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Milk contains two types of proteins: Caseins and whey proteins. There are four caseins: α/β/γ/κ caseins that formed micelles in milk. Whey proteins are globular proteins between 12 and 200 kDa: α-lactalbumin; β-lactoglobulin; Serum albumin; Immunoglobulin and Lactoferrin. Industrials fractionate milk to produce whey protein and casein isolate to make ingredients for the formulation of dairy products. Whey protein isolate can be heated to functionalize or pasteurize them. The objective of these three studies are to characterize the isolates of whey proteins and the impact of heating treatment on whey protein fractions and formulations using different FFF techniques: Asymmetrical-FFF; 2D AsFlFFF-RPLC and Centrifugal-FFFWhey protein isolate heated at high temperature were studied by Centrifugal-FFF coupled with MALS and RI. Aggregates with the lowest density and size elute in the void peak and represent 51% of the mass fraction. For the bigger one, there are two populations: one smaller than 1 micrometer and one higher, up to 4.5 micrometers. For size determination, the biggest population fractionated has been collected and analyzed by DLS in batch. Infant milk formulation without fat was investigated by Asymmetrical Flow FFF coupled with MALS; QELS and RI. The formulation contains bovine milk and isolate whey protein fractions. The technique separates the non-aggregated whey protein to the casein micelles. The addition of lactoferrin partially disintegrated the casein micelles. The formulations are heated at 67.5°C or 80°C. Native whey protein content decreases with the heat treatment, leading to their aggregation on with the casein micelles. The phenomena depend on the temperature and protein composition. At 80°C, shape ratio Rg/Rh of casein micelles increase with the temperature when the formulation is enriched in lactoferrin. The Rg and Rh decrease when the formulation is enriched in α-lactalbumin and lactoferrin. Transmission Electronic Microscopy are correlated with these results. At 80°C, whey protein aggregates are fixed outside the micelle for the first formulation and they are fixed inside the micelles for the second formulation.Whey protein isolate contains few quantities of caseins. The second objective of this study is to identify the presence of trace of caseins in whey protein isolate using 2D AsFlFFF-RP-HPLC. This technique allows to separate proteins by their size and by their polarity. A whey protein standard mix is studied: α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin A and B, BSA, and 3 caseins. A 2D map is obtained with all separated proteins.

Milk contains two types of proteins: Caseins and whey proteins. There are four caseins: α/β/γ/κ caseins that formed micelles in milk. Whey proteins are globular proteins between 12 and 200 kDa: α-lactalbumin; β-lactoglobulin; Serum albumin; Immunoglobulin and Lactoferrin. Industrials fractionate milk to produce whey protein and casein isolate to make ingredients for the formulation of dairy products. Whey protein isolate can be heated to functionalize or pasteurize them. The objective of these three studies are to characterize the isolates of whey proteins and the impact of heating treatment on whey protein fractions and formulations using different FFF techniques: Asymmetrical-FFF; 2D AsFlFFF-RPLC and Centrifugal-FFF Whey protein isolate heated at high temperature were studied by Centrifugal-FFF coupled with MALS and RI. Aggregates with the lowest density and size elute in the void peak and represent 51% of the mass fraction. For the bigger one, there are two populations: one smaller than 1 micrometer and one higher, up to 4.5 micrometers. For size determination, the biggest population fractionated has been collected and analyzed by DLS in batch. Infant milk formulation without fat was investigated by Asymmetrical Flow FFF coupled with MALS; QELS and RI. The formulation contains bovine milk and isolate whey protein fractions. The technique separates the non-aggregated whey protein to the casein micelles. The addition of lactoferrin partially disintegrated the casein micelles. The formulations are heated at 67.5°C or 80°C. Native whey protein content decreases with the heat treatment, leading to their aggregation on with the casein micelles. The phenomena depend on the temperature and protein composition. At 80°C, shape ratio Rg/Rh of casein micelles increase with the temperature when the formulation is enriched in lactoferrin. The Rg and Rh decrease when the formulation is enriched in α-lactalbumin and lactoferrin. Transmission Electronic Microscopy are correlated with these results. At 80°C, whey protein aggregates are fixed outside the micelle for the first formulation and they are fixed inside the micelles for the second formulation. Whey protein isolate contains few quantities of caseins. The second objective of this study is to identify the presence of trace of caseins in whey protein isolate using 2D AsFlFFF-RP-HPLC. This technique allows to separate proteins by their size and by their polarity. A whey protein standard mix is studied: α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin A and B, BSA, and 3 caseins. A 2D map is obtained with all separated proteins.

Comprendre la digestion pour proposer les aliments de demain. 1ère matinale thématique Sodiaal : la digestion, clé de l’innovation

