Search

Objectives This study evaluated the effects of Crude Methanol Extract of Adansonia digitata Fruit Pulp on Naja nigricollis Venom-Induce Toxicity in Wistar rats. Methods A. digitata was extracted using 70% methanol and median lethal dose (LD50) of both the extract and venom were determined using the up-and-down method. Sixty Wistar rats were randomly assigned into 10 groups of 6 rats each and were administered with normal saline, venom only, venom + antivenom, 125 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg crude methanol extract (CME) pre-envenomation, 125 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg CME post-envenomation, and venom + antivenom + 250 mg/kg CME, respectively. Blood samples were collected 8-h post-envenomation in EDTA and plain sample bottles. Erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF) test was carried out on the EDTA blood samples while serum was harvested and used for Malondialdehyde (MDA) and Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) assays. Results LD50 of the CME and venom was >5,000 mg/kg and 0.889 mg/kg, respectively. N. nigricollis-induced oxidative stress was evident in group B through increased % haemolysis, MDA and lowered SOD activities. The groups treated with antivenom only, 250 mg/kg CME post-envenomation and antivenom +250 mg/kg CME significantly (p Conclusions The CME when administered singly showed more ameliorative properties and the combination of CME with antivenom for protection was not as effective as when compared to single administration.

Background Tsetse flies are cyclical vectors of African trypanosomiasis. They have established symbiotic associations with different bacteria, which influence certain aspects of their physiology. The vector competence of tsetse flies for different trypanosome species is highly variable and is suggested to be affected by various factors, amongst which are bacterial endosymbionts. Symbiotic interactions may provide an avenue for the disease control. The current study provided the prevalence of 3 tsetse symbionts in Glossina species from Cameroon, Chad and Nigeria.Results Tsetse flies were collected from five different locations and dissected. DNA was extracted and polymerase chain reaction PCR was used to detect the presence of Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma sp and Wolbachia using specific primers. A total of 848 tsetse samples were analysed: Glossina morsitans submorsitans (47.52%), Glossina palpalis palpalis (37.26%), Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (9.08%) and Glossina tachinoides (6.13%). Only 95 (11.20%) were infected with at least one of the 3 symbionts. Among the infected, 6 (6.31%) were carrying mixed infection (Wolbachia and Spiroplasma). The overall symbiont prevalence was 0.88%, 3.66% and 11.00% respectively, for Sodalis, Spiroplasma and Wolbachia. Prevalence varied between countries and tsetse species. No Spiroplasma was detected in samples from Cameroon and no Sodalis was found in samples from Nigeria.Conclusion The present study revealed for the first time, the presence of infection by Spiroplasma in tsetse in Chad and Nigeria. These findings provide useful information to the repertoire of bacterial flora of tsetse flies and incite to more investigations to understand their implication in the vector competence of tsetse flies.

Background: Adansonia digitata has been used as a traditional medicine to treat various diseases including snakebite envenomation. Objective: In this study, the protective and ameliorative potentials of crude methanol extract of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp against crude venom of Naja nigricollis in-vitro and in-vivo were investigated. Method: The dose-dependent inhibitory studies, pharmacological, histopathological and in vivo studies were conducted using standard methods. Result: The mean lethal dose of the crude methanolic extract of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp in Wistar rats was >5,000 mg/kg, while Naja nigricollis venom was 0.89 mg/kg. The anti-lethality effective concentration of the fruit pulp on Naja nigricollis venom was 92.52 mg/ml. Treatment significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited the activities of Naja nigricollis phospholipase A2 and dose-dependently reduced Naja nigricollis venom-induced paw oedema at 1-4 hours post-envenomation. In-vivo, treatment with 250 and 500 mg/kg of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp was protective against the clinical signs and mortality. Serum acetylcholinesterase activities were maintained in the group treated with normal saline and the ameliorative groups but decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in other groups. Brain acetylcholinesterase was high in all the groups by day 1 but was reduced with increasing dose by day 2 in the ameliorative groups only. Adansonia digitata fruit pulp also preserved the histoarchitecture of the brain, heart, liver and spleen from venom-induced pathologies. Conclusion: Crude methanolic extract of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp possesses good protective and ameliorative neutralization effects on Naja nigricollis venom and could be promising in the management of snakebite envenomation.

