Search

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to gain a better understanding of how small technology start‐ups learn about a key customer in the context of B2B relationships, and to propose a model of interfirm learning with customers.Design/methodology/approachUsing a qualitative case‐based approach, the authors immerse themselves in the development of three learning alliances between technology startups and industry leaders, two successes and one failure, to gain an in‐depth understanding of the dynamics involved. Data were collected on both sides of the alliance dyad.FindingsThe paper delineates four learning cycles: alliance inception, joint‐learning, specialization and discovery. These learning cycles constitute sequences of increasing understanding, cooperation, and higher order learning between the partners; evolving from an exchange of existing knowledge to the joint development of new knowledge.Originality/valueThis study contributes to an integration of the alliance and marketing literatures by offering empirical evidence of a different type of alliance, namely the reciprocal learning alliance. It also contributes to broadening our understanding of market orientation in inter‐organizational settings. In the context of business‐to‐business relationships, the study has identified four critical dimensions of learning alliance success, and proposed how they could be measured: Learn about customers; Interact with customers; Customer‐specific investments; and Co‐develop breakthrough innovations. Finally, the study demonstrates the significant role played by “committed champions”.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the 29 years of research published in International Marketing Review (IMR) since its inception.Design/methodology/approachA brief editorial history of the journal is chronicled, and its output is discussed. Special attention is focused upon journal content, authorship analysis, and methodological issues.FindingsThe authors find: IMR publishes articles that often focus on export and global marketing, with consumer behavior and branding being the fastest growing content areas; IMR's frequent contributors consist of world renowned experts in international marketing and business and have become more diverse; and the authors of IMR use a wide variety of data collection and analysis methods.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors conclude that IMR exhibits the characteristics of a mature and leading journal in the field of international business. To assist IMR in maintaining its significant impact on marketing scholarship, the paper outlines some possible directions for the future.Originality/valueThis article analyzes the 29 years of research published in International Marketing Review (IMR) since its inception. To assist IMR in maintaining its significant impact on marketing scholarship, it also outlines some possible directions for the future.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to address the issue of the implementation of international advertising strategies by first introducing a framework of four options that multinational enterprises (MNEs) can use to implement such strategies and second by drawing on contingency theory to develop and test hypotheses relating to how environmental factors and company characteristics affect such implementation.Design/methodology/approachHypotheses are tested using web‐survey data obtained from 182 Latin American managers based in the Mercosur trading bloc.FindingsFindings show that the choice of implementation process option is contingent on the environmental factor, cultural homogeneity and the company characteristics subsidiary size and MNE country‐of‐origin, yet not on regional economic integration.Research limitations/implicationsThis exploratory study contributes to advertising theory by offering an alternative approach to the consideration of the international advertising standardization question that focuses on the implementation of strategies rather than on their development. The findings further confirm the theory of regional multinationals in the context of international advertising decisions.Practical implicationsThe study presents practitioners with four distinct approaches to implementing their international advertising strategies as well as with clear guidelines as to how managers should implement those strategies depending on the specific benefits of standardization they want to achieve.Originality/valueTo the knowledge of the authors, this study is the first to specifically address the implementation of international advertising strategies.

Asymmetric alliances, those between small technology ventures and large industry players, defy established wisdom regarding the positive relationship between alliance partner similarities and alliance performance. What can we learn from these increasingly prevalent alliance forms to inform and extend alliance theory and practice? To help answer this question, this paper reports on the qualitative study of three asymmetric alliances, one failure and two successes, identifies key conceptual differences between symmetric and asymmetric alliances not addressed in the literature to date, suggests research opportunities and makes recommendations on how technology entrepreneurs can manage their relationship with large partners.

Purpose – First, this paper aims to uncover how much marketing research based on data gathered in Latin America has been published in high quality business and marketing academic journals over the past decade. Second, it seeks to present recommendations on best practice in conducting and publishing such research derived from a Delphi study of authors who succeeded in doing so.Design/methodology/approach – The paper undertakes a systematic review of the literature to identify the relevant published papers coupled with a Delphi study of the authors of those papers.Findings – Over the last decade only 22 papers were published in high quality journals in the marketing area based on data gathered in Latin America. The reasons for this scarcity explored in the Delphi study derive both from the way in which high quality journals operate as well as from how authors conducting research in that area of the world design their studies and subsequently present them in manuscripts submitted to journals. Key recommendat...

