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This study briefly introduces the basic theory of sterilization, the characteristics of ethylene oxide sterilization for medical devices and the key factors about sterilization effectiveness, analyzes and compares three methods used in the product release of medical devices sterilized by ethylene oxide: test for sterility, traditional release and parametric release, and focuses on the theoretical basis, feasibility, validation requirements, advantages and disadvantages of parametric release.

The differential phase computed tomography (DP-CT) imaging is a kind of X-ray-phase-based CT methods, which is widely used in various X-ray imaging laboratories. At present, a collection of projections with the horizontal direction (perpendicular to the sample rotation axis) DP information is often acquired in DP-CT. In an ideal experiment, if the background is zero, then we can accurately reconstruct the information of each direction of the sample with horizontal data only. Actually, background information will produce streaking artifacts to affect the resolution in directions other than the horizontal direction. To mitigate the streaking artifacts in the conventionally reconstructed DP-CT images. This study develops a novel analytical DP-CT reconstruction framework by jointly using the bilateral DP information obtained along two perpendicular directions. In addition, a new data acquisition scheme is also proposed to quickly acquire the bilateral DP signal without the need of changing the direction of refraction signal acquisition. Experimental results demonstrate that this new algorithm is able to greatly reduce the streaking artifacts on DP-CT images.

The reverse projection protocol results in fast phase-contrast imaging thanks to its compatibility with conventional computed-tomography scanning. Many researchers have proposed variants. However, all these reverse projection methods in grating-based phase-contrast imaging are built on the hypothesis of the synchronous phase of reference shifting curves in the whole field of view. The hypothesis imposes uniformity and alignment requirements on the gratings, thus the field of view is generally limited. In this paper, a generalized reverse projection method is presented analytically for the case of non-uniform reference in grating-based phase tomography. The method is demonstrated by theoretical derivation, numerical simulations and synchrotron radiation experiments. The influence of imaging position to sensitivity, and the phase-wrapping phenomenon are also discussed. The proposed method combines the advantages of the high efficiency of the reverse projection method and the universal applicability of the phase-stepping method. The authors believe that the method would be used widely in fast and dose-constrained imaging.

Objective: Quantitative technique based on In-line phase-contrast computed tomography with single scanning attracts more attention in application due to the flexibility of the implementation. However, the quantitative results usually suffer from artifacts and noise, since the phase retrieval and reconstruction are independent ("two-steps") without feedback from the original data. Our goal is to develop a method for material quantitative imaging based on a priori information specifically for the single-scanning data. Method: An iterative method that directly reconstructs the refractive index decrement delta and imaginary beta of the object from observed data ("one-step") within single object-to-detector distance (ODD) scanning. Simultaneously, high-quality quantitative reconstruction results are obtained by using a linear approximation that achieves material decomposition in the iterative process. Results: By comparing the equivalent atomic number of the material decomposition results in experiments, the accuracy of the proposed method is greater than 97.2%. Conclusion: The quantitative reconstruction and decomposition results are effectively improved, and there are feedback and corrections during the iteration, which effectively reduce the impact of noise and errors. Significance: This algorithm has the potential for quantitative imaging research, especially for imaging live samples and human breast preclinical studies.

In this manuscript, a technique for the fast retrieval and dose saving single-shot imaging of X-ray scattering information based on angular signal radiography and the staggered grating is simulated...

In this work, a general theoretical framework is presented to explain the formation of the phase signal in an X-ray microscope integrated with a grating interferometer, which simultaneously enables the high spatial resolution imaging and the improved image contrast. Using this theory, several key parameters of phase contrast imaging can be predicted, for instance, the fringe visibility and period, the conversion condition from the differential phase imaging (DPI) to the phase difference imaging (PDI). Additionally, numerical simulations are performed with certain X-ray optical components and imaging geometry. Results demonstrate the accuracy of this developed quantitative analysis method of X-ray phase-sensitive microscope imaging., 8 pages, 3 figures

In this work, a novel, to the best of our knowledge, approach based on an x-ray thin lens imaging theory is proposed to predict the angular sensitivity responses of dual-phase-grating differential phase contrast (DPC) interferometers. Experimental validations have been performed to demonstrate the high accuracy of theoretical predictions using two different setups: one with real source images and the other with virtual source images. This new sensitivity calculation method is helpful to optimize the DPC imaging performance of a dual-phase-grating system.

