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In 2022, a severe outbreak of disease caused by clade 2.3.4.4b Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus resulted in unprecedented mortality among wild birds in eastern Canada. Tens of thousands of birds were reported sick or dead, prompting a comprehensive assessment of mortality spanning the breeding season between April 1 and September 30, 2022. Mortality reports were collated from federal, Indigenous, provincial, and municipal agencies, the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, and other nongovernmental organizations, universities, and citizen science platforms. A scenario analysis was conducted to refine mortality estimates, accounting for potential double counts from multiple sources under a range of spatial and temporal overlaps. Correcting for double counting, HPAI is estimated to have caused 40,391 wild bird mortalities in eastern Canada during the spring and summer of 2022; however, this figure underestimates total mortality as it excludes unreported deaths on land and at sea. Seabirds and sea ducks, long‐lived species that are slow to recover from perturbations, accounted for 98.7% of estimated mortalities. Our study provides estimates of bird mortality, with Northern Gannets (Morus bassanus; 25,669), Common Murres (Uria aalge; 8133), and American Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima dresseri; 1894) exhibiting the highest mortality figures. We then compare these mortality estimates with recent population estimates and trends and make an initial assessment of whether biologically meaningful population‐level impacts are possible. Specifically, we focus on the Northern Gannet, a species that has suffered significant global mortality, and two harvested species, Common Murre and American Common Eider, to inform management decisions. Our analysis suggests population‐level impacts in eastern Canada are possible for Northern Gannets and American Common Eiders, but are unlikely for Common Murres. This study demonstrates a comprehensive approach to assessing mortality and underscores the urgent need for further research to understand the broader ecological ramifications of the HPAI outbreak on wild bird populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Andrographolide, biological component, is present in Green chiretta (Andrographis paniculata), as an immunomodulator and feed additive for laying hens, has been potential to be explored. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of green chiretta (Andrographis paniculata) leaf extract on the levels of antibodies against Avian Influenza (AI) and Newcastle Disease (ND) in laying hens during the initial phase of egg production. Methods: A total of 100 Isa Brown strain laying hens were were used ini this study consisted of 20 box cages with 60x50x50 cm. The study employed a completely randomised design (CRD) with 5 treatments, i.e. T0 = Drinking water without EEGC, T1 = Drinking water + 0.5% EEGC, T3 = Drinking water + 1% EEGC, T4 = Drinking water + 1.5% EEGC, T5 = Drinking water + 2% EEGC. The study was replicated four times for each treatment. Results: The analysis of variance revealed that the treatment with green chiretta leaf extract did not show a significant impact on AI and ND antibody titers at 3, 4, and 5 weeks of age. However, this treatment significant affect on AI and ND antibody titers at 6 weeks of age. Conclusions: The addition of green chiretta (Andrographis paniculata) leaf extract to drinking water boosts up the development of AI and ND antibody levels. It exhibited superior antibody levels in comparison to the control treatment. To clarify, applying green chiretta (Andrographis paniculata) leaf extract to drinking water can maintain AI and ND antibody levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Highly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b (hereafter H5N1) is causing vast impacts on biodiversity and poultry around the globe. In Chile, lethal H5N1 cases have been reported in a wide range of wild bird species, marine mammals, backyard and industrial poultry, and humans. This study describes the spatio-temporal patterns of the current epizootic of H5N1 in Chile and test drivers that could be associated with outbreak occurrence. Methods: We used H5N1 cases reported by the Chilean National Animal Health Authority from 5 December 2022 to 5 April 2023. These included wild bird cases confirmed through an avian influenza-specific real-time reverse transcription PCR assay (RT-qPCR), obtained from passive and active surveillance. Data were analyzed to detect the presence of H5N1 clusters under space-time permutation probability modeling, the association of H5N1 with distance and days since the first outbreak through linear regression, and the correlation of H5N1 presence with a number of ecological and anthropogenic variables using general linear modeling. Results: From 445 H5N1 identified outbreaks involving 613 individual cases in wild birds, a consistent wave-like spread of H5N1 from north to south was identified, which may help predict hotspots of outbreak risk. For instance, seven statistically significant clusters were identified in central and northern Chile, where poultry