Infant formulas & New protein sources . STLOpendays

Towards more biomimetic infant formula. STLOpendays

Réduire les impacts environnementaux des productions animales reste une priorité. Formuler des éco-aliments générant de moindres impacts environnementaux peut constituer un levier d’action. Cette formulation nécessite la connaissance des impacts des intrants alimentaires, ce que rassemble la base de données ECOALIM. Ces données d’impacts sont des valeurs moyennes à l’échelle de la France et, de ce fait, ne rendent pas compte de la grande diversité des itinéraires techniques et des contextes pédoclimatiques. Ainsi, ces valeurs moyennes nationales sont-elles suffisantes pour mettre en oeuvre une écoconception des aliments du bétail ? Cette étude ambitionne d’y répondre en se basant sur une analyse d’incertitude des impacts des principales matières premières utilisées en alimentation animale (blé, maïs, orge, colza, tournesol, et leurs coproduits transformés), et des impacts des éco-aliments formulés soit à partir de données moyennes, soit à partir de données spécifiques, pour différents contextes économiques et de disponibilité en matières premières. Un échantillonnage aléatoire (N entre 500 et 1000) a été réalisé en tirant les valeurs d’impacts des matières premières dans une loi normale bornée par des valeurs minimales et maximales. Chaque jeu de données est utilisé pour comparer les impacts environnementaux et les taux d’incorporation des matières premières entre les aliments formulés à moindre coût et les éco-aliments. Pour les impacts changement climatique et consommation d’énergie, les moyennes nationales d’impacts environnementaux des matières premières s’avèrent suffisantes pour l’écoconception en permettant de réduire effectivement les impacts par rapport à la formulation à moindre coût. Les résultats sont plus variables pour les impacts consommation de phosphore et occupation des sols. De même, certaines matières premières comme le blé et le maïs requièrent des itinéraires plus précis qu’une simple situation moyenne nationale., Reducing environmental impacts of the livestock sector remains a priority. Formulating eco-feeds with lower impacts can be used as one mechanism. Doing so requires knowledge about feedstuff impacts, such as those contained in the ECOALIM database. As this database provides average values at a national scale, it can have high uncertainty due to the large variability in production techniques and soil/climate contexts for crops. Thus, the purpose of this study was to assess the relevance of eco-designing feed based on average national values. Uncertainty analysis was performed considering the variability in impact of the main crops used for pig feeds: wheat, maize, barley, rapeseed and sunflower and their processed co-products. This was applied to formulate eco-feeds within various economic contexts and conditions of feedstuff availability. A random sample (n = 500-1000) was created by drawing environmental impact values from a normal distribution truncated by minimum and maximum values. Each dataset was used to compare impacts of the eco-feed with those of an average standard feed. The effect of incorporation rates of feedstuffs was also analysed. For the impacts “energy consumption” and “climate change”, and for many feedstuffs, the use of national average data of environmental impacts appeared suitable for an eco-design implementation by feed manufacturers. Nonetheless, the ECOALIM dataset needs to be enriched with more detailed data for certain feedstuffs, such as maize and wheat, and also for certain impacts, such as “phosphorus use” and “land use”.

International audience; In 2018, about 60% of world’s newborns received cow milk-based infant formulas (IF) instead of human milk (UNICEF). The process of manufacturing IF involves heat treatments altering the physicochemical properties of milk components, especially whey proteins (WP). The objective of the study was to investigate the impacts of thermal treatments on the denaturation of WP of IF, particularly for those mimicking the protein profile of human milk, and to characterize the heat-induced protein structures. Methods: Three model IF were produced with a caseins:WP ratio of 40:60 at 1.3% and 5.5% of total proteins, differing in the quality of WP. The kinetic of heat-induced denaturation of each WP was investigated between 67.5°C and 80°C by quantification of the residual native proteins by RP-HPLC. The heat-induced protein structures were studied by dynamic light scattering, electrophoresis and asymmetric flow field flow fractionation coupled with MALLS. Results: The quantification of native WP fractions revealed an enhanced denaturation of α-lactalbumin in presence of both β-lactoglobulin and lactoferrin, an increased denaturation of β-lactoglobulin in presence of lactoferrin, and an increased denaturation lactoferrin in presence of β-lactoglobulin. At similar rate of total WP denaturation at 67.5°C and 80°C, the protein composition of the heat-induced aggregates changed between formulas, protein concentrations and heating temperatures but disulfide bonds were the main intermolecular links. The aggregates were larger and of fractal shape (apparent fractal dimension dfapp = 2.1) in formulas at 5.5% proteins whereas they were of spherical shape (dfapp = 2.9) in formulas at 1.3% proteins. Discussion: Effets of heat treatment on the denaturation of α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin and lactoferrin and the protein structure are influenced by the WP quality of IF. These results will give to industrials reliable data on the protein structures formed during the heat treatments of IF. The impact on digestibility will be subsequently investigated

Rapprocher les préparations pour nourrisson (PPN) du lait maternel, non seulement d’un point de vue nutritionnel mais aussi d’un point de vue fonctionnel, constitue un enjeu majeur pour optimiser la santé des nourrissons qui ne sont pas allaités par leur mère. La structure et la composition très particulières de la matrice lipidique du lait maternel et la présence d’un microbiote laitier pourraient en partie expliquer les différences physiologiques et métaboliques observées entre enfants allaités au sein et ceux recevant des PPN. L’objectif de cette étude a été d’évaluer les effets de l’ajout dans les PPN de matière grasse laitière bovine, associée ou non à une souche probiotique (Lactobacillus fermentum CECT5716, Lf), sur la digestion, le microbiote et la physiologie intestinale du nourrisson à l’issue de la période d’allaitement. Vingt-six miniporcs Yucatan ont été allaités avec une PPN classique, c’est-à-dire à base de matières grasses végétales (MGV), ou une PPN à base d’un mélange de MGV et de matière grasse bovine supplémentée ou non en Lf (MGL et MGL+Lf respectivement). La digestion des PPN (protéolyse, lipolyse), la composition et l’activité du microbiote rectal et la physiologie intestinale (fonctions barrière et endocrine) ont été évaluées à l’âge de 28 jours. L’ajout de MGL associée ou non au probiotique Lf a induit une protéolyse gastrique plus importante et a augmenté la diversité des peptides bioactifs et potentiellement antimicrobiens présents dans l’iléon et le côlon. Une lipolyse intestinale plus importante a également été observée avec la MGL. L’association de la MGL et de Lf a de plus renforcé les défenses intestinales non spécifiques de l’hôte, via une augmentation de la densité des cellules à mucus dans le jéjunum, ainsi qu’une plus forte expression des ARN codant les protéines des jonctions serrées (ZO-1 et occludine) et une diminution de la perméabilité transcellulaire dans le côlon. Ces effets pourraient en partie être médiés par la modulation de la composition et du métabolisme du microbiote intestinal observée dans le groupe MLG+Lf avec notamment une sur-abondance de genres bactériens tels que Lachnospiraceae UCG-001 et Coprococcus 3, et une augmentation de la production de métabolites bactériens tels que le butyrate, l’isobutyrate et le glutamate. En revanche, même si l’expression des récepteurs aux acides gras volatils FFAR3 était augmentée dans le côlon dans le groupe MGL+Lf par rapport au groupe MGV, la fonction endocrine intestinale (nombre de cellules endocrines et concentration tissulaire en GLP-1) n’était pas modifiée par la PPN reçue. En conclusion, la MGL et le probiotique Lf ont modifié la digestion des PPN, l’implantation du microbiote et la fonction barrière intestinale du nourrisson. Ces résultats soulignent l’importance de la composition des PPN sur la santé digestive du nourrisson. Une étude à plus long terme nous a permis de mettre en évidence des conséquences bénéfiques de ces modifications précoces sur la physiologie intestinale de l’adulte.

