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This paper aims to identify the hazelnut characteristics of four different populations (Agli-Tunuslar, Agli-Musellimler, Arac-Guzluk and Tosya-Kucuksekiler) in the North Western Black Sea Region of Turkey, one of the most important areas of economic interest for this species. There, the Turkish hazel (Corylus colurna L.) grows in its optimal conditions and reveals relatively high inter-population and intra-population variation in terms of nut characteristics. With the purpose of assessing variation, measurements were performed in four populations in Kastamonu district on 14 different nut characteristics (number of nuts per cluster, nut length (mm), nut width (mm), nut thickness (mm), shell thickness (mm), nut size (mm), nut shape, compression index, nut weight (g), kernel length (mm), kernel width (mm), kernel thickness (mm), kernel weight (g) and kernel ratio (%) of representative samples of the populations. Significant differences were found out among populations with regard to all of nut characteristics (p

Climate change will affect all ecosystem services of green areas in the districts. In many cases, the tree species in parks and districts are suffering from the increasingly warmer and drier summers and newly immigrated pests and diseases. Tilia tomentosa Moench. is considered as an important tree species under climate change for dry and warm conditions in Central and Southeastern Europe countries. This tree species is often used as valued urban tree. In the present study we investigate the growth patterns of T. tomentosa Moench. in relation to their growing conditions in order to evaluate its interactions in urban contexts. All the studied characters varied significantly among the sampled districts. Within each of the regions, number of flowers showed a wide range 72-104 per m2 in Marmara region and 54-124 per m2 in Western Black Sea region. All studied characters, beyond number of flowers, positively correlated with each other. This study revealed that especially fruit length had a strong and positive correlation with altitude and a high negative correlation with temperature. Further researches are required to quantify more growth flower characters of the species from Turkey.

The history of woody plant introduction is closely linked with that of transportationand the European exploration of the planet (16th–19th centuries). Each colonialpower established major botanical gardens and experimental stations in variousparts of the world. By the 20th century, the purpose of introductions shifted fromfood plants to timber and other species yielding non-agricultural products. Finally,during the latter part of the 20th century the importance of ornamental speciesincreased dramatically, especially to the more developed and wealthier regions.Over the past two centuries many species have started to spread in their introducedranges. Until relatively recently the majority of introduced woody species havebeen highly beneficial, if not essential, to humanity’s development, but now everincreasingnumbers of species are becoming detrimental to the maintenance of theearth’s biodiversity and to the well-being of human societies. Throughout the 19thand specially in 20th century the large-scale planting of trees for timber productionhas been one of the main reasons for the introductions of a large number of species,especially conifers e.g. Pinus, Picea. Pseudotsuga and Poplars and Willowsspecies. By using methods of mass and individual selection and by establishing ofprovenances tests, as well as by half and full sib lines of selected exotics test trees,genetical potential productivity and adaptability of introduced species have beentested in numerous experimental plots in areas where introduced have been done.This paper attempts to unravel the relationships between humans and woody plantsby looking at the changes in the introduction of species, the way they are perceivedby different human groups and the impact these non native species have on foresttrees improvement and other human activities.

Frost-resistance variability of Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L. var. hamata Steven) seedlings grown in nurseries conditions, originated from 10 provenances, have been analyzed. The provenances from Black Sea region, Central Anatolian region and Eastern Anatolian region in Turkey have been used in selection of seed zones. The results of frost-resistance tests indicated a strong relationship of implemented freezing degrees with injury degrees of Scotch pine needles and photosynthetic productivities. On the other hand, another significant relationship has been determined between chlorophyll fluorescence and ion leakage methods (r=-0.801). This result shows that those two methods can be safely used in determining the damages due to low temperatures. In frost resistance tests, Scotch pine seedlings from different provenances have been frozen at -10, -20, -30 and -40?C. According to the Duncan test results, it has been determined that damage increased as temperature decreased. The damage level at -10?C implementation is 3.5% which can be tolerated by plants. But when the temperature has been decreased to -20?C, the level of damage has increased to 51.25%. As a result of photosynthetic analyses in this phase, it has been determined that there is a statistically significant relationship between provenances and temperature levels. Under the light of those findings, they have determined that the photosynthetic productivity has significantly decreased at temperatures between -20?C and -40?C. This situation conforms to injury index values determined in this study. As a result of injury index and photosynthetic productivity tests used for determining the damage after frost-resistance tests, it has been determined that the provenances of Amasya-Kunduz, Bolu-Alada?, D?zce-Y???lca, Samsun-Vezirk?pr? and Eski?ehir-?atac?k are more sensitive to frost than other provenances.

Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is one of the most important forest trees in Bosnia and Herzegovina in both economic and environmental terms. The total area of forest in which beech is present is approx. 1,652,400 ha. There is a proportionate need to plant new forests and produce genetically high quality seed and saplings. Biochemical analysis of the genetic structure of eight populations of beech using ten enzyme systems from 16 isoenzyme gene loci revealed significant differences between the populations analyzed. Variance levels were high in some gene loci, while in some populations monomorphism was recorded only for individual gene loci. The average number of alleles per locus ranged from 2.1875 to 2.5625, and the average number of genotypes per locus varied from 2.6875 to 3.2500. The multilocus genetic diversity at the population level ranged from 63.276 to 162.001, and the genofund diversity varied from 1.2708 to 1.3416.The average differentiation value obtained for all populations was fairly low (Dj=5.81), indicating a percentage of overall variance of about 94.194%.