production and wildlife mortality are concentrated. The presence of outbreaks was correlated with landscape-scale variables, notably temperature range, bird richness, and human footprint. Discussion: In less than a year, H5N1 has been associated with the unusual mortality of >100,000 individuals of wild animals in Chile, mainly coastal birds and marine mammals. It is urgent that scientists, the poultry sector, local communities, and national health authorities co-design and implement science-based measures from a One Health perspective to avoid further H5N1 spillover from wildlife to domestic animals and humans, including rapid removal and proper disposal of wild dead animals and the closure of public areas (e.g., beaches) reporting high wildlife mortalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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ABSTRACT: This study analyzes the effect of avian influenza outbreaks on retail price premiums in the US poultry market. We estimate hedonic price models for eggs, chickens, and turkeys, controlling for quality characteristics, unobserved time, and regional factors. To measure the impact of avian influenza outbreaks we use 2 proxies. The first proxy is a measure of the number of new bird infections at the production level. The second proxy measures online search queries related to the outbreak. The results show that, on average, prices increase across product categories, that is, egg, broiler, and turkey markets, during avian influenza outbreaks. Furthermore, we observe price convergence and reduced dispersion within product categories, which is consistent with the economic theory of asymmetric substitutability between conventional and premium products. Our analysis finds that the HPAI outbreak caused a reduction of the price gap between conventional and premium products.

Abstract In 2022, a severe outbreak of disease caused by clade 2.3.4.4b Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus resulted in unprecedented mortality among wild birds in eastern Canada. Tens of thousands of birds were reported sick or dead, prompting a comprehensive assessment of mortality spanning the breeding season between April 1 and September 30, 2022. Mortality reports were collated from federal, Indigenous, provincial, and municipal agencies, the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, and other nongovernmental organizations, universities, and citizen science platforms. A scenario analysis was conducted to refine mortality estimates, accounting for potential double counts from multiple sources under a range of spatial and temporal overlaps. Correcting for double counting, HPAI is estimated to have caused 40,391 wild bird mortalities in eastern Canada during the spring and summer of 2022; however, this figure underestimates total mortality as it excludes unreported deaths on land and at sea. Seabirds and sea ducks, long‐lived species that are slow to recover from perturbations, accounted for 98.7% of estimated mortalities. Our study provides estimates of bird mortality, with Northern Gannets (Morus bassanus; 25,669), Common Murres (Uria aalge; 8133), and American Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima dresseri; 1894) exhibiting the highest mortality figures. We then compare these mortality estimates with recent population estimates and trends and make an initial assessment of whether biologically meaningful population‐level impacts are possible. Specifically, we focus on the Northern Gannet, a species that has suffered significant global mortality, and two harvested species, Common Murre and American Common Eider, to inform management decisions. Our analysis suggests population‐level impacts in eastern Canada are possible for Northern Gannets and American Common Eiders, but are unlikely for Common Murres. This study demonstrates a comprehensive approach to assessing mortality and underscores the urgent need for further research to understand the broader ecological ramifications of the HPAI outbreak on wild bird populations.

The ongoing panzootic of highly pathogenic H5 clade 2.3.4.4b avian influenza (HPAI) spread to North America in late 2021, with detections of HPAI viruses in Alaska beginning in April 2022. HPAI viruses have since spread across the state, affecting many species of wild birds as well as domestic poultry and wild mammals. To better understand the dissemination of HPAI viruses spatiotemporally and among hosts in Alaska and adjacent regions, we compared the genomes of 177 confirmed HPAI viruses detected in Alaska during April–December 2022. Results suggest multiple viral introductions into Alaska between November 2021 and August or September 2022, as well as dissemination to areas within and outside of the state. Viral genotypes differed in their spatiotemporal spread, likely influenced by timing of introductions relative to population immunity. We found evidence for dissemination of HPAI viruses between wild bird species, wild birds and domestic poultry, as well as wild birds and wild mammals. Continued monitoring for and genomic characterization of HPAI viruses in Alaska can improve our understanding of the evolution and dispersal of these economically costly and ecologically relevant pathogens.