Despite all the efforts made by the dairy industry to develop infant formula (IF) mimicking the composition of human milk (HM), some major differences remain between these two foods in terms of composition (nature of proteins and lipids, oligosaccharide, microbiota…) and structure (casein micelle, milk fat globule).Do these compositional and structural differences affect the behavior of the 2 products when they enter the gastrointestinal tract of the neonate? The answer is yes. For instance, gastric emptying half-time is 54 min for HM and 80 min for IF resulting in major differences in the kinetics of hydrolysis of proteins and lipids.This presentation will summarize ten years of work conducted at INRA on food digestion leading to the release of more than 40 peer-reviewed articles. First, gastrointestinal digestion of HM and IF was compared using a dynamic in vitro digestion simulator, the DiDGi®. Caseins were shown to be more extensively broken down in the stomach in IF than HM. In contrast, HM lipids were more degraded in the stomach due to the action of the milk endogenous lipase but were less hydrolyzed in the small intestine. This difference was attributed to the homogenization process applied to IF transforming large milk fat globules into smaller lipid droplets and increasing the specific surface available for digestive lipases. In a clinical trial performed on pre-term neonates, the effect of pasteurization and homogenization of HM on the kinetics of gastric lipolysis and proteolysis was investigated. Pre-term neonates were fed through a naso-gastric tube that also allowed to aspirate their stomach content at different post-prandial times. Pasteurization was shown to decrease the resistance of lactoferrin that was hydrolyzed faster in the stomach. Homogenization led to an acceleration of lipolysis in the stomach of the pre-term neonates.In a third project, the effect of the heat-treatment applied to IF manufacture on the casein resistance to gastrointestinal digestion was investigated. Model IF were developed at a pilot plant scale and the effect of 4 heat treatments applied to the protein concentrates (no heating, 80°C/20s, 85°C/3 min, 105°C/60s) on casein digestion was studied. Casein domains carrying post-translational modifications and hydrophobic areas were shown to be the most resistant to the digestive process. The intensity of the heat-treatment was shown to dramatically affect casein resistance to digestion; the more IF were heated, the more resistant the casein were. This resistance was attributed to the thermal aggregation of whey protein that were forming a protective layer around the casein micelle. Finally, IF were designed at INRA’s dairy platform and their in vivo digestion by piglets investigated. IF1 was a control IF with vegetable oil and milk proteins at the interface of the lipid droplet. In IF2, lipid droplets were stabilized by milk phospholipids in order to recreate a structure close to that of the milk fat globule. Finally, IF3 was also stabilized by milk phospholipids and 60% of the vegetable oil was replaced by milk fat. Piglets were fed 28d with one of the three IF. Concentration of caseins and -lactoglobulin in the jejunum and ileum was higher for IF3. Higher intestinal thickness was also observed with IF3 but was not associated with changes in permeability. IF3 increased IFN secretion suggesting an improved intestinal immune system maturation such as observed in sow suckling piglets. Finally, the nature of IF was shown to dramatically affect the intestinal microbiota composition of piglets.All these data show that IF still exhibit major differences with HM affecting their kinetics of disintegration in the GI tract. Designing a new generation of biomimetic IF is an objective that we are currently trying to reach.

Environmental and economic performances of livestock production are related largely to the production of complete feeds provided on commercial farms. Formulating feeds based on environmental and economic criteria appears a suitable approach to address the current challenges of animal production. We developed a multiobjective (MO) method of formulating feed which considers both the cost and environmental impacts (estimated via life cycle assessment) of the feed mix. In the first step, least-cost formulation provides a baseline for feed cost and potential impacts per kg of feed. In the second, the minimised MO function includes normalised values of feed cost and impacts climate change, P demand, non-renewable energy demand and land occupation. An additional factor weights the relative influence of economic and environmental objectives. The potential of the method was evaluated using two scenarios of feed formulation for pig, broiler and young bulls. Compared to baseline feeds, MO-formulated feeds had lower environmental impacts in both scenarios studied (−2 to −48 %), except for land occupation of broiler feeds, and a moderately higher cost (1–7 %). The ultimate potential for this method to mitigate environmental impacts is probably lower than this, as animal supply chains may compete for the same low-impact feed ingredients. The method developed complements other strategies, and optimising the entire animal production system should be explored in the future to substantially decrease the associated impacts.

International audience; In vitro alternatives to clinical trials are used for studying human food digestion. For simulating infant digestion, only few models, lacking of physiological relevance, are available. Thanks to an extensive literature review of the in vivo infant digestive conditions, a gastrointestinal static in vitro model was developed for infants born at term and aged of 28 days. The model was applied to the digestion of a commercial infant formula. Kinetics of digestion, as well as the structural evolution, were compared with those obtained while submitting the same formula to the adult international consensus protocol of in vitro static digestion. The kinetics of proteolysis and lipolysis differed according to the physiological stage resulting mainly from the reduced level of enzymes and bile salts as well as the higher gastric pH in the infant model. This in vitro static model of infant digestion is of interest for scientists, food or pharmaceutical manufacturers.