Material decomposition (MD) is an important application of computer tomography (CT). For phase contrast imaging, conventional MD methods are categorized into two types with respect to different operation sequences, i.e., “before” or “after” image reconstruction. Both categories come down to two-step methods, which have the problem of noise amplification. In this study, we incorporate both phase and absorption (PA) information into MD process, and correspondingly develop a simultaneous algebraic reconstruction technique (SART). The proposed method is referred to as phase & absorption material decomposition-SART (PAMD-SART). By iteratively solving an optimization problem, material composition and substance quantification are reconstructed directly from absorption and differential phase projections. Comparing with two-step MD, the proposed one-step method is superior in noise suppression and accurate decomposition. Numerical simulations and synchrotron radiation based experiments show that PAMD-SART outperforms the classical MD method (image-based and dual-energy CT iterative method), especially for the quantitative accuracy of material equivalent atomic number.

In this work, we developed a new theoretical framework using wave optics to explain the working mechanism of the grating based X-ray differential phase contrast imaging (XPCI) interferometer systems consist of more than one phase grating. Under the optical reversibility principle, the wave optics interpretation was simplified into the geometrical optics interpretation, in which the phase grating was treated as a thin lens. Moreover, it was derived that the period of an arrayed source, e.g., the period of a source grating, is always equal to the period of the diffraction fringe formed on the source plane. When a source grating is utilized, the theory indicated that it is better to keep the periods of the two phase gratings different to generate large period diffraction fringes. Experiments were performed to validate these theoretical findings.

Based on the basic theory and mechanism model, integrating the core idea of behavior decision-making and the idea of DEMATEL model, this paper constructs a green food traceability model based on the behavior of farmers, applies the Food Traceability Technology to the whole process of agricultural production, processing, packaging, storage, transportation, transaction to consumption, improves the quality and safety of agricultural products, and promotes the Internet of things technology in agricultureThe application of the system realizes the intelligent monitoring of modern agriculture and promotes the transformation and upgrading of modern agriculture.

The theoretical framework of the direct information retrieval method is presented in phase-contrast computed tomography. Numerical simulations are also performed, which reveal that the proposed method provides comparable results of the reverse projection method with short computational time. Furthermore, the compatibility with the existing data preprocessing methods and iterative reconstruction algorithms is discussed., Grating-based X-ray differential phase-contrast imaging has attracted a great amount of attention and has been considered as a potential imaging method in clinical medicine because of its compatibility with the traditional X-ray tube source and the possibility of a large field of view. Moreover, phase-contrast computed tomography provides three-dimensional phase-contrast visualization. Generally, two-dimensional information retrieval performed on every projection is required prior to three-dimensional reconstruction in phase-contrast computed tomography. In this paper, a three-dimensional information retrieval method to separate absorption and phase information directly from two reconstructed images is derived. Theoretical derivations together with numerical simulations have been performed to confirm the feasibility and veracity of the proposed method. The advantages and limitations compared with the reverse projection method are also discussed. Owing to the reduced data size and the absence of a logarithm operation, the computational time for information retrieval is shortened by the proposed method. In addition, the hybrid three-dimensional images of absorption and phase information were reconstructed using an absorption reconstruction algorithm, hence the existing data pre-processing methods and iterative reconstruction algorithms in absorption reconstruction may be utilized in phase reconstruction immediately.

According to the conclusion of Khelashvili et al. [Phys. Med. Biol. 51, 221 (2006)], the minus logarithm of the visibility ratio fulfills the line integral condition; consequently the scattering information can be reconstructed quantitatively by conventional computed tomography (CT) algorithms. Based on Fresnel diffraction theory, we analyzed the influence of particle-size selectivity on the performance of an X-ray grating interferometer (GI) applied for dark-field CT. The results state the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of dark-field imaging is sensitive to the particle size, which demonstrate that the X-ray dark-field CT using a GI can efficiently differentiate materials of identical X-ray absorption and help to choose optimal X-ray energy for known particle size, thus extending the application range of grating interferometer.

Theoretical analysis of the mechanical behavior of an x-ray mirror made from piezoelectric bimorph is presented. A complete two-dimensional relationship between the radius of curvature of the mirror and the applied voltage is derived. The accuracy of this relationship is studied by comparing the figures calculated by the relationship and Finite Element Analysis. The influences of several critical parameters in the relationship on the radius of curvature are analyzed. It is found that piezoelectric coefficient d 31 is the main material property parameter that dominates the radius of curvature, and that the optimal thickness of PZT plate corresponding to largest bending range is 2.5 times of that of faceplate. It is demonstrated that the relationship is helpful for us to complete the primary design of the x-ray mirror made from piezoelectric bimorph.