In recent years, the unprecedented spread of the Avian Influenza Viruses (AIVs) among birds and mammals has caused devastation in animal populations, including poultry, wild birds, and some mammals, damaging farmers' livelihoods and the food trade. Given the urgency of the situation, it is particularly important that scientists and the public can access research results and data as soon as possible. The main aim of this study is to present a global open-access dataset of Avian Influenza outbreaks to enable researchers and policymakers (i) to rapidly detect, and respond to animal outbreaks as the first line of defense; (ii) to conduct epidemiological and virological investigations around animal outbreaks and human infections; and (iii) to communicate the risk. We show the potential use of this dataset to the research community by analyzing the most updated information on past and current Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) outbreaks in domestic poultry and wild birds over the period from October 2021 to July 2023 in Italy. In addition, we applied indices borrowed from Economics (such as Homogeneity, Specialization, and Location Index) to the wild birds dataset to show their possible usage in epidemiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionHighly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b (hereafter H5N1) is causing vast impacts on biodiversity and poultry around the globe. In Chile, lethal H5N1 cases have been reported in a wide range of wild bird species, marine mammals, backyard and industrial poultry, and humans. This study describes the spatio-temporal patterns of the current epizootic of H5N1 in Chile and test drivers that could be associated with outbreak occurrence.MethodsWe used H5N1 cases reported by the Chilean National Animal Health Authority from 5 December 2022 to 5 April 2023. These included wild bird cases confirmed through an avian influenza-specific real-time reverse transcription PCR assay (RT-qPCR), obtained from passive and active surveillance. Data were analyzed to detect the presence of H5N1 clusters under space–time permutation probability modeling, the association of H5N1 with distance and days since the first outbreak through linear regression, and the correlation of H5N1 presence with a number of ecological and anthropogenic variables using general linear modeling.ResultsFrom 445 H5N1 identified outbreaks involving 613 individual cases in wild birds, a consistent wave-like spread of H5N1 from north to south was identified, which may help predict hotspots of outbreak risk. For instance, seven statistically significant clusters were identified in central and northern Chile, where poultry production and wildlife mortality are concentrated. The presence of outbreaks was correlated with landscape-scale variables, notably temperature range, bird richness, and human footprint.DiscussionIn less than a year, H5N1 has been associated with the unusual mortality of >100,000 individuals of wild animals in Chile, mainly coastal birds and marine mammals. It is urgent that scientists, the poultry sector, local communities, and national health authorities co-design and implement science-based measures from a One Health perspective to avoid further H5N1 spillover from wildlife to domestic animals and humans, including rapid removal and proper disposal of wild dead animals and the closure of public areas (e.g., beaches) reporting high wildlife mortalities.

In recent years, the unprecedented spread of the Avian Influenza Viruses (AIVs) among birds and mammals has caused devastation in animal populations, including poultry, wild birds, and some mammals, damaging farmers’ livelihoods and the food trade. Given the urgency of the situation, it is particularly important that scientists and the public can access research results and data as soon as possible. The main aim of this study is to present a global open-access dataset of Avian Influenza outbreaks to enable researchers and policymakers (i) to rapidly detect, and respond to animal outbreaks as the first line of defense; (ii) to conduct epidemiological and virological investigations around animal outbreaks and human infections; and (iii) to communicate the risk. We show the potential use of this dataset to the research community by analyzing the most updated information on past and current Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) outbreaks in domestic poultry and wild birds over the period from October 2021 to July 2023 in Italy. In addition, we applied indices borrowed from Economics (such as Homogeneity, Specialization, and Location Index) to the wild birds dataset to show their possible usage in epidemiology.