This study evaluated in vitro and in vivo antitrypanosomal effect of artesunate and/or diminazene aceturate in Wistar rats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei. In vitro screening was carried out in triplicates using 50 μl of 0.2, 2 and 20 μg/μl of artesunate as test drug; diminazene aceturate, normal saline and trypanosome-infected blood served as controls in a 96-well microtitre plate, incubated at 37˚C for 5 minutes. Efficacy was observed over a period of 60 minutes for reduced or complete trypanosomal immobilization. Results showed concentration-dependent cessation of trypanosomal motility was significantly (p < 0.001) induced by artesunate when compared to the controls. Seventy Wistar rats of both sexes weighing between 190 and 210 g were randomly divided into 7 groups (5 males and 5 females) are used for in vivo study. Groups I and II served as normal control and model control respectively. Groups III to VII were infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei (106 trypanosomes/ml) intraperitoneally. At peak parasitaemia (8 days post-infection), group III was treated with diminazene aceturate (3.5 mg/kg) intramuscularly once while groups IV, V, VI were treated with artesunate (200, 100, 50) mg/kg orally for 5 consecutive days and group VII was treated with combination of artesunate (50 mg/kg) orally and diminazene aceturate (1.75 mg/kg) intramuscularly for 5 days. Results indicated pre-patent period of 4 days and increase in levels of parasitaemia post-inoculation. PCV, Hb concentration, RBC count, MCV, MCHC and total leucocyte count decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between days 0and 8 in groups II to VII. Following treatment, significant increases (p < 0.05) were recorded except for groups II, IV, V and VI where the rats died. Thus, combination of artesunate (50 mg/kg) and half the standard dose of diminazene aceturate was able to reduce parasitaemia and ameliorate the anaemia elicited by the trypanosomes. Keywords: Artesunate, Diminazene Aceturate, Haematology, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Wistar rats

Povidone-iodine (Polidine) is a synthetic broad-spectrum antiseptic and being applied topically to treat wounds and prevent their infection. It is however used by poultry farmers, field veterinarians, and other animal health workers with the claim that it is effective for treatment of infectious bursal disease when administered orally. Hence, an acute oral toxicity study was conducted to ascertain its safety profile. Ten cockerel chicks were randomly selected and divided into 2 groups of 5 chicks per group. One group served as the negative control, whereas the other group was administered povidone-iodine at a dose of 2,000 mg/kg of BW orally. The blood sample was collected at the end of the study to determine changes in hematological and biochemical parameters. In addition, vital organs were also harvested and preserved for histopathological examinations. The result showed that the median lethal dose (LD50) of the povidone-iodine is higher than 2,000 mg/kg of BW in cockerels. There were no significant changes in the hematological parameters measured. Biochemical evaluation (renal and liver function test) showed an increase in aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase levels after administration of povidone-iodine. The study indicated that the LD50 of povidone-iodine is higher than 2,000 mg/kg of BW of cockerels, and there were increases in urinary and liver enzymes at this dose.

This study assessed the effects of artemether and in combination with diminazene aceturate on parasitaemia, weight, haematology and pathology induced by experimentally Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection in Wistar rats. Fifty adult rats comprising 25 each of males and females were assigned into 5 groups of ten rats (five males and five females). Rats in group I was uninfected while groups II-V were infected with T b brucei. Groups II were untreated; III administered diminazene aceturate once; IV and V administered artemether only and in combination with diminazene aceturate respectively for 5 days. Parasitaemia was determined daily, blood was collected for haematology and weight obtained every four days for a period of 32 days. At 24 days post-treatment, rats were humanely euthanized and organs harvested for pathological examination. Results revealed parasitaemia at day 4 post-infection, significant (p

African locust bean is a leguminous plant that is rich in nutrients and is used as food condiment. The traditional method of processing this food condiment is mostly unhygienic; consume a lot of fire wood, human energy and time. Using traditional methods for boiling 33.7Kg of locust bean would take about 12 hours. This study attempts to mechanize the existing traditional methods of boiling locust bean by designing, constructing, and evaluating electrically powered locust bean boiler. The boiler consists of three composite drums, each with a cylindrical upper part and conical lower part. The boiling chamber is made of 304 austenitic stainless steel which contains the heating elements. Fibre glass is lodged between the steel materials as an insulator. As power is supplied to the boiler, the elements convert the electrical energy to heat energy attaining the temperature of 200.7°C in 5 minutes. The machine has the capacity of boiling 33.7Kg of locust bean in 1 hour at 90°C. The cost of producing a unit is ₦20,207.5.