As one of the HEPS project beamlines, zone plate based full-field transmission x-ray microscopy (TXM) beamline will provide imaging tool with spatial resolution down to 20nm and exposure time of sub-second, along with different imaging mode such as absorption, Zernike phase and XANES. Because HEPS will operate a nearly diffraction-limited storage ring (less than 60pm·rad), how to utilize the feature of low emittance becomes interesting and it is some challenging to satisfy the zone plate imaging with enough illumination angle and field-of-view. Within the optimized conceptual design, beam shaper condenser instead of capillary was selected to focus x-rays to sample and give enough illumination angle to zone plate, and red-shift undulator radiation was used to improve beamline efficiency.

With the development of full-field transmission X-ray microscopy (TXM) for research in biology, life science, material science and physics, zone plate-based full-field TXM is becoming a powerful tool for obtaining quantitative internal structural and chemical information at the nanoscale when combined with spectroscopic imaging. For the TXM beamline design, the best choice is to match the phase space needed by the zone plate from the source point. However, for the nearly diffraction-limited synchrotron radiation sources, it is not easy to fully match the needed phase space due to its low-emittance. Using redshift radiation from an undulator, under consideration of experimental requirements and the heat load effect, this paper describes the design of TXM beamline at the nearly diffraction-limited High Energy Photon Source (HEPS). In this design, not only sufficient illumination angle can be acquired, but also a nearly annular illumination can be obtained to match the illumination required for zone plate imaging. Furthermore, about two times photon flux can be obtained at source point and the photons can be fully used in this design using redshift undulator radiation. The presented design can also be informative for the same kind of beamline design at other nearly diffraction-limited synchrotron photon sources.

Grating-based x-ray phase contrast imaging has attracted increasing interest in recent decades as multimodal and laboratory source usable method. Specific efforts have been focused on establishing a new extraction method to perform practical applications. In this work, noise properties of multi-combination information of newly established information extraction method, so-called angular signal radiography method, are investigated to provide guidelines for targeted and specific applications. The results show that how multi-combination of images can be used in targeted practical applications to obtain a high-quality image in terms of signal-to-noise ratio. Our conclusions can also hold true for upcoming targeted practical applications such as biomedical imaging, non-destructive imaging, and materials science.

This paper, “New idea for recording x-ray imaging holography," was presented as part of International Conference on Space Optics—ICSO 1997, held in Toulouse, France.

A description of the rocking curve in diffraction enhanced imaging (DEI) is presented in terms of the angular signal response function and a simple multi-information retrieval algorithm based on the cosine function fitting. A comprehensive analysis of noise properties of DEI is also given considering the noise transfer characteristic of the X-ray source. The validation has been performed with synchrotron radiation experimental data and Monte Carlo simulations based on theGeant4toolkit combined with the refractive process of X-rays, which show good agreement with each other. Moreover, results indicate that the signal-to-noise ratios of the refraction and scattering images are about one order of magnitude better than that of the absorption image at the edges of low-Zsamples. The noise penalty is drastically reduced with the increasing photon flux and visibility. Finally, this work demonstrates that the analytical method can build an interesting connection between DEI and GDPCI (grating-based differential phase contrast imaging) and is widely suitable for a variety of measurement noise in the angular signal response imaging prototype. The analysis significantly contributes to the understanding of noise characteristics of DEI images and may allow improvements to the signal-to-noise ratio in biomedical and material science imaging.

Purpose: Grating-based x-ray phase contrast imaging is considered as one of the most promising techniques for future medical imaging. Many different methods have been developed to retrieve phase signal, among which the phase stepping (PS) method is widely used. However, further practical implementations are hindered, due to its complex scanning mode and high radiation dose. In contrast, the reverse projection (RP) method is a novel fast and low dose extraction approach. In this contribution, the authors present a quantitative analysis of the noise properties of the refraction signals retrieved by the two methods and compare their sensitivities. Methods: Using the error propagation formula, the authors analyze theoretically the signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of the refraction images retrieved by the two methods. Then, the sensitivities of the two extraction methods are compared under an identical exposure dose. Numerical experiments are performed to validate the theoretical results and provide some quantitative insight. Results: The SNRs of the two methods are both dependent on the system parameters, but in different ways. Comparison between their sensitivities reveals that for the refraction signal, the RP method possesses a higher sensitivity, especially in the case of high visibility and/or at the edge of the object. Conclusions: Compared with the PS method, the RP method has a superior sensitivity and provides refraction images with a higher SNR. Therefore, one can obtain highly sensitive refraction images in grating-based phase contrast imaging. This is very important for future preclinical and clinical implementations. (C) 2015 American Association of Physicists in Medicine.