Genetic-physiological approach was used in the study of the quality of Serbian spruce seed (Picea omorika /Pancic/Purkynĕ), collected in the populations on the left bank of the river Drina. The seed originated from the three populations that represent the overall ecological and productive conditions of Serbian spruce populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Two natural populations were selected: Veliki Stolac and Gostilj, and one planted forest population in Srebrenica. The cones were collected in late autumn 2009 and early spring 2010. They were collected from five trees from Srebrenica and Gostilj, and seven trees from Veliki Stolac. Immediately after they were collected, the cones and seeds were processed and germination tests were done. Germination, germination viability and germination dynamics were studied in three categories of seed treatment: 1) control unit (just processed seed), 2) seed stored for six months at 0-4 oC, 3) seed stored for seven months at 0-4o C and treated with fungicide after five months of storing. The number of germinated seed was observed and noted on the third, fourth, fifth, seventh, tenth, fourteenth, twenty-first and twenty-eighth day. There were significant differences in germination dynamics at the population level and the level of treatment during the first couple of days of germination test. Fungicide (captan) acted as an inhibitor on seed germination process. The seeds originating from the largest population of Veliki Stolac showed the best response to storing treatment with fungicide related to germination dynamics. The seed originating from Srebrenica andkept at low temperatures 0-4 °C without treatment with fungicides showed the best result in germination. Regardless of the presence of differences in the dynamics of germination, significant differences in germination regarding different treatments on the last day of the test, were not recorded.

Drought is one of the crucial factors limiting plant growth and is expected to become even more limiting in many regions as the effects of climate change increase. Knowledge of genetic adaptation to environmental factors can help develop strategies for successful reforestation in arid terrain. In this study, Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) seedlings grown from seed collected from 40 open-pollinated families from five Balkan Peninsula provenances were evaluated for survival and growth under imposed drought. Within each provenance, seed was collected from an extremely harsh habitat and from a favorable habitat. One-year-old seedlings, from each provenance, habitat type and open pollinated family were transplanted into three “stressbeds”, each designed to simulate different levels of water availability by filling with varying ratios of crushed stone and soil. Seedling height growth and survival were recorded every 20–30 days from April–September. In all provenances, seedlings grown from seed originating from the harsh habitats had lower survival regardless of stressbed treatment compared to those grown from seed collected from favorable habitats, with the exception of one population from the Visegrad provenance which had high survival rates throughout. Overall height growth was very low and did not follow consistent patterns among treatment groups. Cluster analyses of survival data showed that populations from a similar habitat generally grouped together, regardless of provenance. The lowest and highest survival values were found in seedlings from harsh habitats, while those from the favorable habitats clustered in the mid-range. These results suggest that higher seed quality from productive stands may be the most influential factor determining seedling vigor under drought stress and that genetic adaptation to drought was not detected in adjacent populations having different habitat conditions.

The study was carried out in Serbian spruce (Picea omorika Panc/Purkyn?) plantations in the western Serbia. The paper presents results of the analysis of crown development. The following elements were analyzed: total tree height, height of the crown base, absolute and relative crown length, maximal crown diameter, coefficient of crown spreading and degree of crown girth. We discuss approaches to the modeling of tree crown growth and development, growing under favorable environmental and stand conditions, without anomalies in development. In order to establish the relationship between analyzed factors, regression analyses were applied. Data fitting was by the analytic method, by the implementation of Prodan?s functions of growth, linear and parabolic function. Received models can be used for the simulation of various growth and developing processes in forest.

The aim of this study is analysis of inter-population variability of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) using morphometric parameters of cones and seedlings originating from seven populations in Serbia. The analysis of 1960 cones and their seeds was performed as well as the analysis of morphometric parameters of seedlings (height and root neck diameter) that were produced from this seed. Based on the obtained results the significant differences were noticed in the values of analyzed characters for each population separately. The biological similarity or distance regarding the analyzed characters showed a significant population differentiation. By presenting the preliminary knowledge on the genetic variability of the study populations, the reported results will contribute to better understanding of the significance of the analyzed characters in the population differentiation. U okviru ovog rada prikazani su rezultati analize međupopulacionog varijabiliteta belog bora (Pinus sylvestris L.) upotrebom morfometrijskih parametara šišarica i sadnica koje vode poreklo iz sedam populacija u Srbiji. Izvršena je analiza 1960 šišarica i njihovog semena, kao i morfometrijskih parametara sadnica (visina i prečnik u korenovom vratu) koje su proizvedene iz tog semena. U okviru ovog rada izvršeno je blizu 11 000 merenja. Analiza dobijenih vrednosti je urađena u programskom paketu Statistica. Komparativnom analizom dobijenih rezultata u proučavanju varijabilnosti morfometrijskih karakteristika šišarica, semena i sadnica može se zaključiti da postoji značajna međupopulaciona varijabilnost koja je u direktnoj zavisnosti od vrste analiziranog svojstva. Ovom analizom proverena je međusobna bliskost ili udaljenost po pitanju analiziranih svojstava, pri čemu je došlo do značajne diferencijacije populacija. Dobijeni rezultati predstavljeni u ovom radu, daju doprinos boljem razumevanju značajnosti analiziranih svojstava na diferencijaciju populacija, dajući preliminarno upoznavanje genetičkog varijabiliteta proučavanih populacija.

The ability of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) to distinguish among Scots pine populations from Serbia was evaluated. Sixteen arbitrary 10-mer primers employed in the analysis produced 54 fragments of which 21 were polymorphic (38.89%). Certain rare and genotype-specific bands were identified which could be effectively used to distinguish between the populations. Polymorphism in RAPD markers among P. sylvestris populations was high and sufficient to distinguish each of the populations. The results obtained suggest that RAPD markers are valuable for the genetic divergence estimation in Pinus sylvestris and for the study of divergence among populations.

Genetic markers, from morphological to molecular, in function with early indicators of tolerance toward drought, have been an object of research and scientific papers for many years. It starts with the hypothesis that seedlings produced from seeds that were collected from population of extremely different site conditions, on the level of open pollinated families, will have different results concerning drought tolerance. By tracking the dynamics of germination and morphological parameters of saplings, we are researching the interdependence of these parameters with the survival and growth of two-year-old seedlings in conditions where there is a lack of water. Austrian Pine seeds were collected from forty trees, distributed over five provenances on the Balkan Peninsula. Within each provenance a group is assigned to an extremely harsh and dry habitat, while also another group is assigned to prosperous (the most productive) habitat. The analysis of the twenty-one-day-old seedlings (saplings) is performed in the laboratory, while the tolerance test of the two-year-old seedlings is performed in the field. Seedlings that are exposed to conditions in which there is lack of water, have the coefficient of water formation evaluation 22.59 times bigger than sandy-clay soil with fraction of sand bigger than 60 percent. The results show significant and positive correlation between some parameters of saplings and the dynamics of growth (high increments) of the seedlings in drought, but no correlation with the survival of the seedlings.