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to establish a framework for clarifying and extending the concept of inter‐firm market orientation (IMO) and to complement the relatively small body of literature related to this concept.Design/methodology/approachThe conceptual framework is informed by empirical research based on a longitudinal multi‐case study.FindingsThis research identifies a nexus linking IMO with value creation in inter‐firm partnerships. The findings also suggest that IMO has an impact on companies' performance in terms of knowledge transfer, innovation and market access.Research limitations/implicationsIMO contributes to value creation processes in the context of strategic networks.Originality/valueA discussion of these findings, together with implications for practice and proposals for further research, is provided.

This paper is a response to calls for more research into the regional–as opposed to global–level of international business operations (Rugman and Verbeke, 2004). Focusing on a key issue in international management, the standardization decision, this paper presents a systematic review of top journal articles published over the last five decades on the subject of advertising standardization at the regional level. The results of this review demonstrate that in the last decade studies have frequently taken a regional rather than international focus of analysis, suggesting a shift in research in line with regionalization theory. However, this study also shows that research on regional standardization has lacked consistency in relation to how the phenomenon should be defined and measured. We present a conceptualization of measurement approaches to international advertising standardization, propose a typology of approaches and discuss their implications for knowledge advancement in the area.

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the effects of compatible characteristics between parent firms on the extent to which international joint ventures (IJVs) acquire marketing knowledge. Compatible organisational characteristics are a particularly important component for absorptive capacity in that it may play a pivotal role in extending the prior relevant knowledge base and promoting a favourable learning environment. A series of hypotheses based on the literature is tested, which suggests that: there is a close association between IJV size and the level of knowledge acquisition, and compatible characteristics between parents positively influence marketing knowledge acquisition in IJVs.Design/methodology/approachThe data were obtained by a survey. Questionnaires were posted to the CEOs of IJVs in Korea. A total of 688 questionnaires were sent out and 128 were returned, giving a response rate of 18.6 per cent.FindingsThe paper finds that the marginal differences in mean values indicate that firm size does not significantly influence the extent of knowledge acquisition in IJVs. A series of regression analyses was undertaken and it was found that the impact of compatible organisational culture on knowledge acquisition was positive and significant.Research limitations/implicationsThere are some limitations to the study. First, the data used were collected from only one country. Second, only marketing skills were considered, leaving aside other important types of knowledge that can contribute to IJV operations. Third, the measurement used for the acquisition of marketing knowledge has some drawbacks, in that it is based on the perceptual judgements of key managers, without employing objective measurements. In addition, the relatively low response rate and the low number of responses from large firms are clearly further limitations.Practical implicationsThe findings suggest that compatible culture should be a crucial partner selection criterion for both local and foreign firms.Originality/valueVery few studies have analysed small and medium‐sized IJVs, and fewer have focused on marketing knowledge acquisition particularly in a dynamically energetic environment (South Korea in this case). The paper also contributes to the current literature by confirming the positive relationship between compatible organisational culture and marketing knowledge acquisition.

The status and understanding of marketing in the USSR and post-Soviet Russia are tracked over a 40-year period, making extensive use of Russian-language sources. In the late Soviet period marketing is seen as a Western business system that was not applicable to an economy based on extreme centralisation and state-inspired conditions of shortage. With the collapse of communism, marketing is variously seen as still not quite suitable for Russian conditions, as a sales support activity or as a branch of public relations. At the same time great confusion arises over the nature of marketing owing to the problems of converting Western marketing terms into Russian, for which there are often no equivalents. Translations of Western marketing textbooks reveal translators' unabated struggles with marketing terminology and the unsatisfactory results. Literal translations, where possible, or direct transliteration into Russian merely add to the confusion. It is argued that this state of affairs is symptomatic of a wid...

In this paper, we investigate the influence of the foreign firm, through its interaction with the local partner, on the extent to which international joint ventures (IJVs) acquire knowledge and reach a higher level of performance. Based on the literature, we posit and test the proposition that there is a positive relationship between IJVs’ knowledge acquisition from foreign firms and their performance. To date, very few studies exist on IJVs in Korea, and fewer still examine the relationship between management knowledge acquired from foreign parents and IJVs’ performance. Using a sample of IJVs in Korea, this paper contributes to the literature, firstly by examining and confirming the positive relationship between managerial knowledge acquisition from foreign parents and IJV performance; and secondly, by testing for the extent of foreign firm support, and the relationship between parents with respect to both managerial knowledge acquisition and performance. This study extends knowledge on IJV knowledge acquisition and performance, more specifically in the Korean context.