Phase sensitive X-ray imaging methods can provide substantially improved contrast over conventional absorption-based techniques, and therefore new and inaccessible information. Here we propose a dual detector approach for X-ray differential phase contrast imaging, which allows a quantitative retrieval of the object's phase information by a single exposure. The analysis performed in our research shows that compared with the phase-stepping method, the dual detector approach is advantageous in fast imaging speed, reduced radiation dose and alignment errors, and avoiding any problems resulting from motion artifacts and X-ray exposure reproducibility. The approach has a direct extension to single exposure two-dimensional differential phase contrast imaging, as well as the possibility to perform three-dimensional reconstruction of the refractive index and its gradient field. We believe that this approach can find its potential in clinical applications, where imaging speed and radiation dose are critical issues.

One of the main benefits of a fractal plate is the formation of a sequence of subsidiary foci when used as a condenser. In order to further demonstrate the reliable use of a fractal zone plate in transmission X-ray microscopy, we studied how a condenser fractal zone plate produces the focal spot in a transmission X-ray microscope layout. We present and discuss the comparison in the X-ray region with a normal condenser zone plate and a numerical simulation that points out that the efficiency of the condenser depends on the structure and the material of the zone plate, and on the energy. This analysis paves a way for foreseen optical applications of modified zone plates in real microscope layouts.

Differential phase-contrast computed tomography (DPC-CT) reconstruction problems are usually solved by using parallel-, fan- or cone-beam algorithms. For rod-shaped objects, the x-ray beams cannot recover all the slices of the sample at the same time. Thus, if a rod-shaped sample is required to be reconstructed by the above algorithms, one should alternately perform translation and rotation on this sample, which leads to lower efficiency. The helical cone-beam CT may significantly improve scanning efficiency for rod-shaped objects over other algorithms. In this paper, we propose a theoretically exact filter-backprojection algorithm for helical cone-beam DPC-CT, which can be applied to reconstruct the refractive index decrement distribution of the samples directly from two-dimensional differential phase-contrast images. Numerical simulations are conducted to verify the proposed algorithm. Our work provides a potential solution for inspecting the rod-shaped samples using DPC-CT, which may be applicable with the evolution of DPC-CT equipments.

Microscopy techniques using visible photons, x-rays, neutrons, and electrons have made remarkable impact in many scientific disciplines. The microscopic data can often be expressed as the convolution of the spatial distribution of certain properties of the specimens and the inherent response function of the imaging system. The x-ray grating interferometer (XGI), which is sensitive to the deviation angle of the incoming x-rays, has attracted significant attention in the past years due to its capability in achieving x-ray phase contrast imaging with low brilliance source. However, the comprehensive and analytical theoretical framework is yet to be presented. Herein, we propose a theoretical framework termed angular signal radiography (ASR) to describe the imaging process of the XGI system in a classical, comprehensive and analytical manner. We demonstrated, by means of theoretical deduction and synchrotron based experiments, that the spatial distribution of specimens' physical properties, including absorption, refraction and scattering, can be extracted by ASR in XGI. Implementation of ASR in XGI offers advantages such as simplified phase retrieval algorithm, reduced overall radiation dose, and improved image acquisition speed. These advantages, as well as the limitations of the proposed method, are systematically investigated in this paper.

A full-field transmission X-ray microscope (TXM) operating continuously from 5 keV to 12 keV with fluorescence mapping capability has been designed and constructed at the Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, a first-generation synchrotron radiation facility operating at 2.5 GeV. Spatial resolution better than 30 nm has been demonstrated using a Siemens star pattern in both absorption mode and Zernike phase-contrast mode. A scanning-probe mode fluorescence mapping capability integrated with the TXM has been shown to provide 50 p. p. m. sensitivity for trace elements with a spatial resolution (limited by probing beam spot size) of 20 mm. The optics design, testing of spatial resolution and fluorescence sensitivity are presented here, including performance measurement results.