This paper presents the results of studies on protein polymorphism in seeds of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arn.) as the most important economic species of the genus Pinus in Serbia. Polymorphism of protein markers was determined in selected genotypes originating from seven populations (Scots pine) and six populations (Austrian pine). Analysis of protein markers was performed using two statistical methods, NTSYS and correspondence analysis. Both methods give the same arrangement of the analyzed populations, whereby, because of a different view of genetic distances, they can and should be combined, enabling easier and more precise understanding of mutual relationships of the observation units. U radu su prikazani rezultati proučavanja polimorfizma proteina u semenu belog (Pinus sylvestris L.) i crnog bora (Pinus nigra Arn.) kao najvažnijih ekonomskih vrsta iz roda Pinus u Srbiji. Polimorfizam proteinskih markera utvrđen je u odabranim genotipovima poreklom iz sedam populacija (beli bor) i šest populacija (crni bor). Analiza proteinskih markera vršena je upotrebom dva statistička metoda, NTSYS i korespodencijalna analiza. Dobijeni rezultati upotrebom različitih statističkih metoda (NTSYS i korespodencionalna analiza) u analizi proteinskih markera, upućujući na upotrebu oba metoda u sličnim istraživanjima, kao kompatibilnih. Grafikoni obe metode se karakterišu istim rasporedom analiziranih populacija, pri čemu se usled različitog prikaza trebaju kombinovati, što omogućuje lakše i preciznije sagledavanje međusobnih odnosa jedinica posmatranja. Takođe, dobijeni rezultati u ovom radu ukazuju na: · Postojanje značajne genetičke varijabilnosti populacija belog i crnog bora. · Snažan uticaj geografske distance i izolovanosti populacija na genetičku izdiferenciranost. Ujedno, rezultati istraživanja pružaju osnovu za bliže upoznavanje veoma varijabilne i specifične unutarvrsne genetičke strukture belog i crnog bora u Srbiji, što predstavlja polazno sredstvo u planiranju procesa konzervacija i oplemenjivanja vrsta.

Nitrogen content in the needles of twenty Douglas-fir provenances, originating from different sites within the native range of the species in the USA, was studied in a Douglas-fir provenance test established at the montane beech site on acid brown soil. Based on the variability of nitrogen content in the needles, the intensity and dynamics of the physiological processes of Douglas-fir mineral nutrition were analyzed as the indicators of Douglas-fir adaptive potential to the sites in Serbia. All the trees of the study provenances were of the same age and grown under the same site and population conditions. The quantities of nitrogen absorbed in Douglas-fir needles were correlated with the geographical characteristics of the native sites of the observed provenances. The differences in nitrogen content in Douglas-fir needles point out the variability in the intensity of the physiological processes in the genotypes of the different provenances. Since the study Douglas-fir trees are cultivated on relatively small areas, in more or less equal general conditions, it can be concluded that the parameters of mineral nutrition depend on the genotypes constituting the gene pool of the study Douglas-fir provenances.

UDK 630*232:582.632 .2(497.6 Banja Luka) 582.632.2:502.3(497.6 Banja Luka) Shodno klimatskim promjenama koje se dešavaju, već sada sa vidljivim posljedicama, neophodne su ljudske intervencije u cilju poboljšanja adaptacije vrsta sa isprekidanim (disjunktnim) arealima. U izmijenjenim ekološkim uslovima na udaru su najosjetljiviji šumski ekosistemi, a među njima sigurno i šume hrasta kitnjaka. Zato je očuvanje najkvalitetnijih sastojina ove vrste od višestrukog značaja. Tu treba izdvojiti i potrebu unapređenja sjemensko-rasadničke proizvodnje te je usmjeriti u pravcu proizvodnje sadnog materijala za klimatske uslove koji se predviđaju u narednih 50-100 godina. Predmet istraživanja je sjemenska sastojina hrasta kitnjaka (Quercus petraea/Matt./Liebl.) starosti 100 godina na području šumskog gazdinstva Banja Luka. U periodu 2006.-2009. godine vršena su konstantna opažanja u sastojini koja su započela sa obilježavanjem i izdvajanjem sjemenskih stabala, prvim proredama (veoma slabog intenziteta 3%), praćenja obilnosti cvjetanja i plodonošenja te evidencije zdravstvenog stanja. Na osnovu prikupljenih podataka daje se prijedlog mjera koje će se obavljati u narednom periodu. Uvažavajući biološke i ekološke aspekte analizirane vrste, osjetljivost i složenost sastojina hrasta kitnjaka, te njihovu reakciju na klimatske promjene, sprovođenje genetičkih melioracija u sjemenskim objektima može značajno doprinijeti unapređenju proizvodnje sjemena ove vrste.

Seed was collected from two habitat types (harsh/rocky and favorable/control) within five Balkan provenances. An experiment was conducted to examine water uptake (grams water per gram of fresh seed) during 48 h after exposure to water. A second experiment investigated the effect of simulated-drought conditions (4% sucrose solution) compared to non-drought conditions (distilled water) on subsequent germination percentage. Seed from rocky habitats had less water uptake than those from control habitats for three of the provenances. However, water uptake was not correlated with subsequent germination. Drought simulation decreased germination but patterns for seed within each provenance were similar to germination under non-drought conditions. With the exception of one provenance, seed from the rocky habitats had lower germination than seed from control habitats. The data suggests some degree of adaptation to environmental conditions although variability was very high within each provenance’s habitat types. This is of particular importance when considering potential impacts of climate change and the anticipated migration of species due to changes in habitat.