PurposeThis paper's objectives are firstly to systematically analyse patterns of research in international advertising standardisation (IAS) conducted among managers and secondly to suggest fruitful paths for future research in this area.Design/methodology/approachContent analysis of academic papers published in major marketing, advertising and international business journals.FindingsResults show that overall future research would benefit from a unified definition of and measurement procedures for advertising standardisation as only these can ensure the advancement of knowledge in the field. Additionally, more research is needed in order to further explore process issues in advertising standardisation, especially a newly proposed perspective related to the implementation process of the standardisation decision. Finally, an interesting avenue for future research relates to the study of the subjectivity involved in the standardisation decision.Research limitations/implicationsAs with all literature reviews, this paper is limited to analysing works in a selection of the top academic journals in the field. However, a careful choice of the most important journals has been made, providing a good reflection of knowledge in the area.Originality/valueThis paper appears to be the first literature review focusing on manager studies in the field of IAS.

PurposeThe aim of this study is, first, to explore the moderating effects of parent control on the strategic objectives of foreign firms entering international joint ventures (IJVs) and, second, to assess performance in relation to these objectives.Design/methodology/approachThe study integrates three major theoretical streams in the IJV field to investigate the rationale for the formation of IJVs. The primary data collection method was a web‐based survey. The ability to collect large amounts of data without interviewers, stationery or postage, makes the cost of doing web surveys very attractive. Sino‐European manufacturing IJVs (in industries such as machinery, textiles, and electronics) were investigated.FindingsThe strong empirical evidence in this study confirms the significant moderating effects of parent control on attainment of strategic objectives, suggesting that different strategic objectives of foreign partners have different performance outcomes based on the degree of control exercised by the partner and the focus on different IJV activities. The findings also indicate that market‐developing and knowledge‐acquiring objectives outperform efficiency‐seeking objectives.Research limitations/implicationsThe purpose of this study was to examine satisfaction with performance from the point of view of the foreign IJV partner. Hence, data were collected from foreign senior management who represent foreign partners. Second, the single IJV host country context (China) inevitably raises the question as to whether the findings from this study can be generalised to IJVs in other emerging markets. Third, the relatively small sample size (61 IJVs), although comparable with previous studies, limits the use of more powerful statistical tools.Practical implicationsThe findings of this study suggest that parent companies should formulate different control structures according to different strategic objectives. Second, and rather interestingly, different categories of objectives perform differently in joint ventures. It seems, for example, that, in joint ventures with Chinese partners, European multinational enterprises achieve better results in relation to market development and knowledge acquisition than when seeking organisational efficiency.Originality/valuePrior research has tended to examine the IJV phenomenon from a single theoretical perspective. This study attempts to integrate three major theoretical streams in the IJV field to investigate the rationale for the formation of IJVs. As such, it potentially offers more comprehensive explanatory power. A further innovation is related to the use of a web‐based survey rather than the traditional mail survey.

Purpose – This paper aims to explore ethical purchasing behaviours and attitudes, relating to the Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) and their brand‐extension “Freedom Food”.Design/methodology/approach – A mixed methodology was adopted. This involved both in‐depth interviews with 30 consumers and a postal survey of 1,000 consumers. Beliefs, attitudes, normative and control issues were measured within the context of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Structural equation modelling was used to explore a series of dependence relationships simultaneously.Findings – Overall, consumers' moral obligations towards food‐animals as well as consumer location are confirmed as influencing ethical brand choice. Both variables provide additional predictive capability improvements, raising the percentage of explained variance by 28 per cent to 80 per cent. The RSPCA's brand extension is clearly successful in terms of the positive, association value between the parent brand and the extended bran...

PurposeThis paper's objectives are first to analyse the patterns of research on international brands and branding so far, secondly to provide a definition for international branding based on these previous studies in the field, and finally to suggest fruitful paths for future research in this area.Design/methodology/approachContent analysis of academic papers published in major marketing, advertising and international business journals.FindingsThe field of international branding is broad and has developed in the course of the last 30 years in different directions and with different understandings of what the term refers to. This paper gives an overview of these directions, of the different understandings of the term found in the literature, proposes a definition of international branding, and finally suggests paths for future research.Research limitations/implicationsAs with all literature reviews, this paper is limited to analysing works in a selection of the top academic journals in the field. However, a careful choice of the most important journals has been made, providing a good reflection of the knowledge in the area.Originality/valueThis appears to be the first literature review in the field of international branding and also the first to discuss the different interpretations of the term international branding that have developed over time. The authors also believe it is the first to offer a definition of the term in itself as well as in relation to international marketing.