This study assessed the effects of artemether and in combination with diminazene aceturate on parasitaemia, weight, haematology and pathology induced by experimentally Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection in Wistar rats. Fifty adult rats comprising 25 each of males and females were assigned into 5 groups of ten rats (five males and five females). Rats in group I was uninfected while groups II-V were infected with T b brucei. Groups II were untreated; III administered diminazene aceturate once; IV and V administered artemether only and in combination with diminazene aceturate respectively for 5 days. Parasitaemia was determined daily, blood was collected for haematology and weight obtained every four days for a period of 32 days. At 24 days post-treatment, rats were humanely euthanized and organs harvested for pathological examination. Results revealed parasitaemia at day 4 post-infection, significant (p

Hypnosis is a state of mind that is characterized by focused attention and heightened receptivity for suggestions. It is either established by compliance with instructions or achieved naturally; the critical nature of the mind is bypassed during hypnosis and acceptable suggestions are delivered. Misperceptions about hypnosis by clinical practitioners and their clients have been shaped through years of inaccurate but interesting portrayals of hypnosis in books, plays, and movies. Part of the misperceptions is that individuals with seemingly magical powers to manipulate the unsuspecting innocent with their authoritative voice commands and penetrating eyes are depicted as hypnotists. This chapter will review the traditional and conventional approaches used in hypnosis, their advantages and disadvantages as well as where hypnosis is used as a complementary or alternative therapy to the modern day orthodox medicine. Despite the pejorative image display of hypnosis and misconceptions surrounding it, hypnosis still has numerous applications in contemporary medicine. Hypnotherapy conducted by a trained therapist is considered as a complementary or safe alternative to present day orthodox medication for numerous ailments.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Pastoralists in Nigeria mix barks of Anogeissus leiocarpus (AL) Khaya senegalensis (KS) and potash (Pt) to treat animal African trypanosomosis. Aim To evaluate antitrypanosomal potential of A. leiocarpus, K. senegalensis and potash for insights into the traditional claim of antitrypanosomal combination therapy (ATCT). Materials and methods Fifty microliter each of six different concentrations of AL, KS, Pt, AL + KS, AL + KS + Pt and diminazene aceturate (DA, positive control) was incubated with 50 μL of parasite-laden blood containing 108 Trypanosoma congolense cells in a 96-well microtitre plate. Negative control wells were devoid of the extracts and drug but supplemented with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Efficacy of treatment was observed at 1 h interval for complete immobilisation or reduced motility of the parasites. Each incubated mixture was inoculated into mouse at the point of complete immobilisation of parasite motility or at the end of 6-h observation period for concentrations that did not immobilise the parasites completely. For in vivo assessment, thirty-five parasitaemic rats were randomly allocated into seven groups of 5 rats each. Each rat in groups I–V was treated with 500 mg/kg of AL, KS, Pt, AL + KS and AL + KS + Pt, respectively, for 7 days. Rats in groups VI and VII were treated with diminazene aceturate 3.5 mg/kg once and PBS 2 mL/kg (7 days), which served as positive and negative controls, respectively. Daily monitoring of parasitaemia through the tail vein, packed cell volume and malondialdehyde were used to assess efficacy of the treatments. Results The AL + KS + Pt group significantly (p Conclusion The combination of A. leiocarpus and K. senegalensis showed better antitrypanosomal effects than single drug treatment and offers prospects for ATCT. Our findings support ethnopharmacological use of combined barks of A. leiocarpus and K. senegalensis by pastoralist in the treatment of animal African trypanosomosis in Nigeria.

Protozoan parasites of the Order Trypanosomatida infect a wide range of multicellular plants and animals, causing devastating and potentially fatal diseases. Trypanosomes are the most relevant members of the order in sub-Saharan Africa because of mortalities and morbidities caused to humans and livestock. There are growing concerns that trypanosomes are expanding their reservoirs among wild animals, which habours the parasites, withstand the infection, and from which tsetse flies transmit the parasites back to humans and livestock. This study was designed to investigate the potentials of the African hedgehog serving as reservoir for African animal trypanosomes. Five adult hedgehogs alongside five laboratory mice were intraperitoneally inoculated with 106 and 104 of Trypanosoma congolense cells, respectively, and monitored for parasitemia and survival. Serum from twenty hedgehogs was subjected to trypanocidal activity-guided fractionation by successive ion-exchange and gel-filtration chromatographies, followed by characterization with Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Hedgehogs were resistant to the infection as no parasite was detected and none died even after 60 days, while all the mice died within 12 days. Both the serum and plasma prepared from hedgehogs demonstrated trypanocidal activity- rapidly killed trypanosomes even when diluted 1000 times. The trypanolytic factor was identified to be proteinaceous with an estimated molecular weight of 115-kDa. For the first time, it is here demonstrated that hedgehog blood has significant trypanolytic activity against T. congolense. The potential application of the hedgehog protein for the breeding of trypanosomosis-resistant livestock in tsetse fly belt is discussed.