Genetically modified (GM) crops and biotechnology are providing new opportunities for increasing crop productivity and tackling agriculture problems, such as diseases, pests and weeds, abiotic stress and nutritional limitations of staple food crops. As GM crops are being adopted in various locations with different ecosystems, a scientifically based understanding of the environmental effects of cultivations of GM crops would assist decision makers worldwide in ensuring environmental safety and sustainability. In this paper are discussed some of the most important problems related to the GM crops into the environment such as: plant protection, hybridisation, ecological effects of HRCs, gene flow, biodiversity, stress, ecological risks (ERA), effects on the soil ecosystem etc.

The regionalization of forest tree populations was researched on an example of beech, as the species with the largest range and the widest ecological amplitude in Serbia. The implementation of Monmonier's algorithm of maximum differences to analyze the spatial distances and the matrix of genetic distances generated by RAPD markers produced different results, depending on the method of addressing the genetic distances, so that data processing should be planned in accordance with the number of samples and their geographic location. The analysis is simple and enables a good visualization of genetic variability barriers which, in combination with the data on the distribution and the geographic barriers, can be utilized for recommending the transfer of forest tree reproductive material. U radu je istražena mogućnost određivanja granica regiona populacija šumskog drveća, u cilju davanja preporuka za transfer reproduktivnog materijala, na primeru bukve. Na osnovu podataka iz Nacionalne inventure šuma dobijena je rasprostranjenost bukve u Srbiji sa rezolucijom 4h4 km. Na osnovu ovako dobijene karte areala, odabrane su oblasti koje će na najrelevantniji način predstavljati bukvu u Srbiji. U okviru ovog istraživanja, ispitano je 27 populacija, koje relativno ravnomerno pokrivaju prostornu i ekološku distribuciju populacija bukve. Analiza primenom RAPD markera, urađena je sa 28 prajmera. Ukupno su dobijene 82 trake. Za vizualizaciju onih podataka koji su sadržani u matrici genetičkih podataka, putem crtanja granica na geografskoj karti, korišćen je Monmonijeov algoritam u programu AIS. Prikazani su rezultati tri načina pripreme genetičkih distanci za analizu, sa zadatim brojem od 5 barijera za detekciju. Rezultati korišćenja sirovih genetičkih distanci pokazuju najveći broj segmenata (regiona), što nagoveštava malu prostornu autokorelaciju. Rezultati korišćenja genetičkih distanci ispravljenih na osnovu geografskih distanci pokazuju nešto manji broj segmenata (regiona), što ukazuje na veću preciznost dobijenu ovakvom pripremom genetičkih distanci za relativno mali broj uzoraka koji su prostorno udaljeni. Rezultati korišćenja ostataka genetičkih distanci pokazuju najmanji broj segmenata (regiona), što ukazuje na veliku snagu ovakve pripreme genetičkih distanci u slučajevima slabo izražene prostorne autokorelacije. Ovim pristupom, najverovatnije je omogućena i najtačnija vizualizacija genetičkog diverziteta. Analiza je jednostavna i omogućuje dobru vizualizaciju barijera genetičke varijabilnosti, što se u kombinaciji sa poznavanjem areala i geografskih barijera, može uspešno iskoristiti za davanje preporuka za transfer reproduktivnog materijala šumskog drveća. Vizualizacija se može dodatno poboljšati korišćenjem rezultata ove analize za crtanje karata u nekom od široko korišćenih programa GIS-a, i njihovim preklapanjem sa kartama fizičkog reljefa i drugim tematskim kartama.

This paper presents the concepts applied in the gene pool conservation and tree improvement in Serbia. Gene pool conservation of tree species in Serbia includes a series of activities aiming at the sustainability and protection of genetic and species variability. This implies the investigation of genetic resources and their identification through the research of the genetic structure and the breeding system of individual species. Paper also includes the study of intra- and inter-population variability in experiments - provenance tests, progeny tests, half- and full-sib lines, etc. The increased use of the genetic potential in tree improvement in Serbia should be intensified by the following activities: improvement of production of normal forest seed, application of the concept of new selections directed primarily to the improvement of only one character, because in that case the result would be certain, establishment and management of seed orchards as specialized plantations for long-term production of genetically good-quality forest seeds, and the shortening of the improvement process by introducing new techniques and methods (molecular markers, somaclonal variation, genetic engineering, protoplast fusion, micropropagation, etc.).

The paper reviews the study results of the use of molecular markers in coniferous tree species improvement. The results are based on presentation of the experience in the application of biochemical and molecular analyses at the level of the selected populations and individuals from different provenances of coniferous tree species. Many studies performed during the last years demonstrated the usefulness of neutral molecular markers in the field of conservation and population genetics of conifers, in particular to understand the importance of migration patterns in shaping current genetic and geographic diversity and to measure important parameters such as effective population size, past bottlenecks and gene flow. This is relevant to design conservation strategies but is of little value to understand the adaptability patterns. In the specific field of the conservation genetics, molecular markers can be extremely useful in both ex situ and in situ gene pool conservation of coniferous trees. U radu je dat pregled rezultata primene molekularnih markera pri oplemenjivanju četinarskih vrsta drveća. Prezentovani rezultati su dobijeni primenom biohemijskih i molekularnih markera u analizama koje su sprovedene na nivou odabranih populacija i individua različitih provenijencija četinarskih vrsta drveća. Brojna istraživanja sprovedena poslednjih godina potvrdila su opravdanost primene molekularnih markera u konzervacionoj i populacionoj genetici četinara, posebno pri tumačenju značaja pravaca rekolonizacije u formiranju genetskog i geografskog diverzitata, kao i za utvrđivanje značaja uticaja veličine populacije na fluktaciju gena. Dobijeni rezultati su od značaja za izradu strategije konzervacije, ali su nedovoljni za potpuno razumevanje modela adaptacije. Na polju konzervacione genetike molekularni markeri imaju poseban značaja u aktivnostima pri ex situ i in situ zaštiti i očuvanju genofonda vrsta četinara.