International audience; The majority of studies of the effectiveness of comparative advertising (CA) have been primarily focused on America and Asia than on European countries. The transferability of comparative advertising practices across markets is still largely unexplored notwithstanding that the effects of CA may vary according to the degree of novelty of comparative advertisements in the country (Nye et al. 2008). This observation is particularly interesting in Europe where countries such as the United Kingdom and Sweden have used CA for a longer period than France (Diannoux and Herrmann 2000). This study examines for the first time the role of opportunity, ability, and motivation to process the message on perceived manipulative intent and consumer evaluations of advertising by proposing a model of effectiveness of direct and indirect comparative advertising.Analyses of responses from participants in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States indicate that direct comparative attacks are not equally embraced by consumers across countries. Furthermore, they tend to generate greater suspicion regarding the manipulative intent than indirect formats. The study provides for the first time evidence that perceived manipulative intent varies according to CA format and evidence of moderating effects in the relationship between motivation to process the message and perceived manipulative intent of Direct Comparative Advertising (DCA). The motivation to process the message reduces perceived manipulative intent only in countries with low familiarity with DCA. The ability to process the message moderates the relationship between processing motivation and perceived manipulative intent.

PurposeThe purpose of this article is to summarize the output and content of International Marketing Review (IMR) during its first 21 years.Design/methodology/approachThe output of IMR is first analysed to measure its stability and maturity. The focus is then shifted to the content of articles published in IMR, followed by a detailed analysis of authorship.FindingsIn terms of output, IMR exhibits the characteristics of a stable and mature journal. Articles cover a wide range of topics within the international marketing domain. Authorship analysis reveals that the top contributors to IMR are also the top contributors to other high‐ranking marketing journals. IMR has become a leading journal in the field.Practical implicationsTo maintain its competitive edge, IMR must continue to identify, define, and shape research developments in international marketing.Originality/valueA first analysis of the content of the first 21 years of IMR.

A study of key decision makers in a sample of large international companies explored the non‐domestic market entry decision. A literature review revealed five broad external domains which held the potential to affect that decision. A series of statements was factor analysed to reveal ten more specific variables. An analysis of which variables discriminated between the decision to enter and not enter a new non‐domestic market demonstrated that geocultural/political similarity, developed economy, attractive market, good market information and governmental attitude significantly affected the decision. The findings supported a marketing‐strategy based theory of market entry.

This paper reports on the findings of research into the perceived relationships between publicly funded theatres and their key funders/regulators. This is part of a wider study into whether successful publicly funded arts organisations are more likely to apply a relationship marketing approach. Relationship marketing may help to remove a short-term tactical focus that tends to exist in public sector organisations generally and publicly funded arts organisations particularly. Three UK producing theatres' relationships with the Arts Council and their respective local authorities are analysed and findings suggest that building relationships with this stakeholder type may well produce more strategically focused and successful theatres.

The theory of regionalization (Rugman and Verbeke 2004) poses that multinational enterprises (MNEs) operate successfully at a regional rather than global level, hence making the study of regional strategies both topical and imperative. This paper contributes to the limited research on regional advertising standardization by studying the influence of culture and economic integration on advertising standardization at the regional vs. the broader international level. It does so using data gathered from subsidiary managers in the Latin American trading bloc Mercosur and, by taking a novel, process oriented perspective to standardization measurement based on how standardization is implemented rather than planned.

Discusses four theories of internationalisation: the Uppsala model of internationalisation; the eclectic paradigm and transaction cost analysis; the interactive network approach of the International Marketing and Purchasing Group; and what may be termed the business strategy approach. Suggests that a model incorporating the key elements of each approach could present a more realistic and comprehensive picture of the market entry decision.

This paper presents the results of a cross‐cultural analysis of television advertising in the Czech Republic and the UK. The need for this research is suggested by a gap in the literature concerning cross‐cultural studies involving Eastern European countries. The aim is to compare advertising in the two countries in order to add to the debate on the feasibility of standardised advertising across cultural borders. The literature relating specifically to cross‐cultural studies of advertising in two or more countries provides the basis for this research study. A sample of television advertisements was collected from the two most viewed UK and Czech commercial channels and was examined using content analysis. The focus of the research is on differences and similarities in the creative strategies and executional formats used in the product categories advertised. In terms of creative strategies, there was great similarity overall. However, significant differences were found for six out of the 14 individual product categories studied. In contrast, many significant differences were found overall for executional formats. The partial nature of the support for the view that creative strategy is associated more with product category than with culture reflects a complex situation vis‐à‐vis international advertising standardisation.