Background Tsetse flies are vectors of trypanosomes, parasites that cause devastating disease in humans and livestock. In the course of vector control programmes it is necessary to know about the Glossina species present in the study area, the population dynamics and the genetic exchange between tsetse fly populations. Results To achieve an overview of the tsetse fly diversity in Nigeria and at the Nigeria-Cameroon border, tsetse flies were trapped and collected between February and March 2014 and December 2016. Species diversity was determined morphologically and by analysis of Cytochrome C Oxidase SU1 (COI) gene sequences. Internal transcribed spacer-1 (ITS-1) sequences were compared to analyse variations within populations. The most dominant species were G. m. submorsitans, G. tachinoides and G. p. palpalis. In Yankari Game Reserve and Kainji Lake National Park, G. submorsitans and G. tachinoides were most frequent, whereas in Old Oyo National Park and Ijah Gwari G. p. palpalis was the dominant species. Interestingly, four unidentified species were recorded during the survey, for which no information on COI or ITS-1 sequences exists. G. p. palpalis populations showed a segregation in two clusters along the Cameroon-Nigerian border. Conclusions The improved understanding of the tsetse populations in Nigeria will support decisions on the scale in which vector control is likely to be more effective. In order to understand in more detail how isolated these populations are, it is recommended that further studies on gene flow be carried out using other markers, including microsatellites.

Background: Control of the trypanosomosis has been targeted towards vector control or by the use of antitrypanosomal drugs such as diminazene aceturate and isometamidium with reports of toxicity and relapse following treatment. Hence, the need for continuous research for a safe, efficacious and less toxic drug. In previous studies, artemisinin has shown antitrypanosomal effects against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and also against Trypanosoma brucei brucei (T. b. brucei) in vitro. This period of drug repurposing has led to scientists searching for ways of utilising artemisinin because of its reported multifunctionality and ability to mediate several targets that are important for different diseases. Purpose: To evaluate the in vivo effects of artemisinin against T. b. brucei following the in vitro assay. Methods: Previously to perform the in vivo assays, the in vitro effects of artemisinin on the T. b. brucei trypomastigotes growth were assessed. The in vivo effects were tested on Wistar rats at doses 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, respectively. All Wistar rats were euthanised at the end of the experiment; kidney, lung, liver and brain samples were harvested and processed for histopathological examination. Results: Complete cessation (p < 0.001) of trypanosomal motility in vitro by 2 and 20 µg/µl artemisinin between 10 to 60 min was observed when compared to the controls. Artemisinin showed an IC50 value of 0.42 µg/µl while the positive control drug diminazene aceturate displayed a lower activity with IC50 of 2.99 µg/µl. Level of parasitaemia and survival rate showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in treated groups compared to group II (Infected and untreated). Mean packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in all infected groups and returned to almost pre-infection values following treatment. Histopathological evaluation showed artemisinin to prevent the distortion of normal architecture of the selected organs. Conclusions: In vitro, artemisinin produced a complete inhibition of T. b. brucei motility at 2 and 20 µg/µl. In vivo, artemisinin at 5 and 10 mg/kg prevented histoarchitecture damage of selected organs and caused an elevated haematological profile.