The occurrence of Austrian pine over large areas attacked by erosion processes or on completely degraded and denuded areas on which it produces excellent results, classifies it among the most important economic species in forestry. The aim of present research is to study intra- and inter-population genetic variation in Austrian pine by the application of biochemical markers. A better knowledge of the genetic potential of Austrian pine populations will enhance the production of seed and planting material, and in this way also the success of a forestation and the establishment of Austrian pine specific-purpose plantations. The polymorphism of protein markers was determined based on the selected genotypes originating from six populations (seed stands), which actually included all Austrian pine populations in Serbia. Based on the derived electrophoregram, qualitative and quantitative differences (number and pattern) in protein fractions were identified and the seed protein profile was constructed for each tree, as well as for each of the six study populations. This showed the 'conservativeness' of some polypeptides, i.e. the presence in all analyzed genotypes. On the other hand, some protein fractions were variable at the population level, and some were variable depending on the population. Based on the electrophoregram, the coefficient of genetic similarity/distance was calculated by comparing the band numbers and patterns. Cluster analysis dendrograms were also constructed. The degree of genetic variation among the provenances was higher than the variation within the provenances. There was also a high genetic variation in seed proteins within the analyzed populations. Javljanje crnog bora na velikim površinama zahvaćenim erozionim procesima, ili potpuno degradiranim, ogoljenim površinama na kojima daje odlične rezultate, svrstavaju ga u najvažnije ekonomske vrste korišćene u šumarstvu. Cilj ovih istraživanja je bilo ispitivanje unutar i među populacijske genetičke varijabilnost crnog bora primenom biohemijskih markera. Bolje upoznavanje genetskog potencijala populacija crnog bora omogućiće poboljšanje proizvodnje semena i sadnog materijala, a time i uspeh prilikom pošumljavanja i podizanja namenskih kultura ovom vrstom. Polimorfizam proteinskih markera utvrđen je na osnovu odabranih genotipova poreklom iz šest populacija (semenskih sastojina) čime su obuhvaćene sve populacije crnog bora u Srbiji. Na osnovu dobijenih elektroforegrama utvrđene su kvalitativne i kvantitativne razlike (broj i raspored) proteinskih frakcija i određen je proteinski profil semena za svako stablo kao i za svaku od 6 ispitivanih populacija ponaosob. Tom prilikom je zapažena 'konzervativnost' pojedinih polipeptida, tj. prisustvo u svim analiziranim genotipovima. S druge strane utvrđene su proteinske frakcije koje su varijabilne na nivou populacija, kao i one čija varijabilnost varira u zavisnosti od populacija. Na osnovu dobijenih elektroforegrama je izračunat koeficijent genetičke sličnosti, odnosno udaljenosti, upoređivanjem broja i rasporeda traka i urađeni su dendogrami klaster analize. Utvrđen je veći stepen genetskog variranja između provenijencija nego unutar njih. Takođe je utvrđena velika genetska varijabilnost proteina semena unutar analiziranih populacija.

Knowledge about spatial distribution of genetic diversity is very important for foresters in order to make right decisions during establishing of management plans for conservation, afforestation or reforestation. Advanced molecular technologies provide us with efficiently measured genetic information's which can be analyzed powerful statistical tools. Landscape Shape Interpolation analysis was applied on protein based marker data sets from six natural populations of Balkan beech. Results indicate existence of three genetically distinct groups: 1) Djerdap, Kopaonik, Zubin potok and Ivanjica; 2) Bor and 3) Pirot. These results were compared with results of UPGMA clustering of sampled population based on NEI original distances, Principal Coordinate Analysis and Monmonier's Maximum Difference Algorithm Analysis. Landscape Shape Interpolation analysis represent a powerful tool in spatial genetic diversity research. Combining of Landscape Shape Interpolation analysis results with digitalized maps of investigated area in some of numerous GIS applications will for certainly improve visualization of results and provide better understanding of causal factors of genetic diversity. Poznavanje prostorne distribucije genetičkog diverziteta je veoma važno za šumare, u cilju donošenja odgovarajućih odluka prilikom pravljenja planova gazdovanja u cilju konzervacije, pošumljavanja ili melioracije. Napredne molekularne tehnologije sa velikom efikasnošću obezbeđuju genetičke podatke koji se mogu analizirati moćnim statističkim alatima. 'Landscape Shape Interpolation' je primenjena na podacima o proteinskim markerima dobijenim iz šest prirodnih populacija bukve u Srbiji. Rezultati ukazuju postojanje tri genetički udaljene grupe: 1) Đerdap, Kopaonik, Zubin potok and Ivanjica; 2) Bor and 3) Pirot. Rezultati pejzažne interpolacije su upoređeni sa rezultatima UPMGA klasterovanja ispitivanih populacija na osnovu NEI originalnih distanci, analize principijalnih koordinata (PCooA) i analize Monmonijerovog algoritma maksimalnih razlika. Analiza primenom analize 'Landscape Shape Interpolation' predstavlja moćan alat u istraživanjima prostorne distribucije genetičkog diverziteta. Kombinovanje rezultata ove analize sa digitalizovanim kartama ispitivanog područja, u nekoj od brojnih GIS aplikacija, svakako će unaprediti vizualizaciju rezultata I omogućiti bolje razumevanje uzročnih faktora genetičkog diverziteta.

