-ylacetat (1), dem Sexuallockstoff des Kiefernknospentriebwicklers (Rhyacionioa buoliana). Als solche Synthon-Paare wurden 1-Brom-(E)-2-penten (2) und 7-Bromheptyltetrahydropyranylether (3) bzw. (E)-3-Hexen-1-yltosylat (4) und 6-Bromhexyltrimethylsilylether (5) eingesetzt. Das Endprodukt (1) und die wichtigsten Zwischenprodukte wurden durch ihre 1H- und 13C-NMR-Spektren charakterisiert. Durch die zweite Synthese wurden 100% Regio- und 99% Stereoselektivitat erreicht.

(1988). AN IMPROVED SYNTHESIS OF (E)-9-DODECEN-1-YL ACETATE, THE SEX PHEROMONE OF RHYACIONIA BUOLIANA. Organic Preparations and Procedures International: Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 475-483.

A study was made of the effects of feeding on various flowers on the longevity of Exeristes comstockii Cresson and the longevity and fecundity of Hyssopus thymus Girault. Both species are important native ectoparasites of Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiffermueller) at times, and their feeding on many species of flowers significantly increases the longevity of females over that of starved controls. The fecundity of H. thymus females fed on various flowers was at least comparable to that of honey-fed females in most cases, and in some was significantly greater. The implications of the presence of flowering plants within pine plantations and the success of parasites are discussed and the establishment and encouragement of flowering plants in plantations are recommended.

The important pests of the three main tree genera used in afforestation in Israel are described. The pine pests are the Israeli bast scale,Matsucoccus josephi; the pine processionary caterpillar,Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni; the bark beetlesOrthotomicus erosus, Pityogenes calcaratus andTomicus destruens; and the Mediterranean shoot moth,Rhyacionia buoliana thurificana. The cypress pests are the bark beetlesPhloeosinus armatus andP. aubei. The eucalypt borerPhoracantha semipunctata is the sole significant pest of eucalypts. All of these pests, except for the last, are considered endemic species which maintained themselves in the natural relict stands. Routine chemical control operations are conducted only againstT. wilkinsoni. Natural enemies are capable of keeping the other pest populations under good control if appropriate silvicultural measures and practices are in use.

The sex pheromone of the European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana, has been isolated and, using chemical methods, its structure shown to be (E)-9-dodecenyl acetate. Field traps containing the synthetic pheromone were consistently more attractive than traps baited with unmated females.

The interactions of 6 species of internal parasites ofRhyacionia buoliana Schiff. in a locality in northern Germany are discussed. The occurrence of super and multiparasitism is analyzed in relation to varying host densities and different rates of total parasitism. Multiparasitism betweenOrgilus obscurator Nees and 3 other species,Temelucha interruptor Grav.,Pristomerus sp. nearorbilatis Holmgr. and biting cleptoparasitic habits. Interspecific competition occurred in the form of direct physical attack between the first instar larvae. The coexistence of the internal larval parasites ofR. buoliana provides a good example of a system of “counter-balanced competition”.O. obscurator, although inferior at the level of intrinsic competition, was the dominant species at the level of extrinsic competition.

Investigation of the European pine shoot moth pheromone has revealed three components in addition to the previously identified E-9-dodecenyl acetate (E9-12:Ac): E-9-dodecenol, dodecyl acetate, and dodecanol. Inclusion of E-9-dodecenol makes lures more attractive to the moth than unmated females or E9-12:Ac alone. Dodecyl acetate had no apparent effect when added to this more attractive mixture whereas dodecanol had an inhibitory effect. Dodecyl acetate appeared to mask the inhibitory effect of dodecanol when 0.3% or more of the former component is present in the lure. Relative proportions of components are critical in comparative testing or monitoring populations of the moth.

The European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana Schiff., has become a serious enemy of red pine in Connecticut, and its status in relation to forest plantings of this tree is discussed.

In a previous paper concerning the numerous species of insect parasites associated with the Pine Shoot Moth, Rhyacionia buoliana Schiff., the mature larvae of the more important Hymenoptera were described in detail, special attention being paid to the mouth parts and tentorial structures which were found, in many cases, to provide valuable characters for distinguishing the species.

Four indigenous parasites of R. buoliana are discussed: Exeristes comstockii (Cress.), Scambus hispae (Harr.), Scambus tecumseh Vier. and Itoplectis conquisitor (Say). The first three are external larval parasites and the fourth an internal pupal parasite. Observations are given on the hosts, life histories, and habits under laboratory conditions. The immature stages are described.

A “sticky” trap, utilizing female sex pheromone as bait, was developed for capturing males of Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiffermuller). The trap was successful for detection surveys, particularly in areas having low moth populations. The duration of the bait’s attractiveness was extended threefold by dissolving polyethylene glycol-600-disparate in methylene chloride extracts containing the sex attractant. Baits could be used up to 2 weeks in a cool, damp area such as western washington before recharging was necessary. Males responded to the female pheromone over distances of at least 85-90 m.

A population of R. buoliana infesting a young Scots pine plantation was followed through three generations. The most important causes of mortality in the population were an egg parasite, probably Trichogramma evanescens; the failure of the third instar larvae to establish themselves in the buds; two external parasites, Scambus sagax attacking the larvae in the autumn and Exeristes ruficollis attacking the larvae in the spring; three internal parasites, Orgilus obscurator, Temelucha interrupter, and Eulimneria rufifemur, attacking the larvae in the autumn but killing it in the spring after the trees were damaged; and a fungus, Paecilomyces farinosus, that usually killed the larvae in the autumn. The total proportion of the population killed by parasites and fungus was usually constant from one year to the next, though the abundance of T. interruptor increased.Most of the annual fluctuation in abundance of the moth was caused by the differential survival of the third instar larvae. After a cool summer the third instar larvae were not developed until September and most of them failed to establish themselves in the buds and perished. On the other hand in a warm summer when the larvae developed earlier and attacked the buds in July, most of them were successful.