X-ray microscopy based on synchrotron radiation has become a fundamental tool in biology and life sciences to visualize the morphology of a specimen. These studies have particular requirements in terms of radiation damage and the image exposure time, which directly determines the total acquisition speed. To monitor and improve these key parameters, we present a novel X-ray microscopy method using a high-resolution zone plate as the objective and the matching condenser. Numerical simulations based on the scalar wave field theory validate the feasibility of the method and also indicate the performance of X-ray microscopy is optimized most with sub-10-nm-resolution zone plates. The proposed method is compatible with conventional X-ray microscopy techniques, such as computed tomography, and will find wide applications in time-resolved and/or dose-sensitive studies such as living cell imaging.

In this contribution we discuss the possibility of designing a modified transmission X-ray microscope by using fractal zone plates (Fzps) as diffractive optical elements. In the modified transmission X-ray microscope optical layout, we first introduced a fractal zone plate as the microscope objective. Indeed, a fractal zone plate cannot only be used as an image-forming component but also as a condenser element to achieve an extended depth of field. Numerical analysis reveals that fractal zone plates and conventional Fresnel zone plates have similar imaging capabilities under different coherent illumination. Using a fractal zone plate as a condenser we also simulated axial irradiance. Results confirm that fractal zone plates can improve focusing capability with an extended depth of field. Although preliminary, these simulations clearly reveal that fractal zone plates, when available, will be of great help in microscope layouts, in particular for foreseen high-resolution applications in the "water window" as strongly required in biological research.

Impressive developments in X-ray imaging are associated with X-ray phase contrast computed tomography based on grating interferometry, a technique that provides increased contrast compared with conventional absorption-based imaging. A new "single-step" method capable of separating phase information from other contributions has been recently proposed. This approach not only simplifies data-acquisition procedures, but, compared with the existing phase step approach, significantly reduces the dose delivered to a sample. However, the image reconstruction procedure is more demanding than for traditional methods and new algorithms have to be developed to take advantage of the "single-step" method. In the work discussed in this paper, a fast iterative image reconstruction method named OSEM (ordered subsets expectation maximization) was applied to experimental data to evaluate its performance and range of applicability. The OSEM algorithm with different subsets was also characterized by comparison of reconstruction image quality and convergence speed. Computer simulations and experimental results confirm the reliability of this new algorithm for phase-contrast computed tomography applications. Compared with the traditional filtered back projection algorithm, in particular in the presence of a noisy acquisition, it furnishes better images at a higher spatial resolution and with lower noise. We emphasize that the method is highly compatible with future X-ray phase contrast imaging clinical applications.

X-ray phase contrast imaging has been demonstrated to have an improved contrast over conventional absorption imaging for those weakly absorbing objects. However, most of the hard X-ray phase-sensitive imaging has so far been impractical with laboratory available X-ray sources. Grating-based phase imaging approach has the prominent advantage that polychromatic laboratory X-ray generators can be efficiently used in a Talbot–Lau configuration. Through numerical simulations, we demonstrate here the efficient use of polychromatic X-ray laboratory sources for differential phase contrast imaging. The presented results explain why in recently reported experiments, polychromatic X-ray tubes could be efficiently used in a Talbot–Lau interferometer. Furthermore, the results indicate that the fractional Talbot distance is not limited by the polychromaticity of the X-ray source. Since the sensitivity of phase measurements is proportional to the fractional Talbot distance, the image quality for phase measurements can be further improved. Finally, the potential optimizations of the imaging system are discussed from an application perspective, taking into consideration both available X-ray flux and compactness of the system.

We report here a quantitative analysis of the effect of partial coherence on grating-based phase-contrast X-ray imaging. The self-image intensity has been derived through the phase-space formulation in the framework of the Wigner distribution. Based on the behavior of the self-image visibility, the minimum required spatial coherence length is given for three different types of gratings. Furthermore, we show that the coherence requirement, at different fractional Talbot distances, increases linearly with the Talbot order for the three types of gratings. The approach we presented can also be successfully applied to the Talbot–Lau geometry.

Phase retrieval with unidirectional differential phase-contrast image requires integration with noisy data, which is an illposed inverse problem. Conventional direct integration method would result in severe streak artifacts. Total variation (TV) regularization-based method would reduce the streak artifacts, but the edges parallel with phase-contrast sensitivity direction are likely to be over smoothed. We propose an improved weighted TV regularization phase retrieval method by introducing a weighting factor to the conventional TV term. When applied to simulation and experimental data, this method shows an advantage of preserving the sharpness of the edges while preserving the ability of reducing streak artifacts compared with conventional TV-regularization method.