A precondition necessary for creation and selection of genotypes tolerant of stress conditions is a study of physiological, biochemical and molecular bases of their adaptive reaction to stress. The study includes 40 lines of free pollination originating from 5 provenances: Sutjeska, Višegrad, Tara, Teslić and Durmitor (B&H, Serbia and Montenegro). Two populations were selected from each provenance, i.e.: 5 lines of free pollination represent the population growing on the cliffs and 3 lines of free pollination represent the population growing at the best site of Austrian pine. Specific characteristics of the studied provenances, populations, and free pollination lines were confirmed by the analyses in the salt-soluble proteins. The identical protein composition was proved in a small number of cases in the replicates of the same free pollination line, which indicates a high intra-line variability, which can be the result of the effect of father, as well as of heterozygosity of mother trees. The analyses of protein composition of seed showed considerable differences at provenance level. Inter-line, population and provenance differences, and also, the interaction between the origin and drought factor, were recorded for 9-day-old seedlings germinated in induced drought conditions and in normal conditions. Preduslov za stvaranje i selekciju tolerantnih genotipova na stresne uslove je proučavanje fiziološke, biohemijske i molekularne osnove njihove adaptivne reakcije na stres. Istraživanjima je obuhvaćeno 40 linija crnog bora slobodnog oprašivanja koje potiču iz 5 provenijencija: Sutjeska, Višegrad, Tara, Teslić i Durmitor (BiH, Srbije i Crna Gora). U svakoj provenijenciji izdvojene su dvije populacije i to: 5 linija slobodnog oprašivanja predstavlja populaciju sa stijena i 3 linije slobodnog oprašivanja populaciju na najboljem staništu crnog bora. Specifičnost ispitivanih provenijencija, populacija, kao i linija slobodnog oprašivanja dokazana je putem analiza u solima rastvorljivih proteina. Identičan proteinski sastav u ponavljanjima iste linije slobodnog oprašivanja je dokazan u malom broju slučajeva, što govori u prilog velike unutarlinijske varijabilnosti koja može biti posledica uticaja oca, kao i heterozigotnosti materinskih stabala. U analizama proteinskog sastava sjemena konstatovane su najznačajnije razlike na nivou provenijencija. Kod klijavaca starih 9 dana, isklijalih u uslovima indukovane suše i u standardnim uslovima, utvrđene su međulinijske, populacione i provenijenične razlike, kao i značajne interakcije porekla i stresnog faktora suše.

Enzyme activity of peroxidases of total proteins and heavy metal contents were studied in the needles of eight different half-sib lines of Austrian pine. The samples were taken from a fourteen-year-old seedling seed orchard on Jelova Gora (near Uzice). The results of this study show the pronounced variability of the concentration of total proteins, heavy metal concentration and enzyme activity of peroxidases in the study Austrian pine half-sib lines. This infers that proteins have different levels of expression in individual Austrian pine lines. Also the enzyme of peroxidases shows different activity depending on the genetic constitution of the trees of the analysed half-sib lines, because based on the seed orchard size and the planting pattern, it can be assumed that the effect of external factors is reduced to a minimum. The peroxidases present as soluble in the apoplast or with covalent bond to cell wall, have an important role in lignification, suberisation, healing of injuries, defence against pathogens and atmospheric pollutants.

Serbian spruce (Picea omorika /Panc./Purkyne), as the Balkan Peninsula endemic and the Tertiary relic, is a species whose survival is threatened by the constant restriction of its range caused by the global changes of environmental conditions and the adverse human impacts. The Serbian spruce seedling seed orchard at Godovik represents the base for the improvement of the production of the selected seeds of this species, which can be used as the initial material for the extension of its range. The allele polymorphism of the mitochondrial nad1 gene was analyzed in five different Serbian spruce phenogroups of which the orchard is established. The obtained results are a contribution to a closer study of the causes of the postglacial intraspecific differentiation of Serbian spruce and the creation of the above phenogroups. The study results are significant for further breeding of this species based on the better knowledge of the genetic structure of the species, its directed utilisation and the widening of its range. .

We analyzed low molecular mass phenolics, lignin content and both soluble and cell wall bound peroxidase activity in the needles of three Picea omorika (Pancic) Purkyne lines grown in the generative seed orchard. The highest values of the total phenol content as well as of catechine, caffeic acid, coniferyl alcohol, isoferulic acid and lignin concentration were detected in B5 line ("semidichotomy" line). The soluble guaiacol peroxidase activity was the highest in A3 line (line "borealis"). The highest activity of cell wall bound peroxidases was measured in B5 line, and it was in correlation with lignin content.

The effects of the climate characters and climate index calculated by Thornthwaite-Mather method on diameter increment of Austrian pine trees in the seedling seed orchard on Jelova Gora was studied in the period from 1996 to 2002. The samples for dendrometric analysis were taken from 498 trees in 40 half-sib lines originating from the best natural sites of this species. A strong correlation was determined between the range of precipitation regime and Thornthwaite-Mather climate index, and the development of current diameter increment. The study results indicate that the diameter increment of Austrian pine increases considerably with the increase of humidity, regardless of the relatively modest demands regarding the site productive characteristics.

Picea omorika (Panc) Purkyn? (Serbian spruce) is a Balkan endemic coniferous species. We studied soluble peroxidase, catalase, polyphenol oxidase, and superoxide-dismutase activity in the needles of five omorika lines grown in a generative seed orchard. The peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase isoenzyme patterns were also investigated. Activity of the studied enzymes varied among different lines. The highest activity of peroxidase, catalase and polyphenol oxidase was found in the A3 ("borealis") and B5 ("semidichotomous") lines. Four acidic and two basic peroxidase isoenzymes and one polyphenol oxidase isoenzyme were detected. There was no variation in either the peroxidase or the polyphenol oxidase isoenzyme pattern among the different lines.

Variability of height increment and the most important climate elements were researched in the Austrian pine seed orchard on Jelova Gora during the period 1993-2003. The seed orchard was established in 1991 by the principle of meta-population structure. The comparative analysis of the above elements shows the correlation between height increment, as the element of tree growth, and climate parameters, which is significant for the correction of the previous opinions that Austrian pine does not have a biological predisposition for the full utilization of the high production potentials of beech sites.

The introduction of allochthonous species enriches the trees and shrubs of the country and leads to the phenomenon of the secondary range of cultivated species, which differs very much from species to species. The amorpha (Amorpha fruticosa L) range characteristics are presented, the species which has a very expressed tendency of subspontaneous spreading in Serbia. The inventory was performed by the stationary and marshroute investigations of the species coenosis.