Due to the shortcomings associated with modern synthetic antidiarrhoeal drugs, it is important to find newer, safer and cheaper antidiarrhoeal agents from natural sources. The study was conducted to evaluate the anti-diarrhoeal activity of the fractions of the stem-bark of Terminalia avicennioides in laboratory animal models. The effect of different concentrations (1.0 × 10−3, 2.0 × 10−3, 4.0 × 10−3 and 8.0 × 10−3 mg/mL) of the aqueous methanol (AMF), ethyl acetate (EAF) and hexane (HXF) fractions of T. avicennioides were tested against spontaneous and acetylcholine-induced contractions of rabbit jejunum as well as on histamine-induced contraction of guinea pig ileum. Similarly, the effects of the AMF on gastro-intestinal transit time, castor oil-induced diarrhoea and castor oil-induced enteropooling were evaluated. The AMF, EAF and HXF at concentrations of 1.0 × 10−3, 2.0 × 10−3, 4.0 × 10−3 and 8.0 × 10−3 mg/mL attenuated the contractile effects of both the spontaneous and acetylcholine-induced contractions of rabbit jejunum and that of histamine-induced contraction of guinea pig ileum in a concentration-dependent manner. The AMF at doses of 200, 300 and 500 mg/kg produced significant (p

Aim: This study was designed to evaluate the anthelmintic activity of the stem-barks of Cassia occidentalis and Guiera senegalensis which are used traditionally to treat gastrointestinal helminth infections in goat. Materials and Methods: Phytochemical analysis using standard techniques was used to detect secondary metabolites contained in the plants. In vitro anthelmintic activity of the crude methanol extracts of the plants was determined using egg hatch inhibition test (EHIT) and larval development inhibition assay (LDIA). Results: The extracts of C. occidentalis and G. senegalensis inhibited hatching of eggs and larval development of Haemonchus contortus in a concentration-dependent manner. At concentrations of 0.1, 1, 10 and 100 mg/ml, the extract of C. occidentalis produced significant (p < 0.05) inhibition of egg hatching of H. contortus eggs when compared with the untreated (distilled water) control group. C. occidentalis inhibited, by up to 86%, the larval development of H. contortus. Similarly, the extract of G. senegalensis at concentrations of 10 and 100 mg/ml produced significant (p < 0.05) inhibition of egg hatching of H. contortus eggs and inhibited larval development by up to 85% of the parasite. C. occidentalis (EC50 = 4.23 mg/ml) was found to be more efficacious than G. senegalensis (EC50 = 88.24 mg/ml) against H. contortus eggs. However, G. senegalensis (EC50 = 0.0012 mg/ml) was more effective than C. occidentalis (EC50 = 0.11 mg/ml) against the larvae of H. contortus. Conclusion: The crude methanol extracts of C. occidentalis and G. senegalensis possess in vitro anthelmintic activity against H. contortus that requires detailed in vivo pharmacological and toxicological trials to justify their use in clinical veterinary practice.

Due to the shortcomings associated with modern synthetic antidiarrhoeal drugs, it is important to find newer, safer and cheaper antidiarrhoeal agents from natural sources. The study was conducted to evaluate the anti-diarrhoeal activity of the fractions of the stem-bark of

Methanol extracts from twenty three plants harvested from the Savannah vegetation belt of Nigeria were analyzed in vitro for trypanocidal activity against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma congolense at concentrations of 4 mg/ml, 0.4 mg/ml and 0.04 mg/ml. Extracts of Khaya senegalensis, Piliostigma reticulatum, Securidaca longepedunculata and Terminalia avicennoides were strongly trypanocidal to both organisms while extracts of Anchomanes difformis, Cassytha spp, Lannea kerstingii, Parkia clappertioniana, Striga spp, Adansonia digitata and Prosopis africana were trypanocidal to either T. brucei brucei or T. congolense. These findings provide evidence of the effects of some plants in the traditional management of trypanosomiasis. Key words: Savannah, medicinal plants, trypanocidal effects, trypanosomiasis, trypanosome, in vitro model. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol.2(9) 2003: 317-321

The efficacy of stem-bark extracts of Securidaca longipedunculata against Trypanosoma brucei brucei infected rats was investigated. For curative study, forty adult Wistar rats of both sexes were randomly divided into 8 groups of 5 rats each. Each rat was infected with 10 6 cells of trypanosomes per ml of blood intraperitoneally (ip). Rats in groups 1 and 2 received the crude methanol extract (CME) at 0.7 and 0.35 mg/kg, respectively. Similarly, rats in groups 3 and 4 received ethyl acetate fraction (EAF) at 0.7 and 0.35 mg/kg, respectively; while 5 and 6 were treated with 0.9 and 0.45 mg/kg of aqueous methanol fraction (AMF), respectively. Rats in groups 7 and 8 were treated with diminazene aceturate (3.5 mg/kg) and phosphate buffered saline, PBS (2 ml/kg), respectively. Four rats (group 9) were neither infected nor treated and served as neutral control. In the prophylactic studies, 25 rats of both sexes were randomly divided into V groups of 5 rats each. Rats in groups I, II, and III were pre-treated with CME at 0.7 mg/kg i.p. for 3, 5 and 7 days, respectively; while group IV received PBS for 7 days and served as negative control. The rats were then individually infected with 10 6 parasites per ml of blood on days 3, 5 and 7 for groups I, II and III, respectively. Rats in group V were neither treated nor infected and served as neutral control. CME of S. longipedunculata suppressed level of parasitaemia and prolonged the survival period of rats when compared to other groups (P

