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Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are blood cells that are a critical part of the immune system used to fight off infection. However, due to the complexity of PBMCs, which contain multiple different cell types, studying the function of the individual cell types can be difficult, and often studies rely on bulk measurements. Here, we describe the analysis of PBMCs using single-cell RNA-sequencing in droplets. Data from these studies allow for the identification and quantification of the subpopulation of cells that make up the PBMC sample. In addition, differential gene expression between cell types and samples can be assessed.

Type 2 diabetes is associated with obesity, insulin resistance and β-cell failure. Therapeutic aims are to reduce adiposity, improve insulin sensitivity and enhance β-cell function. However, it has been proposed that chronically increasing insulin release leads to β-cell exhaustion and failure. We previously developed mice to have increased activity of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), specifically in β-cells (β-caPKA mice). β-caPKA mice have enhanced acute phase insulin release, which is the primary determinant of the efficacy of glucose clearance. Here these mice were used to determine the sustainability of enhanced insulin secretion, and to characterize peripheral effects of enhanced β-cell function. Increased PKA activity was induced by tamoxifen administration at 10 weeks of age. Male mice were aged to 12 months of age and female mice to 16 months. Glucose control in both male and female β-caPKA mice was significantly improved relative to littermate controls with ad libitum feeding, upon refeeding after fasting, and in glucose tolerance tests. In female mice insulin release was both greater and more rapid than in controls. Female mice were more insulin sensitive than controls. Male and female β-caPKA mice had lower body weights than controls. DEXA analysis of male mice revealed that this was due to reduced adiposity and not due to changes in lean body mass. This study indicates that targeting β-cells to enhance insulin release is sustainable, maintains insulin sensitivity and reduces body weight. These data identify β-cell PKA activity as a novel target for obesity therapies.

A variety of signals finely tune insulin secretion by pancreatic β cells to prevent both hyper-and hypoglycemic states. Here, we show that post-translational regulation of the transcription factors ETV1, ETV4, and ETV5 by the ubiquitin ligase COP1 (also called RFWD2) in β cells is critical for insulin secretion. Mice lacking COP1 in β cells developed diabetes due to insulin granule docking defects that were fully rescued by genetic deletion of Etv1, Etv4, and Etv5. Genes regulated by ETV1, ETV4, or ETV5 in the absence of mouse COP1 were enriched in human diabetes-associated genes, suggesting that they also influence human β-cell pathophysiology. In normal β cells, ETV4 was stabilized upon membrane depolarization and limited insulin secretion under hyperglycemic conditions. Collectively, our data reveal that ETVs negatively regulate insulin secretion for the maintenance of normoglycemia., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Diabetes arises from insufficient insulin secretion and failure of the β-cell mass to persist and expand. These deficits can be treated with ligands to Gs-coupled G-protein-coupled receptors that raise β-cell cAMP. Here we studied the therapeutic potential of β-cell cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) activity in restoring glucose control using β-caPKA mice. PKA activity enhanced the acute insulin response (AIR) to glucose, which is a primary determinant of the efficacy of glucose clearance. Enhanced AIR improved peripheral insulin action, leading to more rapid muscle glucose uptake. In the setting of pre-established glucose intolerance caused by diet-induced insulin resistance or streptozotocin-mediated β-cell mass depletion, PKA activation enhanced β-cell secretory function to restore glucose control, primarily through augmentation of the AIR. Enhanced AIR and improved glucose control were maintained through 16 weeks of a high-fat diet and aging to 1 year. Importantly, improved glucose tolerance did not increase the risk for hypoglycemia, nor did it rely upon hyperinsulinemia or β-cell hyperplasia, although PKA activity was protective for β-cell mass. These data highlight that improving β-cell function through the activation of PKA has a large and underappreciated capacity to restore glucose control with minimal risk for adverse side effects., (© 2015 by the American Diabetes Association. Readers may use this article as long as the work is properly cited, the use is educational and not for profit, and the work is not altered.)

Acute insulin secretion determines the efficiency of glucose clearance. Moreover, impaired acute insulin release is characteristic of reduced glucose control in the prediabetic state. Incretin hormones, which increase β-cell cAMP, restore acute-phase insulin secretion and improve glucose control. To determine the physiological role of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), a mouse model was developed to increase PKA activity specifically in the pancreatic β-cells. In response to sustained hyperglycemia, PKA activity potentiated both acute and sustained insulin release. In contrast, a glucose bolus enhanced acute-phase insulin secretion alone. Acute-phase insulin secretion was increased 3.5-fold, reducing circulating glucose to 58% of levels in controls. Exendin-4 increased acute-phase insulin release to a similar degree as PKA activation. However, incretins did not augment the effects of PKA on acute-phase insulin secretion, consistent with incretins acting primarily via PKA to potentiate acute-phase insulin secretion. Intracellular calcium signaling was unaffected by PKA activation, suggesting that the effects of PKA on acute-phase insulin secretion are mediated by the phosphorylation of proteins involved in β-cell exocytosis. Thus, β-cell PKA activity transduces the cAMP signal to dramatically increase acute-phase insulin secretion, thereby enhancing the efficiency of insulin to control circulating glucose.

The octadecyloxyethyl (ODE) and hexadecyloxypropyl (HDP) esters of (S)-9-[3-hydroxy-2-(phosphonomethoxy)propyl]adenine (HPMPA) are potent inhibitors of orthopoxvirus, herpesvirus, human immunodeficiency virus type 1, and hepatitis B virus replication in vitro. HDP and ODE esters of (S)-HPMPA and (R)-HPMPA were evaluated for their activity in hepatitis C virus (HCV) replicon assays using luciferase (1B and 2A replicons) or RNA (1B) quantification. The ODE ester of (S)-HPMPA [ODE-(S)-HPMPA] was the most active compound, with 50% effective concentrations (EC(50)s) in the 0.69 to 1.31 microM range. HDP and ODE esters of (R)-HPMPA were severalfold less active, while (S)-HPMPA and (R)-HPMPA were inactive. In genotype 1A and 1B replicons analyzed by HCV RNA analysis, ODE-(S)-HPMPA was the most active compound, with EC(50)s of 1.8 and 2.1 microM, respectively.

Rapid emergence of resistance to monotherapy with virus-specific inhibitors necessitates combination therapy. ACH-806 is a hepatitis C virus NS4A inhibitor with a novel mechanism of action and resistance pathway. This compound was synergistic with NS3 protease inhibitors and NS5B nucleoside and nonnucleoside polymerase inhibitors.

Small molecular inhibitors of hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication provide remarkable potency, but the rapid selection of resistance mutations will require that these agents be used in combination for clinical treatment. Using a model HCV replicon system, we have extended prior in vitro studies of double combinations of candidate small molecular inhibitors to studies evaluating the simultaneous use of 3 agents. This was done in an effort to anticipate conditions that might ultimately be required clinically. We formally demonstrate synergistic antiviral activity with 3-drug combinations in this model, further supporting the concept of clinical investigations of combination therapy for HCV infection.

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a significant worldwide health problem with limited therapeutic options. A number of novel, small molecular inhibitors of HCV replication are now entering early clinical trials in humans. Resistance to small molecular inhibitors is likely to be a significant hurdle to their use in patients. A systematic assessment of combinations of interferon and/or novel anti-hepatitis C virus agents from several different mechanistic classes was performed in vitro. Combinations of inhibitors with different mechanisms of action consistently demonstrated more synergy than did compounds with similar mechanisms of action. These results suggest that combinations of inhibitors with different mechanisms of action should be prioritized for assessment in clinical trials for chronic hepatitis C virus infection.