The occurrence and magnitude of heterotic effect was determined among hybrid combinations and parent individuals obtained by open pollination in Serbian spruce seedling seed orchard at Godovik. The heterotic effect was analysed for cone length and width and the average number of seeds per cone. The study results show the different heterotic effect, both for the same trait in different hybrid combinations and for different traits of the same hybrid.

The knowledge of trees at the beginning of the 21st century cannot be compared to that in the early fifties of the 20th century. Trees are characterized by longevity, adaptation, high variability, very complex organization, not only morphological, anatomical, physiological, but also at the genetic level. The effect of functional diploidisation of woody polyploids on genetic organization of actual diploids (secondary, tertiary and quaternary) has been dealt with. The process of diploidisation has a huge evolution and technological potential.

The presented model for the establishment of an experimental clonal seed orchard of Serbian spruce was designed based on the results of the analysis and assessment of the genetic potential of Serbian spruce seedling seed orchard at Godovik. Based on the results of the analyses, eight superior half-sib lines of Serbian spruce were selected, of which 24 genotypes were selected. Their hybridisation, by the model of incomplete diallel cross resulted in 21 combinations at the level of half-sib lines, i.e. 48 combinations at the level of parent genotypes. The applied study methods identified the potentially valuable genotypes-cone producers i.e. pollinators, which will be fixed by cloning in the seed orchard of the second generation for the production of the promising hybrids.

Mutations include the changes of the inherited material and they occur naturally, but very rarely. This paper presents the spontaneous and induced mutations, their frequency of occurrence and applicability for the needs of plant production in forestry. The initial material includes the trees and shrubs of Serbia, and the methods are the comparative morpho-physiological analysis, ionising radiation and chemical half-sib tests Spontaneous mutations in our country have been recorded more frequently since the sixties and the study of intra-variability of trees and shrubs in Serbia has been intensified. They include the changes of growth habit, character of increment, abnormalities in the structure of vegetative and generative organs. By selection and vegetative propagation, numerous ornamental tree and shrub varieties have been synthesised over a more or less long period. After the discovery of the vigour of triploid mutants trees, their mass production has been elaborated: by crossing triploid and diploid trees By the treatment of the reproductive material by ionising radiation (UV, gamma rays, terminal neutrons), and chemical materials, the frequency of mutations increased drastically, especially with higher doses up to 100% in the treated organisms. The mutants have, as a rule, reduced growth elements, reduced adaptation, and when selected and propagated vegetatively, they ensure a rich initial material for the synthesis of numerous ornamental cultivars of trees and shrubs. The method of radiation breeding is the most promising for the improvement of ornamental plants, while mass production of triploid mutants is the only method used in the improvement of forest trees.

Isajev V., Lavadinović V., Lučić A., Rakonjac L.J.: Serbian spruce (Picea omorca /Panc./ Purkyne) variability in the artificial populations in Serbia. Ekologia (Bratislava), Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 277-282, 2013. A great part of the genetic variation and the potentials of Serbian spruce natural populations have been incorporated in several plantations in the Western Serbia at the site Quercetum fraineto-cerris s.l., Salicetum fragillis s.l and Pinetum nigre s.l. and in other similar occurrences In this way, it becomes much more available for the research and future utilization. The intensive research of the plantations started by the classification of trees into phenogroups which were considered to be significant for forestry and horticulture. The differences between flowering years, plantations and individual trees in the regularity and abundance of micro- and macro-strobiles are major indicators f genetic variability in the reproductive cycle of Serbian spruce. The interaction of environmental characteristics and genotypes of extreme and average trees illustrate the reproductive ability of Serbian spruce on different sites and indicates that this species achieves the coenological and not the ecological optimum at its natural sites. Application of genetic/selection programmes can lead to the production of planting stock of desired and defined properties, which could survive the stress environmental factors, thanks to its morphological and physiological properties.

Lavadinović V., Isajev V., Rakonjac L., Popović V., Lučić A.: Douglas-fir provenance phenology observations. Ekologia (Bratislava), Vol. 32, No. 4, p. 376-382, 2013.Introduction of species involves adaptation, productivity and success in new types of environmental conditions. The introduction also includes confirmation to bring in only species which are superior on their natural habitat. In Canada and western North America, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii/Mirb./Franco) is one of the most ecologically and economically value trees. In Europe, New Zealand, Australia and Chile, Douglas fir is important as an exotic fast-growing timber species. Douglas fir has one of the widest natural ranges of any tree species, extending from the Pacific Coast to the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains and from 19°N in Mexico to 55°N in western Canada. In Serbia, from the original seeds introduced from British Columbia and Canada, the experimental Douglas-fir provenance is established in a few locations. One of the main dangers for the Douglas fir is its sensitivity to the occurrence of late frost in spring and early occurrence of frost in the autumn. The aim of the paper is to test the effect of environment on the expression of Douglas-fir seed transfer. Bud burst phenology is closely related to genecology of introduced species. Douglas fir is susceptible to cold climate and most of its genetic structure and ability depends on its ecological adaptability. In order to avoid errors introduction of Douglas-fir provenances that are sensitive to the occurrence of extreme temperature, applied are researching for buds phenological changes Douglas fir, as an introduced species, has to be tested at the provenance level before its introduction to the new sites in Serbia.