Keynote Lecture

Baseline and impact assessment data were generated in 1994 (n=532) and 2011 (n=593) from 6 sentinel villages with generalized onchocerciasis. Only volunteers and a cohort (n=445,75%) were screened at both visits. Each village had received 11 (64.7%) annual treatments and 92.6%, range 88.7–100%, treatment compliance. Overall mean number of treatment was 2.9 ± 1.6 with a range 2.0 ± 1.2–3.3 ± 0.6. Significant decreases in skin microfilaria prevalence from 201 (38%) to 0 (0%), palpable nodule from 77 (15%) to 4 (0.7%), dermal changes from 51 (9.6%) to 2 (0.04%), optic nerve disease from 24 (4.5%) to 4 (2.0%), and onchocercal inducible ocular lesions from 31 (5.8%) to 12 (2.0%) were recorded, P<0.05, (t-test of unpaired data). Cases of glaucoma, 8 (1.4%), and blindness, 6 (1.05%), remained unchanged. Visual acuity ≥6/24 in one or both eyes, 198 (33.45%); cataract, 169 (28.5%); pterygium 157 (26.5%); and acute senilis, 165 (27.9%), were significantly increased and positively correlated with increase in age (R2=0.898−0.949). Dissected parous Simulium damnosum caught (n=222) were without infective third stage larva. Active onchocerciasis transmission seems halted despite varied compliance to long-term ivermectin treatment. We recommend continued surveillance and targeted treatment of controlled and hypoendemic areas.

The frequency of trypanosomes resistant to diminazene aceturate at a dose of 25 mg/kg of body weight was investigated for populations of Trypanosoma congolense IL 3274 which reappeared in infected mice after intraperitoneal treatment with diminazene aceturate at the same dosage. At inoculum sizes of 10(2), 10(3), 10(4), 10(5), and 10(6) trypanosomes per mouse, the relapse populations were used to initiate infections in five groups of 100 mice each by the intravenous route. Immediately after infection, 50 mice in each group were treated intraperitoneally with diminazene aceturate at the aforementioned dosage; the other 50 mice functioned as untreated controls. Thereafter, all animals were monitored for 100 days for the presence of trypanosomes. In each group, trypanosomes were detected in 50 of 50 control mice, indicating 100% infectivity for all five inoculum sizes. In contrast, in the groups of 50 mice infected with 10(2), 10(3), 10(4), 10(5) and 10(6) trypanosomes and treated with diminazene aceturate, trypanosomes were detected in 4, 11, 13, 28, and 39 of 50 mice, respectively. By logistic regression, a good fit was found between the number of mice identified as parasitemic and the inoculum sizes. Maximum likelihood estimates for the proportions of trypanosomes resistant to diminazene aceturate at 25 mg/kg of body weight for the inoculum of 10(2), 10(3), 10(4), 10(5), and 10(6) organisms were 8.335 x 10(-4), 2.485 x 10(-4), 3.02 x 10(-5), 8.3 x 10(-6), and 1.6 x 10(-6), respectively. These finding indicate that the majority of the relapse trypanosomes were susceptible the the drug dosage used for selecting the population and that, surprisingly, the calculated proportion of organisms which survived drug exposure varied inversely with the inoculum size. Further experiments with mice indicated that the inverse relationship did not result from alterations in the pharmacokinetics of the drug with different inoculum sizes. The data therefore suggest that parasite inoculum size and drug dosage are important factors in estimating the apparent frequency of diminazene-resistant trypanosomes in populations of T. congolense occurring in vivo.