Many food products are oil in water (O/W) emulsions. Milk has the specificity to be a natural O/W emulsion secreted by the lactating cells. The milk fat globules are recognized as being efficient conveyors of energyin the form of triacylglycerols and of bioactive molecules, specifically provided by the biological membrane, the MFGM, which is the interface with the gastrointestinal tract. However, the MFGM is altered in manyprocessed dairy products and is currently absent from standard infant milk formulas. The objectives of this invited article are to evaluate whether the specific composition and structure of the MFGM and milk polar lipidassemblies, associated with their nutritional and health benefits, could be used to tailor functional emulsions bioinspired by the MFGM-coated milk fat globules. Recent knowledge about the structure of the MFGM revealing the heterogeneous distribution of proteins and the formation of ordered lipid domains rich in milk sphingomyelin and cholesterol is presented. The impacts of the unique composition and biophysical properties of milk polar lipids on the structure and potential functions of the MFGM are highlighted. Facing the evidence of both the functional and health benefits provided by the MFGM, the preparation of MFGM-enriched ingredients from dairy products has recently attracted wide attention. The utilization of MFGM components to tailor the surface of processed lipid droplets in food emulsions and to develop new products providing health benefits isdiscussed.

Le comportement alimentaire a un impact direct sur le bien-être et la santé, ainsi que sur des maladies associées à des désordres nutritionnels, notamment les maladies inflammatoires, les maladies chroniques du foie et de l’appareil digestif, et les cancers. En outre, les troubles alimentaires, en particulier la consommation excessive d’aliments ou d’alcool, le syndrome métabolique associé à l’obésité et les surcharges en fer sont directement responsables d’un nombre important de maladies chroniques, ou contribuent à leur morbidité. Les xénobiotiques, contaminants environnementaux et produits chimiques présents dans l’alimentation et médicaments, sont d’autres facteurs de risque des maladies aiguës et chroniques du foie et de l’intestin. L’objectif de l’unité « Nutrition, Métabolismes et Cancer » est d’étudier comment les déterminants alimentaires, comportementaux, environnementaux et métaboliques ont un impact sur la santé et les maladies chroniques de différents organes cibles tels que le foie, le système digestif et le cerveau. Le projet soutient une recherche translationnelle et clinique forte pour accélérer le transfert des avancées de la recherche cognitive pour le bénéfice des individus et des malades. L’unité réunit des experts en sciences sociales et comportementales, neurosciences, nutrition, hépatologie, gastroentérologie, cancérologie, physiologie, métabolisme, toxicologie, microbiologie, biologie moléculaire et cellulaire, et génomique.

Feed production represents more than 70% of several environmental impacts estimated by Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in pig (P) and broiler (B) productions. Yet, least cost feed formulation (LCF) is not relevant to reduce the environmental impacts of P and B feeds. Optimising feed composition while taking into account environmental impacts of feedstuffs (FS) is a way to do so. This study describes a new method, multiobjective formulation (MOF), based on the simultaneous use of an economic index (based on feed cost) and an environmental index (using LCA impacts) in a single objective function to minimize. A weighting coefficient (α) allows giving more or less influence to these indexes. The best trade-off was considered to be reached for an optimal weighting coefficient (αopt) set to be the coefficient beyond which the marginal increase of the economic index exceeds the marginal decrease of the environmental index. In the actual French context of FS availability, important reductions in impacts of P and B feeds were achieved with MOF in comparison with LCF. In B, at αopt, reductions by 12, 18, 7, 4, and 12% were achieved for ‘climate change’ (CC), ‘non-renewable energy use’, ‘eutrophication’, ‘acidification’ and ‘phosphorus consumption’ impacts, respectively, for an extra cost of 3%. In P, similar reductions of these impacts were achieved at αopt: -14, -13, -11, -7, and -6%, respectively, for an extra cost of 1%. For ‘land occupation’ impact, MOF had little effect in B (+4%) whereas in P, it decreased by 13%. LCA impacts at farm gate of one kg of live weight of B and P fed with these eco-feeds were also assessed. They confirmed that MOF reduces the environmental impacts of P and B productions (e.g. for CC, -7 and -10%, respectively) without pollution swapping and with moderate extra costs (e.g. +1% and +2% in P and B, respectively). Greater reductions of impacts are even possible when FS availabilityis less limiting (e.g. -19% for CC in B), questioning the actual availability of low-impact FS such as pea or sorghum.

Optimization of feeding strategies (S) is an effective option to reduce the environmental impacts of livestock. Itcan be performed, by using multi-objective feed formulation (MOF) to select feedstuffs according to their priceand environmental impacts, and by adapting dietary composition to animal requirements during the rearing period. This study investigates the combination of those feeding strategies on the environmental impacts of pig (P) and broiler (B) productions. Different S for conventional farms were specified in B and for fattening period in P. In P, the S were: 2-phases feeding (S1); multiphase feeding with two (S2) or four (S3) pre-diets, mixed together in different proportions during time; and 2-phases feeding with a reduction of energy (S4) or amino acid (S5) content. In B, the S were: 3-phases feeding (S6) and 3-phases feeding with lysine and energy contents respectively increased and decreased (S7). For each S, feeds were formulated using least-cost optimization (LC) and MOF. The environmental impacts of the kg of BW at farm gate were assessed by Life Cycle Assessment and compared to the reference scenarios: LC-S1 and LC-S6 for P and B, respectively. S with LC formulation showed impacts between -19% and +13% compared to the reference impacts. MOF reduced impacts per kg of feed by up to 30%, and final impacts per kg of BW by 1 to 20%, except for Acidification and Climate Change (S4), and for Land Occupation (S7). Three criteria explain these contrasted results among S and LCA impacts at the kg of BW scale. The first one is the contribution of feed to impacts per kg of BW (34% to 98%). The second one is feed conversion ratio as it reflects the overall efficiency of the system, and thus impacts nutrient excretion and manure gas emission. The last one is nutritional balance of feed (protein, amino acids composition), explaining nitrogen excretion (S2, S3). This study underlines the need for optimizing S while considering simultaneously the consequences on economics and environmental performances at animal scale.