This article, published in Antarctic Science, discusses the risk of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in the Southern Ocean and provides recommendations for prevention and control. HPAI outbreaks have resulted in the deaths of seabirds and marine mammals in various regions. The article emphasizes the importance of monitoring and early detection of HPAI, as well as taking precautions to prevent its spread. It provides guidelines for visitors to wildlife colonies, including maintaining distance from wildlife, practicing personal hygiene, and disinfecting equipment. The document also includes contact information for national competent authorities and organizations involved in Antarctic research. The recommendations aim to protect wildlife populations and prevent the spread of HPAI in the region. The article "Global dissemination of influenza A virus is driven by wild bird migration through arctic and subarctic zones" discusses the role of wild bird migration in the global spread of influenza A virus. It highlights the importance of arctic and subarctic zones as key areas for the transmission of the virus. The article also references other studies that examine the spread of avian influenza in different regions, including Azerbaijan, Antarctica, Chile, and Africa. It emphasizes the need for continued research and surveillance to better understand and manage the risk of avian influenza. [Extracted from the article]

In summer 2022, highly pathogenic influenza A(H5N1) virus reached the herring gull (Larus argentatus subspecies smithsonianus) breeding colony on Kent Island, New Brunswick, Canada. Real-time monitoring revealed a self-limiting outbreak with low mortality. Proactive seabird surveillance is crucial for monitoring such limited outbreaks, protecting seabirds, and tracing zoonotic transmission routes.

Abstract We analysed the interplay between palmiped farm density and the vulnerability of the poultry production system to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8. To do so, we used a spatially-explicit transmission model, which was calibrated to reproduce the observed spatio-temporal distribution of outbreaks in France during the 2016–2017 epidemic of HPAI. Six scenarios were investigated, in which the density of palmiped farms was decreased in the municipalities with the highest palmiped farm density. For each of the six scenarios, we first calculated the spatial distribution of the basic reproduction number (R 0), i.e. the expected number of farms a particular farm would be likely to infect, should all other farms be susceptible. We also ran in silico simulations of the adjusted model for each scenario to estimate epidemic sizes and time-varying effective reproduction numbers. We showed that reducing palmiped farm density in the densest municipalities decreased substantially the size of the areas with high R 0 values (> 1.5). In silico simulations suggested that reducing palmiped farm density, even slightly, in the densest municipalities was expected to decrease substantially the number of affected poultry farms and therefore provide benefits to the poultry sector as a whole. However, they also suggest that it would not have been sufficient, even in combination with the intervention measures implemented during the 2016–2017 epidemic, to completely prevent the virus from spreading. Therefore, the effectiveness of alternative structural preventive approaches now needs to be assessed, including flock size reduction and targeted vaccination.

High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreaks continue to wreak havoc on the global poultry industry and threaten the health of wild bird populations, with sporadic spillover in humans and other mammals, resulting in widespread calls to vaccinate poultry. Bangladesh has been vaccinating poultry since 2012, presenting a prime opportunity to study the effects of vaccination on HPAI H5N1circulation in both poultry and wild birds. We investigated the efficacy of vaccinating commercial poultry against HPAI H5N1 along with climatic and socio-economic factors considered potential drivers of HPAI H5N1 outbreak risk in Bangladesh. Using a multivariate modeling approach, we estimated that the rate of outbreaks was 18 times higher before compared to after vaccination, with winter months having a three times higher chance of outbreaks than summer months. Variables resulting in small but significant increases in outbreak rate were relatively low ambient temperatures for the time of year, literacy rate, chicken and duck density, crop density, and presence of highways; this may be attributable to low temperatures supporting viral survival outside the host, higher literacy driving reporting rate, density of the host reservoir, and spread of the virus through increased connectivity. Despite the substantial impact of vaccination on outbreaks, we note that HPAI H5N1 is still enzootic in Bangladesh; vaccinated poultry flocks have high rates of H5N1 prevalence, and spillover to wild birds has increased. Vaccination in Bangladesh thus bears the risk of supporting “silent spread,” where the vaccine only provides protection against disease and not also infection. Our findings underscore that poultry vaccination can be part of holistic HPAI mitigation strategies when accompanied by monitoring to avoid silent spread.