In vitro and in vivo anti-trypanosomal effects as well as reagent-based chemical screening of the aqueous and methanolic extracts of the roots, leaves and stem bark of Terminalia avicennioides were undertaken. In vitro , cessation or drop in the parasite motility, compared to the control, was taken as a measure of the anti-trypanasomal efficacy of the extracts following incubation of the parasite, Trypanosoma brucei brucei , with different extract concentrations ( 0, 5, 10 and 20 mg/ml) in 96-well micro titre plate. In vivo, groups of infected white albino rats were treated with 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg and the effect of treatment on parasitemia , packed cell volume (PCV) and lifespan were monitored. The root and stem bark extracts completely immobilized trypanosomes within 30 minutes of incubation at 20 mg/ml concentration, with the aqueous root extract displaying the highest activity, and the methanol extract of the leaf, the least. This effect compared favorably with that of the standard drug, diminazine aceturate. In vivo , significant (P

The pharmacokinetics of diminazene in five female Boran (Bos indicus) cattle before and then during acute and chronic phases of experimental infections with Trypanosoma congolense were investigated. A 7.0% (wt/vol) solution of diminazene aceturate (Berenil) was used in all three phases of the study and administered as a single intramuscular dose of 3.5 mg of diminazene base per kg of body weight. There were no significant differences between the values of pharmacokinetic parameters for the noninfected cattle and the values for cattle with a chronic T. congolense infection. However, the maximum concentration of the drug in plasma during the acute phase of infection (8.25 +/- 1.72 micrograms/ml) was significantly (P < 0.01) greater than that during chronic infection (5.04 +/- 0.26 micrograms/ml) and that in the noninfected state (4.76 +/- 0.76 micrograms/ml). Similarly, the time to maximum concentration of the drug in plasma when diminazene was administered during the acute phase of infection (18.00 +/- 6.71 min) was significantly (P < 0.02) shorter than that for noninfected cattle (36.00 +/- 8.22 min) and that during chronic infection (33.75 +/- 7.50 min). The volume of distribution at steady state during acute infection (1.01 +/- 0.31 liter/kg) was significantly (P < 0.01) smaller than that in the noninfected state (1.37 +/- 0.17 liter/kg) and that in chronic infection (1.51 +/- 0.24 liter/kg). Eight hours after the drug had been administered, the concentration-time data profiles for each of the three study phases were very similar. Mean concentrations of diminazene in plasma 48 h after administration of the drug were 0.43 +/- 0.07 microgram/ml in noninfected cattle, 0.43 +/- 0.11 microgram/ml during the acute phase of trypanosome infection, and 0.44 +/- 0.09 microgram/ml during the chronic phase of the infection. Results of the present study indicate that the area under the concentration-time curve for diminazene in trypanosome-infected cattle did not differ significantly for noninfected cattle. It, therefore, appears that the total amount of diminazene attained and maintained in the plasma of cattle is not significantly altered during infection with T. congolense.

Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich (X. aethiopica; Annonaceae) is used commonly in Nigeria by traditional herbalists and pastoralists to control gastrointestinal helminth parasites. The anthelmintic effect of the crude methanol extract was evaluated in rats experimentally infected with the rat hookworm Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. Thirtyfive rats were each infected subcutaneously with 200 third stage infective larvae of the parasite and randomly grouped into seven groups. Five days after infection, rats in siof the groups were treated with the extract, the dose varying per group. Rats in the seventh (control) group were each given propylene glycol. Anthelmintic activity was assessed by comparing the number of worms recovered from treated rats to those from non-treated infected control rats. The extract at the dose of 0.8 g/kg, 1.0 g/kg, 1.2 g/kg, 1.4 g/kg, 1.7 g/kg and 2.0 g/kg produced deparasitization rates of 21%, 47%, 51%, 50%, 63% and 76% and were signifi cant (P>0.05) when compared to untreated control rats., Travari i stočari u Nigeriji tradicionalno koriste biljku Xylopia aethiopica protiv želučano crijevnih helminata. Anthelmintički učinak nepročišćenog metanolskog iscrpka istražen je na pokusno invadiranim štakorima oblićem Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. Ukupno 35 štakora podijeljeno je u sedam skupina. Svi štakori supkutano su invadirani s 200 invazijskih ličinki trećeg stupnja. Pet dana nakon invazije, štakorima iz svih šest skupina apliciran je iscrpak u različitim dozama. Štakorima sedme skupine primijenjen je propilen glikol. Učinkovitost je određena uspoređivanjem broja parazita u liječenih i neliječenih štakora. Značajna (P