Studying food digestion in humans through clinical trials is difficult for economical, ethical and technical reasons. In vitro alternatives are thus used for screening different foods and for a better understanding of the mechanisms of the digestive process. To date, there are only few models for simulating infant digestion and most of them lack of physiological relevance. Thanks to an extensive literature review of the in vivo infant digestive conditions, a gastrointestinal static in vitro model was developed for infants born at term and aged of 28 days. The oral phase was omitted due to the liquid nature of infant formula but also because carbohydrate digestion was not monitored here. The following parameters were determined: pH, ratio of meal to secretions, enzyme units of pepsin and gastric lipase (added as rabbit gastric extract) and of pancreatin (porcine source), and biliary salt molarity. Gastric and intestinal phases lasted 60 min each. The model was applied to the digestion of a commercial infant formula. Kinetics of digestion and end-points were compared with those obtained while submitting the same formula to the adult standardised protocol of in vitro static digestion1.Gastric and intestinal digesta were sampled regularly. Proteolysis kinetics were followed by SDS-PAGE and NMR and lipolysis kinetics by thin layer and gas chromatography. The structure evolution during the gastric phase was evaluated by confocal laser scanning microscopy and laser light scattering. As a result, the kinetics of proteolysis and lipolysis differed according to the physiological stage likely due to the reduced level of enzymes in the infant model and the higher gastric pH at the infant stage. This model is of interest for scientists or companies studying the digestion of infant food.

Multiobjective formulation (MOF) of feed is based on the use of an economic indicator (feed price) andenvironmental indicators (LCA impacts) simultaneously in a single objective function to minimize. Such amethod allows the simultaneous decrease of several environmental impacts associated to the production ofpoultry feed, with a limited impact on feed cost. In order to conclude on the final benefits of this method,economic and environmental consequences at product scale should be studied. 120 broiler diets were formulatedusing MOF. Economic and environmental consequences of these diets were then assessed for one ton of liveweight at farm gate using a production cost simulator and Life Cycle Analysis, respectively. Results confirm thatfeed production is the main contributor to several environmental impacts (phosphorus consumption, 97%; landoccupation, 87%; climate change, 80%; energy use, 75%; eutrophication, 63%) and production cost of livebroiler (52%). When animal performance is not modified by nutritional characteristics of feed, the economic andenvironmental optimum identified at feed scale during MOF is the same at product scale. Moreover, the decreaseof environmental impacts at product scale is directly proportional to the decrease at feed scale using MOF (theproportionality coefficient being the contribution of feed to the total impact). MOF of feed is thus a relevantmethod to reduce environmental impact of poultry production.; La formulation multiobjectif (FMO) permet de formuler des aliments en minimisant une fonction objectifincluant le prix de l’aliment et des impacts environnementaux de l’aliment. Ainsi, il devient possible de réduireconjointement plusieurs impacts environnementaux associés à la production d’aliments pour volaille, avec unimpact modéré sur le prix de l’aliment. Cependant, pour pouvoir conclure sur les bénéfices finaux de cetteapproche, les conséquences sur les performances économiques et environnementales du produit final doivent être évaluées. Un total de 120 aliments moyens pour poulet de chair, a ainsi été formulé à l’aide de la FMO. Les conséquences environnementales et économiques de ces aliments ont ensuite été évaluées à l’échelle de la tonne de poulet de chair vif, à l’aide respectivement de la méthode d’Analyse du Cycle de Vie et d’un calculateur du coût de production. Les résultats confirment la contribution majoritaire de la fabrication d’aliment pour la plupart des impacts environnementaux (consommation de phosphore, 97% ; occupation des terres, 87% ; changement climatique, 80% ; consommation d’énergie, 75% ; eutrophisation : 63%) et pour le coût deproduction du poulet vif (52%). Lorsque les performances des animaux ne sont pas modifiées (i.e. pas demodification des caractéristiques nutritionnelles de l’aliment), l’optimum économique et environnementalidentifié à l’échelle de l’aliment lors de la FMO est le même à l’échelle du produit final. La réduction desimpacts environnementaux à l’échelle du produit est par ailleurs directement proportionnelle à celle permise par la FMO des aliments (le coefficient de proportionnalité étant égal à la contribution de l’aliment à l’impact final). Ainsi, la FMO des aliments est une approche pertinente pour réduire les impacts environnementaux de la production avicole.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used in many studies to evaluate the effect of feeding strategy on the environmental impact of pig production. However, because most studies have been conducted in European conditions, the question of possible interactions with the context of production is still under debate. The objective of this study was to evaluate these effects in two contrasted geographic contexts of production, Brazil and France. The LCA considered the process of pig fattening at the farm gate, including production of feed, rearing of animals, and manure management. The functional unit considered was one kg of body weight gain. Performance of pigs was simulated for each scenario using the InraPorc® population model (1000 castrated males and 1000 females per scenario). The scenarios combined in each country 4 feeding programs (2-phase, 4-phase, multiphase and precision feeding), 12 formulation strategies (2 protein sources x 2 origins of soybean x 3 levels of amino acid (AA) addition). The results indicate that for some impacts there are clear interactions between effects of feeding program, origin of soybean and location of production. For climate change, the interest of phase feeding and incorporation of AA is limited and even counterproductive in Brazil when using soybean from South (without deforestation), whereas it is a more interesting strategy in Europe, and in all situations with soybean from Center West (with deforestation). Rather similar effects, as for climate change, were observed for cumulative energy demand. Conversely, potential eutrophication and acidification impacts were reduced by phase feeding and AA addition in a similar way in all situations. For all impacts, precision feeding was the most effective approach for reducing the LCA impacts of pig fattening.; Différentes études récentes ont évalué par analyse de cycle de vie (ACV) les effets de l'alimentation sur les impacts environnementaux de la production porcine. Cependant, la plupart de ces études ont été conduites en Europe et la question des interactions avec le contexte de production reste posée. L'objectif de ce travail était d'évaluer ces effets dans deux situations contrastées, le Brésil et la France. L'ACV considérait la phase d'engraissement des porcs jusqu’à la porte de l'élevage : production des aliments, élevage des animaux, gestion des effluents, l'unité fonctionnelle étant un kg de gain de poids vif. Les performances des animaux étaient simulées à l'aide du modèle population d’InraPorc® (1000 mâles castrés et 1000 femelles par scénario). Les scénarios testés combinaient, dans chaque pays, quatre programmes d'alimentation (2 phases, 4 phases, multiphase, alimentation de précision), 12 modalités de formulation (2 sources de protéines x 2 origines du soja x 3 niveaux d'addition d'acides aminés(AA)). Les résultats montrent des interactions significatives entre programme alimentaire, origine du soja et localisation de la production. Pour l'impact changement climatique, l'intérêt de l'alimentation par phases et de l'addition d'AA est limité et même contreproductif au Brésil lorsque le soja provient du sud (sans déforestation), alors que c'est une stratégie intéressante en Europe et, dans tous les cas, lorsque le soja provient du centre-ouest, avec déforestation. Des effets similaires sont observés pour la demande en énergie. A l'inverse, l'alimentation par phases et l'addition d'AA réduisent significativement les impacts eutrophisation et acidification, de la même manière dans les deux pays. Pour tous les impacts, l'alimentation de précision est toujours la stratégie la plus efficace pour réduire les impacts environnementaux.