Influenza A viruses in wild birds pose threats to the poultry industry, wild birds, and human health under certain conditions. Of particular importance are wild waterfowl, which are the primary reservoir of low‐pathogenicity influenza viruses that ultimately cause high‐pathogenicity outbreaks in poultry farms. Despite much work on the drivers of influenza A virus prevalence, the underlying viral subtype dynamics are still mostly unexplored. Nevertheless, understanding these dynamics, particularly for the agriculturally significant H5 and H7 subtypes, is important for mitigating the risk of outbreaks in domestic poultry farms. Here, using an expansive surveillance database, we take a large‐scale look at the spatial, temporal, and taxonomic drivers in the prevalence of these two subtypes among influenza A‐positive wild waterfowl. We document spatiotemporal trends that are consistent with past work, particularly an uptick in H5 viruses in late autumn and H7 viruses in spring. Interestingly, despite large species differences in temporal trends in overall influenza A virus prevalence, we document only modest differences in the relative abundance of these two subtypes and little, if any, temporal differences among species. As such, it appears that differences in species' phenology, physiology, and behaviors that influence overall susceptibility to influenza A viruses play a much lesser role in relative susceptibility to different subtypes. Instead, species are likely to freely pass viruses among each other regardless of subtype. Importantly, despite the similarities among species documented here, individual species still may play important roles in moving viruses across large geographic areas or sustaining local outbreaks through their different migratory behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza, bird flu, HPAI, bird flu, public health, virus surveillance, H5N1 Keywords: avian influenza; bird flu; HPAI; H5N1; public health; virus surveillance EN avian influenza bird flu HPAI H5N1 public health virus surveillance 521 524 4 08/08/23 20230901 NES 230901 When the world human population was small and sparsely distributed, infectious diseases were deadly but local. [Extracted from the article]

We analysed the interplay between palmiped farm density and the vulnerability of the poultry production system to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N8. To do so, we used a spatially-explicit transmission model, which was calibrated to reproduce the observed spatio-temporal distribution of outbreaks in France during the 2016–2017 epidemic of HPAI. Six scenarios were investigated, in which the density of palmiped farms was decreased in the municipalities with the highest palmiped farm density. For each of the six scenarios, we first calculated the spatial distribution of the basic reproduction number (R0), i.e. the expected number of farms a particular farm would be likely to infect, should all other farms be susceptible. We also ran in silico simulations of the adjusted model for each scenario to estimate epidemic sizes and time-varying effective reproduction numbers. We showed that reducing palmiped farm density in the densest municipalities decreased substantially the size of the areas with high R0 values (> 1.5). In silico simulations suggested that reducing palmiped farm density, even slightly, in the densest municipalities was expected to decrease substantially the number of affected poultry farms and therefore provide benefits to the poultry sector as a whole. However, they also suggest that it would not have been sufficient, even in combination with the intervention measures implemented during the 2016–2017 epidemic, to completely prevent the virus from spreading. Therefore, the effectiveness of alternative structural preventive approaches now needs to be assessed, including flock size reduction and targeted vaccination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza (AI) is an important disease that has significant implications for animal and human health. High pathogenicity AI (HPAI) has emerged in consecutive seasons within the UK to cause the largest outbreaks recorded. Statutory measures to control outbreaks of AI virus (AIV) at poultry farms involve disposal of all birds on infected premises. Understanding of the timing of incursions into the UK could facilitate decisions on improved responses. During the autumnal migration and wintering period (autumn 2019– spring 2020), three active sampling approaches were trialled for wild bird species considered likely to be involved in captive AI outbreaks with retrospective laboratory testing undertaken to define the presence of AIV. Faecal sampling of birds (n = 594) caught during routine and responsive mist net sampling failed to detect AIV. Cloacal sampling of hunter-harvested waterfowl (n = 146) detected seven positive samples from three species with the earliest detection on the 17 October 2020. Statutory sampling first detected AIV in wild and captive birds on 3 November 2020. We conclude that hunter sourced sampling of waterfowl presents an opportunity to detect AI within the UK in advance of outbreaks on poultry farms and allow for early intervention measures to protect the national poultry flock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza (AI) is an important disease that has significant implications for animal and human health. High pathogenicity AI (HPAI) has emerged in consecutive seasons within the UK to cause the largest outbreaks