The results of spatial analysis of genetic diversity have practical application in the definition and delineation of regional provenances of forest trees. Research in this paper, was based on the material from 27 natural populations of beech in Serbia. The genetic component of the research is based on the analysis of RAPD markers from bulk samples, using 28 primers. The spatial component of the research is based on the geographical position of the studied populations. Grouping of the studied populations in the regions, as well as their separation, was performed using the Monmonier’s algorithm of maximum differences. To visualize the results and mapping the regions of beech provenances in Serbia, GIS was used, with database included the results of this study. Rezultati prostorne analize genetičkog diverziteta imaju praktičnu primenu u definisanju i razgraničenju regiona provenijencija šumskih vrsta drveća. Istraživanja u ovom radu, obuhvatila su materijal iz 27 prirodnih populacija bukve u Srbiji. Genetička komponenta istraživanja bazira se na analizi RAPD markera iz zbirnih uzoraka, korišćenjem 28 prajmera. Prostorna komponenta istraživanja, bazira se na geografskom položaju ispitivanih populacija. Grupisanje ispitivanih populacija u regione, kao i njihovo razgraničenje, izvršeno je primenom Monmonierovog algoritma najvećih razlika. Za vizualizaciju rezultata i izradu karata regiona provenijencija bukve u Srbiji, korišćen je GIS, čija je baza podataka obuhvatila rezultate navedenih istraživanja.

Background and Purpose: The aim of present research is to study intra- and inter-population genetic variation in Austrian pine by the application of biochemical markers. A better knowledge of the genetic potential of Austrian pine populations will enhance the production of seed and planting material, and in this way also the success of afforestation and the establishment of Austrian pine specific-purpose plantations. Material and Methods: The polymorphism of protein markers was determined based on the selected genotypes originating from six populations (seed stands) in Serbia. Based on the derived electrophoregrams, qualitative and quantitative differences (number and pattern) in protein fractions were identified and the seed protein profile was constructed for each tree, as well as for each of the six study populations. Analysis of protein markers was performed using two statistical methods, NTSYS and correspondence analysis. Results and Conclusion: The conservativeness of some polypeptide, i.e. the presence in all analysed genotypes is showed. On the other hand, some protein fractions were variable at the population level, and some were variable depending on the population. The degree of genetic variation among the populations was higher than the variation within the populations. There was also a high genetic variation in seed proteins within the analysed populations. Both methods (NTSYS and correspondence analysis) give the same arrangement of the analyzed populations, whereby, because of a different view of genetic distances, they can and should be combined, enabling easier and more precise understanding of mutual relationships of the observation units.

The genetic-ecological variation of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Serbia was studied in the populations at five localities in western and south-western Serbia. Three groups of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) populations were differentiated based on genetic research (seed protein analysis) and plant community research. The first group consists of Scots pine populations on Šargan (FMU 'Šargan') and on Tara (FMU 'Kaluderske Bare'), where the forests belong to the community of Scots pine and Austrian pine (Pinetum sylvestris-nigrae Pavlovic 1951). The second group covers the localities Stolovi (FMU 'Radocelo-Crepuljnik') and Zlatar (FMU 'Zlatar I'), where the forests belong to the community of Scots pine and spruce (Piceo abietis-Pinetum sylvestris Stefanovic 1960). The third group comprises the Scots pine population on Pešter (FMU 'Dubocica-Bare') which belongs to the community of Scots pine with erica (Erico-Pinetum sylvestris Stefanovic 1963). Cluster analysis was performed on the basis of seed protein data and showed that there are three groups of Scots pine populations. The three populations coincide with plant communities. The community of Scots pine with erica (Erico-Pinetum sylvestris Stefanovic 1963) recorded on Pešter at the locality 'Dubocica- Bare' in the area of FE 'Golija' Ivanjica, is a special Scots pine population displayed at the greatest distance from all other populations in the cluster analysis dendrogram. U radu su predstavljeni rezultati proučavanja genetičko-ekološke varijabilnosti belog bora (Pinus sylvestris L.) u Srbiji. Za istraživanja su izabrane populacije na 5 lokaliteta u zapadnoj i jugozapadnoj Srbiji. Na osnovu genetičkih (analizom proteina u semenu) i fitocenoloških istraživanja izdiferencirane su tri grupe populacija belog bora (Pinus sylvestris L.). Prvu grupu populacija čini beli bor na Šarganu (G.J. 'Šargan') i na Tari (G.J. Kaluđerske bare) čije šume fitocenološki pripadaju zajednici belog i crnog bora (Pinetum sylvestris-nigrae Pavlovic 1951). Drugu grupu čine lokaliteti Stolovi (G.J. 'Radocelo-Crepuljnik') i Zlatar (G.J. 'Zlatar I') koji fitocenološki pripadaju zajednici belog bora i smrče (Piceo abietis- Pinetum sylvestris Stefanovic 1960).Treću grupu čine populacije belog bora na Pešteru (G.J.'Dubocica-Bare') koja fitocenološki pripada zajednici belog bora sa crnjušom (Erico-Pinetum sylvestris Stefanovic 1963). Na osnovu dendrograma klaster analize koji je urađen prema sadržaju proteina u semenu, ustanovljene su tri grupe populacija belog bora. Te populacije se poklapaju sa fitocenozama tako da zajednica belog bora sa crnjušom (Erico-Pinetum sylvestris Stefanović 1963) ustanovljena je na Pešteru, na lokalitetu 'Dubocica-Bare' i na području Š.G. 'Golija' Ivanjica predstavlja posebnu populaciju belog bora koja se na dendrogramu klaster analize odvaja na najvećoj distanci od svih ostalih populacija. Proučavanja međupopulacione genetičko-ekološke varijabilnost belog bora (Pinus sylvestris L.) u Srbiji, obavljena su multidisciplinarno, primenom molekularnih markera i fitocenološkim analizama. Primenjene metoda ispitivanja, omogućile su bolje upoznavanje genetičko-ekoloških karakteristika populacija belog bora u delu areala na prostoru Srbije, što je osnova za dalje usmereno korišćenje ukupnog biološkog potencijala vrste.

General and group analysis of 29-year old progeny of European plane indicates that, along with individual variability, the progeny is also characterised by a highly expressed polymorphism of a series of properties. This study deals with the polymorphism of crown form, types of bark, straightness of the stem, and anatomic structure. A low share of parent phenotypes (2.70% of the type occidentalis and 3.71% of the type orientalis) has been explained by postsyngamic lethality and by differential reproduction in nursery conditions