The production of feed ingredients for pig feeds has a major contribution to climate change, energy use and the land occupation impacts of the animal products. Nonetheless, the traditional least-cost (LC) feed formulation methods minimize the cost of the feed mix, without consideration of its environmental impacts. The objective of this study was to estimate the potential mitigation of environmental impacts calculated by Life Cycle Assessment through a multi-objective formulation (MinMO) of pig feeds. The linear programming model built searches the best feed formula under nutritional constraints with a multi-objective function including an economic price index and an environmental impact index. A weighting coefficient α of the environmental index and (1-α) of the price index has been included for the objective function. Impact values of feed ingredients came from the ECOALIM dataset of AgriBalyse® v1.3. Growing and finishing feeds were formulated within two scenarios of feed ingredient availability (current limited LIM, increased NLIM) with LC formulation and MinMO formulation. In NLIM-LC vs. LIM-LC the environmental index is reduced on average by 3% and the price index by 1%. In MinMO with α=0.5 vs. LC, the environmental index of both feeds decreases by 10% in LIM and 22% in NLIM. Simultaneously, the price of the feed mix increases by 1.5% in LIM and 1.7% in NLIM.For α higher than 0.5, the environmental index is not further reduced. Multi-objective formulation of pig feeds may be an efficient method to produce low-impact feeds. Further work will account for the additional needs for some feed ingredients and possible interactions with the requirements for the other livestock species, at the territory level.; Les matières premières (MP) utilisées dans l’alimentation contribuent majoritairement aux impacts changement climatique, consommation d’énergie et utilisation des terres du kg de porc produit. La méthode traditionnelle de formulation (MinPrix) minimise le coût du mélange des MP, sans considérer les impacts environnementaux. L’objectif de cette étude était de développer une méthode de formulation multiobjectif (MinMO) minimisant à la fois le prix et les impacts environnementaux des MP calculés par Analyse du Cycle de Vie. Le modèle de programmation linéaire construit recherche la meilleure formule d’aliment souscontraintes nutritionnelles et de disponibilité des MP avec une fonction multiobjectif qui inclut un index de prix et un index environnemental. Un facteur de pondération de l’index environnemental (α) et de l’index de prix (1-α), a été inclus à la fonction. Les impacts des MP proviennent du jeu de données ECOALIM inclus dans AgriBalyse® v1.3. Des aliments croissance et finition ont été formulés avec 2 scénarios de disponibilité des MP (disponibilité actuelle limitée LIM ou disponibilité accrue NLIM) selon une formulation MinPrix et une formulation MinMO. En NLIM-MinPrix vs. LIM-MinPrix l’index environnemental est réduit en moyennede 3% et l’index de prix de 1%. En MinMO avec α=0,5 vs. MinPrix, l’index environnemental des deux aliments diminue de 10% en LIM et de 22% en NLIM. Simultanément, le prix du mélange augmente de 1,5% en LIM et de 1,7% en NLIM. Pour α supérieur à 0,5, l’index environnemental n’est quasiment plus réduit. La formulation multiobjectif semble être une méthode efficace pour produire des aliments à impacts réduits. Les résultats seront modulés dans le futur en tenant compte des besoins accrus en certaines MP et des interactions possibles avec les besoins des autres espèces animales.

Bases de la nutrition et formulation en aquaculture

The repeated use of conventional synthetic pesticides in crop protection leads to resistance development by pests along with a negative impact on the environment, particularly non-target arthropods. Plant-derived active compounds, such as essential oils (EOs), play a key role in sustainably controlling pests. The lethal and sublethal activity of citrus peel EOs as emulsions and included in polyethylene glycol (PEG) nanoparticles (EO-NPs) was determined against the invasive tomato pest Tuta absoluta. Their effects on the plants were also assessed. The results showed an overall good insecticidal activity of the compounds tested, with a higher mortality through contact on eggs and larvae by EO emulsions and through ingestion on larvae by EO-NPs. The nanoformulation also significantly reduced the visible toxic effects on the plants. The data collected suggest that these natural compounds, especially when nanoformulated, could be successfully used in integrated pest management programs for T. absoluta.