recorded. Statutory measures to control outbreaks of AI virus (AIV) at poultry farms involve disposal of all birds on infected premises. Understanding of the timing of incursions into the UK could facilitate decisions on improved responses. During the autumnal migration and wintering period (autumn 2019– spring 2020), three active sampling approaches were trialled for wild bird species considered likely to be involved in captive AI outbreaks with retrospective laboratory testing undertaken to define the presence of AIV. Faecal sampling of birds (n = 594) caught during routine and responsive mist net sampling failed to detect AIV. Cloacal sampling of hunter-harvested waterfowl (n = 146) detected seven positive samples from three species with the earliest detection on the 17 October 2020. Statutory sampling first detected AIV in wild and captive birds on 3 November 2020. We conclude that hunter sourced sampling of waterfowl presents an opportunity to detect AI within the UK in advance of outbreaks on poultry farms and allow for early intervention measures to protect the national poultry flock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes the effect of avian influenza outbreaks on retail price premiums in the US poultry market. We estimate hedonic price models for eggs, chickens, and turkeys, controlling for quality characteristics, unobserved time, and regional factors. To measure the impact of avian influenza outbreaks we use 2 proxies. The first proxy is a measure of the number of new bird infections at the production level. The second proxy measures online search queries related to the outbreak. The results show that, on average, prices increase across product categories, that is, egg, broiler, and turkey markets, during avian influenza outbreaks. Furthermore, we observe price convergence and reduced dispersion within product categories, which is consistent with the economic theory of asymmetric substitutability between conventional and premium products. Our analysis finds that the HPAI outbreak caused a reduction of the price gap between conventional and premium products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On March 25, 2024 an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A H5N1 was identified in dairy cows across multiple farms in the United States. Zoonotic cases originating in individuals with close contact to infected herds and poultry flocks have been subsequently identified. Spillover events such as this raise the specter of recent pandemics including COVID-19 and Mpox and may lead clinical laboratories to assess their capacity for diagnosis of HPAI H5N1. In this review, we detail the origins of the H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b outbreak as well as the existing capacity to identify HPAI H5N1 as influenza A virus by commercially available assays. Furthermore, we highlight the absence of commercially available influenza A H5 subtyping assays and limitations associated with the current 510(k)-cleared assay. This outbreak also serves as an early opportunity to assess the new and unknown regulatory challenges faced by laboratory-developed tests in light of the FDA's final rule on in vitro diagnostic devices. National agencies along with public health and clinical laboratories all serve an essential role in the response to HPAI H5N1. To most effectively utilize each group's strength requires open communication and willingness to embrace novel approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bird flu or avian influenza continues to cause problems at European level, with new outbreaks of disease being reported, including those identified in January 2020 in Romania. It was first identified in the 1900s in Italy, but was later found worldwide. An avian influenza virus, H5N1, was identified in 1997 in Asia and created worldwide panic, talking about the imminence of a major epidemic. In October 2005, the H5N1 virus also arrived in Romania, being identified in birds from Ceamurlia de Jos, Tulcea County. Romania is the first European country where the presence of this virus has been officially confirmed. Avian influenza has attracted the attention of the international community over the years, with outbreaks in the poultry industry or livelihoods having serious consequences on both livelihoods and international trade in many countries. Apart from Romania, avian influenza is still evolving in Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Germany, Ukraine and Northern Ireland. Preventing the occurrence and combating avian influenza can only be achieved through international cooperation and collaboration, in order to know at any time the epidemiological situation and the pathogenic capacity of the etiological agent. Continuous surveillance of avian influenza virus in wild birds is very important, as it provides us with an "early warning" about the introduction of the virus into new regions, and can conduct appropriate risk assessment studies. It is also important to understand the behavior of wild birds, possibly the transmission of the virus between wild and domestic birds, the age categories of the frequently affected wild birds, the migration routes. At the same time, it is very difficult to prevent the occurrence of avian influenza in domestic birds due to the fact that a strategy for controlling wild birds cannot be established, the only solution to prevent the occurrence of the disease being the maximum limitation of contact between domestic and wild birds.