This paper considers the differences and similarities between national brand and global brand advertising through the use of three analytical frameworks – creative strategies, advertising styles and advertising form. It seeks to identify any differences between national and global brand advertising in terms of creative strategy, advertising style and advertising form. The structural elements of advertisements, such as the length of a commercial, number of camera shots and number or type of characters present, are also examined for a total of 551 television advertisements. A number of significant differences between the advertising of global and national brands have been recorded. In addition, the study identifies a discriminant function, which successfully predicts the advertising strategies, styles and formats for global brands.

This paper presents the findings from an exploratory study on the impact of the structure and nature of competitors in a new, non-domestic market on the decision to enter that market. It also examines the role played by information on the judgement of key decision-makers responsible for making this decision. The study employs an experimental methodology based upon an hypothetical scenario, allowing the research to focus on a current decision and providing constancy of firm, market and industry. Data were elicited from key decision-makers in 64 UK, industrial marketing companies. The findings show that both independent variables are influential.

This study assesses the impact of the growth of satellite television in the UK on terrestrial channels. The paper outlines the debate concerning satellite television's potential role in globalisation and pan-European marketing processes, provides background information on the development of satellite television in the UK, and gives an insight into the structure of the main UK satellite service, British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB). An exploratory study into the advertising content of terrestrial commercial (TTV) and satellite television (BSkyB) is discussed and findings are presented. Differences and similarities in advertising content between terrestrial and satellite, in particular the extent of global, national and regional advertising on both channels, are indicated.

This paper presents the findings of a survey of television advertisements broadcast on French and UK television channels. The findings show that advertisements which have elements common to both countries are still very much the minority. An analysis of the underlying spirit of national and partially standardised advertisements highlighted the difference in advertising styles between the two countries. UK advertisements continue to rely on humour or straightforward information, where their French counterparts rely on a dreamlike advertising style. These differences appear to be rooted in the individual national cultures and would seem to preclude the possibility of standardised cross‐cultural advertising for the majority of products in the short‐term.

States that since the beginnings of the women’s movement, in the 1970s, increasing attention has been focused on the way women are portrayed in advertisements. Earlier studies concentrated on print advertisements, but as video recording became more accessible it was possible to analyse television commercials. These studies found that there was evidence of female sex‐role stereotyping in portraying domestic situations and employment. Studies in France found similar results to those in the USA and the UK. The study aims to compare the roles of women in television advertising in the UK and France and draw conclusions as to how French and UK advertisements differ in their portrayal of women.

This article considers the issue of the globalization of brands, relating the concept to the European arena. While the evidence for global brands is mixed, in Europe the opening up of the Single Market suggests opportunities for marketers to reap the benefits of harmonization of laws relating to advertising, the development of pan-European media, and “reciprocity.” Through empirical research of the 100 top UK brands in consumer non-durables, this study examines the preponderance of pan-European brands and discovers what modifications are needed to the marketing strategy of a brand to achieve pan-European sales. It also presents the factors that are considered to have most influenced these modifications. A definition of the term “pan-European,” from the point of view of the respondents themselves, is also offered.

PurposeTo examine customers' readiness for mass‐customised products in two European countries, Turkey and the UK.Design/methodology/approachExamines the demand side of the market and begins to explore whether mass‐customisation can be implemented as an international product strategy. A questionnaire was developed, pre‐tested and administered in the UK and (after translation) in Turkey to potential new car buyers.FindingsA large proportion of customers from both countries would be willing to pay extra to own a product which exactly meets their needs and preferences. However, more respondents in the Turkish sample were willing to do so than in the UK sample. Additionally, Turkish respondents were keen to update the features of their car over time, which favours mass‐customisation.Research limitations/implicationsThis study is exploratory and limited in terms of research sample. Consequently further research is needed to verify the findings. Second, how far the organisation is ready to adopt a mass‐customised approach is a further question to be answered requiring further research. Future research in contexts other than new cars should also be undertaken. Finally, we have focused on “readiness” for mass‐customisation and do not attempt to provide any link between this “readiness” and behavioural intentions.Practical implicationsThere may be a viable market of customers for mass‐customised cars, in both the UK and Turkey. Producers now need to examine the price that would be acceptable to both customers and themselves.Originality/valueThis is the first systematic research study to address the demand side of mass‐customisation in two European countries.