International audience; The production of pig feeds has a major contribution to climate change, energy use and land occupation impacts of the animal product. Nonetheless, the traditional least-cost (LC) feed formulation methods minimize the cost of the feed mix, without consideration of its environmental impacts. The objective of this study was to estimate the potential mitigation of environmental impacts calculated by Life Cycle Assessment through a multi-objective formulation of pig feeds, in the French context. The linear programming problem built searches the best feed formula under nutritional constraints with a multi-objective function including an economic price index (price of the feed mix relative to LC formulation) and an environmental impacts index (environmental impacts relative to LC formulation). A weighting coefficient between price and environment (α) ranging from 0 to 1 was included. Growing and finishing feeds were formulated with two scenarios of feed ingredients availability (current limited LIM, increased NLIM) and 4 scenarios of feed ingredient prices. When increasing α from 0 to 0.5, the environmental indexes of the growing and finishing feeds dropped down to -10% in LIM and down to -17 to -20% in NLIM scenario, respectively. Concomitantly, the average feed price increased by 1.5% in LIM and 1.7% in NLIM. For α higher than 0.5, the environmental index was almost no further reduced. At α=0.5, all the impacts considered were reduced relatively to LIM-LC, excepted for land occupation in NLIM. The low-impact feeds incorporated higher proportions of pea and wheat middlings and lower proportions of meals (rapeseed and sunflower) than LC formulated feeds. The multi-objective formulation of pig feeds is an efficient methodology to find low-impact feeds according to a given economic scenario. Improving the availability of some feed ingredients (pea, co-products of wheat…) at the territory level would allow (at same feed’s nutritional composition) further reduction of pig feeds impacts relatively to the current French context. Multi-objective formulation can provide a decision support tool to the feed industry to produce low-impact feeds for the pig production chain.

International audience; Feeds contribute highly to the environmental impacts of livestock products. Therefore formulating low-impact feeds necessitates data of the environmental impacts of feed ingredients with consistent perimeters and methodology for life cycle assessment (LCA). We built the ECOALIM dataset of life cycle inventories (LCI) and associated impacts for feed ingredients utilised in animal production in France. It provides several perimeters for LCI (field gate, storage organization gate, plant gate and harbour gate) with homogeneous data source from R&D French institutes covering the period 2005-2012. The dataset of 149 environmental impacts is available as an Excel spreadsheet on the ECOALIM website and provides ILCD and CML climate change and acidification, eutrophication, CED non-renewable energy, phosphorus consumption, and CML land occupation. Life cycle inventories of the ECOALIM dataset are available in the Agribalyse® database in SimaPro® software. The ECOALIM dataset can be utilized by the feed manufacturer and the LCA practitioner to investigate the formulation of low-impact feeds. It also provides data for environmental evaluation of feeds and environmental evaluation of animal production systems.

Session : Alimentation; Histidine (His) and leucine (Leu) are essential amino acids for growth in piglets. A consequence of the reduction of the crude protein content of piglet diets by using L‐Lysine (Lys), L‐Threonine, DL‐Methionine, L‐Tryptophan and L‐Valine is that His and Leu may be limiting for growth, although information on the requirements for these amino acids is scarce. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of supplementing a low crude protein diet with L‐His and L‐Leu on feed intake and growth to estimate the His and Leu requirement of 10‐20 kg pigs. In each of four experiments, 14 blocks of six pigs each were allotted to six levels of, respectively, standardized ileal digestible (SID) His:Lys (20, 24, 28, 32, 36, and 40%), His:Lys (21, 24, 27, 30, 33, and 36%), Leu:Lys (70, 78, 86, 94, 102, and 110%), and Leu:Lys (80, 90, 100, 110, 120, and 130%). The estimated SID His:Lys and Leu:Lys requirements were respectively 32 and 102% for maximizing daily gain and 29 and 97% for maximizing feed efficiency using a curvilinear‐plateau model. When His and Leu levels were 10% below the requirement estimate, daily gain was reduced by 3%. The results of the present study indicated that the SID His:Lys and Leu:Lys requirements in 10‐20 kg pigs were determined to be 32 and 102%, respectively.

Immunoassays for estimating the impact of skim milk powder processing on casein digestion by an in vitro infant model. X th International Conference on Agri-Food Antibodies

Le traitement thermique du lait provoque des interactions entre les protéines et les autres constituants de la matrice (lipides, sucres) entrainant l’apparition d’agrégats thermoinduits, de composés de Maillard… La susceptibilité de ces structures néoformées à être digérées par le nourrisson et la nature des peptides bioactifs libérés au niveau intestinal par leur hydrolyse a été très peu étudiée jusqu’alors. L’objectif de ce travail était donc de déterminer l’impact de deux paramètres technologiques (couple temps / température, pourcentage d’extrait sec du lait avant traitement thermique) considérés comme essentiels dans la fabrication de formules infantiles sur la digestion des caséines et en particulier sur leur aptitude à résister au tractus digestif