Experiments were carried out in goats to determine the frequency with which diminazene-resistant trypanosomes occur in parasite populations before and after the intramuscular treatment of the goats with diminazene aceturate. Trypanosoma congolense IL 3274, a diminazene-resistant clone, was used to initiate infections in three groups of five goats. The goats in the first group were treated with diminazene aceturate at a dose of 7·0 mg kg−1 bodyweight within 10 seconds of infection; one of the goats was cured. All of the second group, which received no treatment, became parasitaernic. The third group of goats received the same dose of drug as the first group but three days after all of them were first detected parasitaemie; trypanosomes reappeared in all the five goats. When this third group was treated, the frequency of trypanosomes resistant to the drug dosage was estimated to be less than 1 in 103. The parasites which reappeared after the treatment of these animals were used to infect two additional groups of five goats intravenously. The goats in one group were treated with the same dose of drug as before, within 10 seconds of infection and were all cured. In contrast, the five goats in the second, untreated, group became parasitaemic. Finally, when the goats in which the infections had relapsed were retreated with diminazene aceturate at the same dose rate, the level of parasitaemia temporarily decreased by at least 103 trypanosomes ml−1. These findings suggest that diminazene-resistant T congolense occur at low levels in trypanosome populations despite attempts to select for a population resistant to the dose of drug used.

A technique has been developed for repeated sampling of cerebrospinal fluid from conscious goats by means of a catheter placed surgically in the subarachnoid space between the sixth and seventh lumbar vertebrae. Uncontaminated cerebrospinal fluid in excess of 1.0 ml could be obtained readily from the cannulated goats several times daily for up to 6 weeks. Cannulated goats did not appear stressed during, and in between, sampling periods.

Diminazene aceturate is one of a limited number of compounds currently marketed for treatment of trypanosomiasis in cattle, sheep and goats. The pharmacokinetics of the compound in goats suggest that double treatment with diminazene aceturate might enhance the compound's therapeutic activity. A study was therefore conducted in goats using two clones of Trypanosoma congolense, IL 3274 and IL 1180, which were previously shown to be resistant and sensitive, respectively, to single treatment with diminazene aceturate. The results indicated that, as compared to single treatment, double treatment with diminazene aceturate at a dose of 7.2 mg kg-1 bodyweight, at either eight or 24 hour intervals, did not greatly enhance the therapeutic activity of the drug. Furthermore, treatment with the same drug dose eliminated infections with T congolense IL 3274 when treatment was administered 24 hours after infected Glossina morsitans centralis had fed, but failed to do so if treatment was delayed until after goats were detected to be parasitaemic. This suggests that failure of T congolense IL 3274 to respond to treatment with diminazene may not be due to drug resistance per se.

The chapter discusses the meaning and origin of some important classes of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, and phenolic compounds, etc., produced by some bacteria, fungi, or plants. Very important drugs that are used clinically are derived from these secondary metabolites. Several reports obtained in scientific journals and books written by different scientists working or who have worked in the fields of natural products medicine were reviewed. These different classes of secondary metabolites have shown activity against varied diseases, and compounds that are of novel structure and activity have been isolated and characterized from them. The chapter highlights the economic impacts of these chemical compounds including their role in improving human and animal health and well-being by serving as sources of some antibiotics, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antifertility, antidiabetics, analgesics, growth promoters, etc. Secondary metabolites are also used to enhance agricultural productivity, they find uses as pesticides, insecticides, and preservatives. Some folkloric uses of secondary metabolites chemical compounds based on reliable sources of information and genuine scientific investigations are highlighted.

Hypnosis is a state of mind that is characterized by focused attention and heightened receptivity for suggestions. It is either established by compliance with instructions or achieved naturally; the critical nature of the mind is bypassed during hypnosis and acceptable suggestions are delivered. Misperceptions about hypnosis by clinical practitioners and their clients have been shaped through years of inaccurate but interesting portrayals of hypnosis in books, plays, and movies. Part of the misperceptions is that individuals with seemingly magical powers to manipulate the unsuspecting innocent with their authoritative voice commands and penetrating eyes are depicted as hypnotists. This chapter will review the traditional and conventional approaches used in hypnosis, their advantages and disadvantages as well as where hypnosis is used as a complementary or alternative therapy to the modern day orthodox medicine. Despite the pejorative image display of hypnosis and misconceptions surrounding it, hypnosis still has numerous applications in contemporary medicine. Hypnotherapy conducted by a trained therapist is considered as a complementary or safe alternative to present day orthodox medication for numerous ailments.