The European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff.), was introduced accidentally into Ontario about 1925, and has since spread throughout the southwestern part of the province south of a line from the south shores of Georgian Bay on the west to Brockville on the east (Fig. 1). Damage to the host is done by the larvae, the feeding of which results in the deformation of the branches and main stems, reducing the potential value of the trees as timber and, in heavy infestations, making young trees unsuitable for the Christmas tree trade. Several species of exotic and native pines are attacked; red pine, Pinus resinosa hit,, Scots pine. P. sylvestris L., and Mugho pine, P. mugho Turra, being the most susceptible. Because of the extensive planting of Scots and red pine in southern Ontario, especially during the last 25 years, the increasing numbers of European pine shoot moth in this area present a problem of great importance. Contributing to an understanding of this important pest, this paper presents a detailed review of the parasites obtained in Ontario since 1954, with some notes on earlier surveys.

The survival of Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff.) larvae on Pinus sylvestris L. is related to the amount of resin encountered during the initial attack on the buds, the larvae being unable to establish themselves in very resinous buds. The resin canals in the buds are developed in response to short days at the end of the summer while the development of the moth is associated with summer temperature. Thus more larvae survive in a warm summer than a cool one as they attack the buds before there is a well-developed resin protection. Also fewer larvae survive on the very resinous Pinus nigra Arn. than on P. sylvestris. However, the best survival was found on Pinus contorta Doug., which also was more resinous than P. sylvestris.

In the first paper of this series (3), the factors affecting flight, and the flight potential of egg-laden females of the European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliona (Schiff.), were discussed. It was shown that the adults are relatively strong fliers, with a potential flight range greater than indicated in much of the earlier literature. It was also pointed out that natural dispersal of this species is dependent upon flight and subsequent oviposition by gravid females because unmated females seldom fly, and little, if any, population dispersal occurs through the long range movements of early instars drifting on silk. This final paper of the series deals with field studies designed to obtain information concerning the dispersal tendencies of gravid females under natural field conditions.

Observations by other authors showing that T. interruptor attacks more host larvae that had been previously parasitized by O. obscurator than unparasitized hosts were confirmed in the present study. Preference for buds previously visited by females of O. obscurator, as compared to unvisited buds, was demonstrated. Preliminary experiments to determine the factors involved in this preference and their implication are reported. These studies indicate that the policy of importing and releasing T. interruptor in North America to assist in the control of R. buoliana was unwise.

Fecundity and egg survival had inverse linear relationships with increasing evaporation potentials expressed as vapor pressure deficits. With an increase of vapor pressure deficit from 4 to 24 mm Mg at a favorable temperature of 25.5 °C, mean fecundity could be reduced from 130 to 51 eggs and egg survival from 90% to 20%. Optimal laboratory physical conditions for egg production consisted of a low evaporation rate of less than 9 mm Hg vapor pressure deficit but short of a saturated atmosphere at a room temperature of 25.5 °C. One hour daily exposure of eggs to high temperatures up to 39 °C did not cause a significant increase in egg mortality. In the field there was no difference in fecundity of females between plots in damp western Washington and dry central Oregon (pine region). Egg mortality was always higher at the central Oregon plot, presumably because of higher evaporation rates. Since high vapor pressure deficits are common occurrences during the growing season in most of the pine region, it is possible this factor could limit Rhyacionia buoliana populations in some of these areas.

An improved cage arrangement resulted in 73% of the female European pine shoot moths being mated during a 48-hour test. Key factors were continual airflow from females to males and a light-to-dark illumination change. The ponderosa pine tip moth, Rhyacionia zozana (Kearf.), the black-headed budworm, Acleris gloverana (Wlsm.), and two species of spruce budworm, Choristoneura occidentalis Freeman and C. viridis Freeman, were also tested in the apparatus with some success in every case.

The European pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana (Schiff.), has been recognized as a pest of pine plantations since it was described in 1776. Neugebauer (1952) stated that 32 susceptible pine species were known and that scarcely any species were rejected by the insect. Following its accidental introduction into North America about 50 years ago (Busck, 1914) the shoot moth became a serious pest of red pine, Pinus resinosa Ait., which appears to be the most susceptible species (Heikkenen and Miller, 1959). Watson (1947) described the shoot moth as “the most destructive insect affecting hard pines in southern Ontario, and the most difficult to control”. Plantations have been damaged so severely that the planting of red pine has been virtually discontinued within the pest's range.

The number of R. buoliana per shoot is a good index of its abundance in a pine stand; but the determination of the index at low population levels involves counting large numbers of shoots. However, for the conspicuous third instar larvae and older stages it can be determined rapidly by counting the number of individuals present on a tree and estimating the number of shoots by measuring the stem diameter and referring to a predetermined shoot-diameter curve for the stand.

This paper describes a successful attempt to tag adult females of the European pine shoot, Rhyacionia buoliuna (Schiff.) with Co60, chosen as a tagging agent because it is a gamma emitter with a sufficiently long half-life (5.3 years). Emphasis is placed on the preparation and application of the tracer material, the absence of immediately harmful effects of radiation on the insects, and the ability of the insects to behave normally with the tags in place. This work was undertaken in order so develop techniques for following the movements of large numbers of these insects.

The severity of the winter of 1933–34 in contrast with the two previous winters afforded the writer the opportunity of observing the effect of winter temperatures on the survival of larvae of the European pine shoot moth. These observations are included here together with the results of some laboratory experiments on lethal low temperatures. An explanation is suggested for the course of development of the shoot moth outbreak since the introduction of the insect into Connecticut in 1914.