Pour équilibrer les acides aminés essentiels d’un régime, le nutritionniste dispose de tables de recommandations moyennes issues de méta-analyses bibliographiques. L’estimation du besoin en un acide aminé essentiel dépend du critère de production que l’on cherche à optimiser et de la méthodologie adoptée pour analyser les résultats expérimentaux. Les conditions d’élevage et les types d’animaux étudiés expliquent une autre part de la variabilité des recommandations. Les moyennes issues des méta-analyses de données bibliographiques sont finalement assez peu précises et d’autant plus difficiles à adapter aux conditions pratiques qu’elles concernent essentiellement les poulets de chair à croissance rapide dans des conditions optimales. L’intégration des bases du métabolisme énergétique et protéique à l’aide de modèles mécanistes peut constituer un moyen complémentaire de quantifier les effets d’une recommandation en acide aminé essentiel dans des conditions variables. La modélisation permet non seulement la synthèse des connaissances acquises par l’expérimentation, mais également la prise en compte des interactions multiples entre plusieurs facteurs de variation. Dans la pratique, les modèles commercialisés permettent de mesurer les effets des principales caractéristiques de l’aliment et des conditions d’élevage sur la croissance ou les besoins en acides aminés des poulets de chair. Leurs résultats semblent suffisamment précis pour une utilisation pratique, mais leur présentation de type « boîte noire » et la complexité de leur fonctionnement sont un frein à leur mise à jour ou à leur adaptation à de nouveaux modes de production. Le modèle INAVI, présente une structure plus ouverte à l’utilisateur qui permet une meilleure adaptation aux diverses situations d’élevage. INAVI prédit la croissance des animaux en se basant sur l’effet des conditions d’élevage et d’alimentation sur l’ajustement de l’ingestion., To balance the feed levels in essential amino acids, nutritionists use tables containing average requirements stemming from bibliographical surveys. Result of experiments studying essential amino acid requirements, depend both on the criterion to be optimized (growth rate or feed efficiency) and on the methodology adopted for analysing the results. From an experiment to the other, environmental conditions and chicken genotype may also explain a part of the observed variability of the requirements. To cope with this variability, the results from numerous experiments obtained mainly in fast growing broilers raised under optimal conditions are pooled but the results of those grouped analyses are not precise, and this impairs the application of measured amino acid requirements to field conditions. Mechanistic models integrating basic knowledge of the energy and protein metabolism might constitute additional tools to quantify the effects of an essential amino acid level on broiler performances under different conditions. Models not only synthesise the knowledge acquired by various experiments but also take simultaneously into account the multiple interactions among factors of variation. There are some marketed models measuring the effects of the main feed characteristics (essential amino acids, energy etc.) and raising conditions on chicken growth. Their results seem precise enough for an application but they are presented as "black boxes" and the complexities of their functioning make them difficult to update. INAVI is a model fully open to the user that might be more adapted to the diversity of production systems. Prediction of the growth of the chicken by INAVI is based on the effects of environmental and nutritional factors on feed intake regulation.

Least cost feed formulation is not designed to identify feed compositions that meet todays’ environmentalexpectations. This study aimed at developing a new feed formulation methodology using multiobjectiveoptimization. It involves the use of an economic indicator (feed price) and environmental indicators (LCAimpacts) simultaneously in a single objective function to minimize. A weighting coefficient allows more or lessinfluence of economic or environmental indicators. The best trade-off is obtained for an optimal weightingcoefficient set to be the coefficient beyond which the marginal increase of price exceeds the marginal decrease ofenvironmental indicators. Using this method in a scenario where feed ingredients availability is not restrictive, asignificant decrease by 9 %, 23 %, 19 % and 16 % of environmental impacts of broiler feed for “phosphorusconsumption”, “use of non-renewable energy”, “climate change” and “acidification” respectively, can beexpected. “Land occupation” is unchanged while “eutrophication” tends to decrease. This is obtained with a littlefeed price increase (2 %). Eco-feeds are characterized by an increase in by-products’ content. Thus,multiobjective formulation is efficient to possibly reduce potential environmental impacts of animal feed withoutpollutions transfer.; Dans un contexte de discussions sur les impacts environnementaux des élevages, la méthode de formulation àmoindre coût s’avère inadaptée pour intégrer efficacement des attentes environnementales. Cette étude visait àdévelopper une méthode de formulation multiobjectif pour les différentes espèces (volailles, porcs et bovins). Laformulation multiobjectif combine des critères environnementaux (indicateurs ACV) et un critère économique(prix), permettant ainsi l’identification d’éco-aliments. Un coefficient pondérateur permet de donner plus oumoins de poids aux critères économique et environnementaux. La recherche du coefficient optimal au-delàduquel l’augmentation marginale du prix est supérieure à la réduction marginale des impacts environnementauxpermet d’identifier le meilleur compromis. Par exemple, dans le cas d’un scénario de disponibilité non limitantedes matières premières, une réduction significative moyenne de 9 %, 23 %, 19 % et 16 % peut être attenduerespectivement pour les impacts “ consommation de phosphore ”, “ utilisation d’énergie primaire nonrenouvelable”, “ changement climatique ” et “ acidification ” à l’échelle de l’aliment poulet de chair. L’impact “occupation des terres ” reste inchangé tandis que l’impact “ eutrophisation ” tend à diminuer, et cela pour unefaible augmentation du prix (+2 %). Les éco-aliments formulés sont notamment caractérisés par une teneur plusimportante en coproduits. La formulation multiobjectif permet ainsi d’envisager une réduction efficace desimpacts environnementaux potentiels des aliments poulet de chair tout en évitant les transferts de pollutions.

Multi-objective feed formulation (MOF) considers both economic and environmental criteria to decrease, through substitutions between feedstuffs (FS), the environmental impacts of feed with a moderate extra cost. Yet, the question of FS availability on the market is crucial. We studied the effect of MOF in different contexts for pig and broilers feeds, and concentrated feeds of cattle productions, in the North West of France (NW). First, feeds were independently formulated for each production with MOF by defining different lists of available FS and maximum incorporation levels, with a flexible availability of FS (NLIM) or a more constrained one (LIM). Then, all feeds for all productions were then simultaneously optimized (NWF) by considering current FS available volumes and total feed volumes produced in the NW territory. For each context (NLIM, LIM, NWF), Life Cycle Assessment impacts of tons of feed were assessed and compared to those of feeds optimized with least-cost formulation. In NLIM-MOF, Climate Change (CC) was reduced by up to 32, 22, 28 and 23% for pig, broiler, dairy and beef cattle productions respectively. In LIM-MOF, lower reductions were achieved (up to 14, 13, 12 and 11% respectively), due to reduced availability of low-impact FS such as sorghum or pea. In NWF, the global CC impact of feed production in the region is reduced by 7%, with a respective reduction of 5, 8 and 8% for pig, broiler and cattle feeds. Maize used in animal feed is partially replaced by wheat and soybean meal by rapeseed meal. The limited availability of FS leads to a huge competition for the choice of FS between feeds and shows the importance of considering the global livestock sector within a territory. Nevertheless, a significative reduction could be obtained with a limited extra cost (around +2% for NWF).