This paper examines the concept of mass customisation from the point of view of the customer. Although the theory of mass customisation has received considerable attention in recent years, the emphasis has been on identifying and classifying the ways in which mass customisation can be implemented efficiently and effectively. There appears to have been no empirical evidence to support the notion that customers are indeed ready for this approach. The aim of this study is to examine how far customers are “ready” for mass‐customised products, using the UK new car market as its basis for analysis. A framework is developed and results presented which suggest that a sizeable section of the market is ready to accept the “inconveniences” of mass‐customised products. However, the main inconvenience of mass customisation is identified as increased price, even for “ready” customers. It would seem, therefore, that both global standardisation and mass customisation strategies are appropriate in this market.

This paper addresses the issue of mass-customisation from the point of view of consumer demand. It aims to develop a framework to examine the demand side of the mass-customisation equation which will allow researchers to identify whether a market of customers who are ready for mass-customised products exists. In doing so it considers in particular three “inconveniences” of mass-customisation: the increased price of customised products; the delay in receipt of custom-made products; and the need for customers to invest time in specifying their preferences before the product can be produced. © 2003, MCB UP Limited

1992 was the year of the Single European Market. By 31 December 1992, agreement should have been reached on some 286 directives, which aimed to dismantle physical, technical and fiscal barriers to trade. In so doing, it was expected that community businesses would become more integrated, allowing them to compete on more equal terms as Eurobusinesses with the global players of the US and Japan. It was predicted that greater intra‐Community competition would be a necessary precursor of this outcome, and that this will lead to industries restructuring through mergers and joint ventures to increase market share and economies of scale by reaching a “minimum efficient size”. Examines the trends in cross‐border mergers/acquisitions and joint ventures for the period 1986 to 1989 and concludes that, for both small and large firms, such activity has increased. Further, an analysis of EC material on the subject reveals that firms′ reasons for such developments appear to have become more market‐oriented over time.

The debate on whether international advertising can, or should, be standardised has a long history, particularly in the American literature. The Single European Market after 1992 implies an opportunity for standardisation so far unparalleled. The subject of study is the European policies for television advertising of four multinational corporations of different nationalities through interviews with the advertising agency account executives for each company in Greece. The findings suggest that the issue of standardisation is of little importance in itself and that the aim of all companies is the most effective campaign for each local market.

This article describes an approach to teaching international marketing which won an award for innovation under the Council for Industry and Higher Education Partnership Awards scheme. The approach uses a combination of case study analysis, student presentations (based on their work in other areas of the degree programme), and the dissemination of examples of international marketing practice drawn from the experience of the students whilst on work placement abroad. It concludes with some comments on the benefits such an applied approach to study of this subject can bring.

This paper compares 37 US and 49 UK high–technology companies, and looks at new product success rate, corporate learning and management style. Comparisons are made between US and UK companies and between small and large companies. The findings indicate that a relationship exists between success, leadership style and organisational learning which differs according to country and company size.

The standardization of advertising for international markets has been much discussed in the literature, although there is little empirical evidence on how far standardized advertisements are used in practice. What research has been undertaken has investigated the incidence of standardized international advertising between the USA and Europe. This article pursues the topic within the European framework and develops a method for comparing advertising used in more than one country. The model is then tested to compare advertisements in the same medium for the same brands in two culturally diverse European countries, France and the UK. The findings show that complete standardization of copy and layout is possible in only very few cases and that in most instances modifications occur.

Levitt's theory of globalisation has attracted a great deal of attention among both academics and practitioners. The view that a single product can be offered worldwide offers significant benefits for international marketers, whatever their size or industry. A review of empirical findings in the literature, however, suggests that this theory should be adopted with caution. The author has studied a specific group of three products manufactured by UK companies and exported to other countries in Europe. Despite the often cited term, European market, which implies a likeness between all European countries and, hence, an opportunity for product standardisation, the findings suggest that modifications in many product aspects are necessary for export success. Further, the degree of modification required varies from market to market.

Levitt′s theory of globalisation has attracted a great deal of attention among both academics and practitioners. The view that a single product can be offered worldwide offers significant benefits for international marketers, whatever their size or industry. A review of empirical findings in the literature, however, suggests that this theory should be adopted with caution. The author has studied a specific group of three products manufactured by UK companies and exported to other countries in Europe. Despite the often cited term, European market, which implies a likeness between all European countries and, hence, an opportunity for product standardisation, the findings suggest that modifications in many product aspects are necessary for export success. Further, the degree of modification required varies from market to market. (First published in European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 21 No. 9, 1987).