The investigation of the internal morphology of insects is usually performed using classical microtomy yielding optical micrographs of stained thin sections. The achievement of high-quality cross sections for microtomy is time-consuming and the risk of damaging sections is unavoidable. Moreover, the approach is impractical, in particular when quick acquisition of 3D structural information is required. Recently, X-ray computed microtomography (micro-CT) with a high spatial resolution was considered as a potential tool for the morphological classification of insects. We used micro-CT to investigate Quedius beesoni Cameron at the cellular length scale. This method provides a new powerful and nondestructive approach to obtain 3D structural information on the biological organization of insects. The preliminary images presented in this contribution clearly reveal the endoskeleton and the muscles of the head and the thorax with a full 3D structure. We also reconstructed the 3D structure of the brain of Quedius beesoni Cameron, and this is the first reconstruction in Staphylinidae, which will be a great advancement for morphological and phylogenic research. We claim that both the spatial resolution and the contrast characteristic of micro-CT imaging may fulfill the requirements necessary for zoological insect morphology and phylogeny, in particular, when a classification of a rare and unique insect specimen is required.

A simple framework that allows a new general diffraction enhanced imaging (DEI) equation to be derived is presented. This latter equation may explain all open problems associated with the equation introduced by Chapman and those not explained by the first DEI equation, such as the noise background due to the small-angle scattering reflected by the analyzer. Combing the DEI equation with computed tomography (CT) theory, we propose a new DEI-CT formula that explains qualitatively the contour contrast caused by extinction of the refraction. Two formulae with a new method to extract the refraction angle are also introduced. Within this new theoretical framework the three components of the gradient of the refractive index can be reconstructed.

Differential phase-contrast (DPC) X-ray imaging has been performed in the Talbot-Lau configuration, in which the X-ray source was a combination of an absorption grating and a laboratory X-ray generator. We report here quantitative analysis of partial coherence effects on the X-ray Talbot-Lau interferometer. Based on the visibility of the self-image, the well-known geometry condition is reproduced. It is shown that effects of partial coherence are determined by the opening ratio of the source grating, and that the effects are independent of the Talbot order and the type of the phase grating, a condition quite different from those in a Talbot interferometer. A possible explanation is discussed from the point of view of the effective spatial coherence length. Taking into account the available X-ray flux and experimental fluctuations, we present the optimum opening ratio. Furthermore, we mention that our results can also be successfully used to discuss the properties of a multiline X-ray source.

X-ray phase-contrast imaging is a potential nondestructive testing and diagnostic technology in medicine, biology and materials science. It provides high sensitivity and contrast of weakly absorbing low-Z objects by measuring phase shifts of the X-rays. In this paper, we propose a novel phase-contrast imaging method using only one absorption grating and a high-resolution detector. The intensity distribution downstream of the grating is recorded and analyzed by the high-resolution detector directly. We use a spatial phase demodulation method to retrieve the phase information. Only one image is needed. Numerical simulations are performed to validate that the setup of our method is greatly simplified compared with the phase-stepping method and our method can significantly reduce the time-consuming and the unnecessary dose.

Through real time synchrotron radiation topography observation, dynamical behavior of ferroelectric domains as a function of temperature in unpoled 0.92Pb(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O-3-0.08PbTiO(3) (PZN-8% PT) crystals is investigated. A sequence of temperature-induced monoclinic phase transformations is observed, and verified by combining this method with temperature-dependence Raman scattering, capacitance measurement, and X-ray diffraction. This phase evolution picture seems remarkably unique as the monoclinic phase is able to coexist with the cubic phase well above T-C. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

It is virtually impossible to observe blood vessels by conventional x-ray imaging techniques without using contrast agents. In addition, such x-ray systems are typically incapable of detecting vessels with diameters less than 200 microm. Here we show that vessels as small as 30 microm could be detected using in-line phase-contrast x-ray imaging without the use of contrast agents. Image quality was greatly improved by replacing resident blood with physiological saline. Furthermore, an entire branch of the portal vein from the main axial portal vein to the eighth generation of branching could be captured in a single phase-contrast image. Prior to our work, detection of 30 microm diameter blood vessels could only be achieved using x-ray interferometry, which requires sophisticated x-ray optics. Our results thus demonstrate that in-line phase-contrast x-ray imaging, using physiological saline as a contrast agent, provides an alternative to the interferometric method that can be much more easily implemented and also offers the advantage of a larger field of view. A possible application of this methodology is in animal tumor models, where it can be used to observe tumor angiogenesis and the treatment effects of antineoplastic agents.