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This article aims at shedding some light on the grey areas of conceptualization on international negotiation, as well as at incipiently theorizing on the topic, based on an internationalist's perspective. The concepts to be presented here result from the work of many years of research and teaching on the field; nevertheless, doubts and comments, as well as positive criticism will be welcome as readers realize that this is a first effort to provide one more development within the international negotiations field of study. Keywords: international negotiation; conceptualization; negotiation theory, International negotiations relate to many areas of study, among which are diplomacy, business, law, international trade and international cooperation, just to mention some. In each of these fields one specific [...]

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2008.00505.x Byline: David C. Earnest (*) Abstract: How do states solve n-choice cooperation problems? Although classical game theory offers useful insights into how states achieve cooperation, its focus on equilibria means that it is largely silent on the processes of negotiation, particularly when multiple solutions to a cooperation problem exist. To explore the path histories of international cooperation, this article uses an agent-based model to explore how states solve a coordination game with three equilibria. To further enrich the analysis, the model explores how domestic constraints may affect coordination games. Such state-level constraints may present negotiators with considerable informational costs and high barriers to understanding each other's preferences. The model finds that the process of communicating preferences can greatly affect the prospects for cooperation, independent of distributional consequences and concerns about cheating. It also finds that, contrary to collective goods theory, a large number of states coordinate a solution to the problem easier than small groups. This is because larger groups create denser networks that communicate preferences more efficiently. The agent-based model thus illustrates how simulation as a method can challenge our extant thinking about cooperation among nation-states. These findings have implications for research on interstate coordination, since it suggests transnational linkages may help states overcome information barriers that frustrate agreements. Author Affiliation: (*)Old Dominion University

ABSTRACT Research has shown that managers spend a significant amount of time negotiating and that this trend will likely escalate in the future. Cross-cultural studies of negotiation tactics are needed [...]

Political cooperation under private information between two countries or districts is analyzed with regard to conditions for uniform policies and determining when it is efficient to not allow side payments in negotiations. Findings show how political centralization performs better than decentralized cooperation and how differentiation and side payments create conflict.

The frame-selection model is employed to study the occurrence of arguing and bargaining in several international negotiations and to loosen the unitary-actor assumption underlying state behavior. The research shows that there exists fundamental differences between a person's and a state's frame, leading to differences in the effectiveness of bargaining at the international level.

This case study of women's influence on international environmental health policy making examines the development and implementation of the May 2004 Stockholm Convention for Persistent Organic Pollutants. The role of women's non-governmental organizations and theoretical concepts of empowerment are analyzed. Specific 'gender' strategies are identified as part of advocacy by women in negotiations leading to the Convention. Findings from a 2004 survey of governments are presented outlining national activities with respect to clauses of the agreement relevant for women and children. doi: 10.1300/J013v44n03_03 KEYWORDS. Women's non-governmental organizations, empowerment, persistent organic pollutants, environmental health policy, Stockholm convention

In order to study the players behavior in the three player ultimatum bargaining game, their opposing motives of altruism and payoff inequality are analyzed. It is concluded that while responders most probably behave altruistically towards a non-decision-making player, there is higher probability that they reject a given offer, if the pay-off is inequitable compared to the hostage.

Byline: Donald J. Noakes (1,2), Liping Fang (2,3), Keith W. Hipel (2), D. Marc Kilgour (4) Keywords: Pacific salmon; fisheries; treaty negotiation; climate change Abstract: Negotiations on a Canada-US Pacific salmon treaty began in 1908 but the first comprehensive treaty was not achieved until 1985. At that time, catches and landed values in the salmon fishery were near record levels and both countries viewed the agreement as a means of enhancing their individual prosperity. After a short period of co-operation, the 1985 treaty was undermined by arguments over catch sharing and the failure to rebuild some important salmon stocks. A revised treaty, agreed upon in 1999, established conservation of salmon as a priority and included a side-payment, in the form of two endowment funds designed in part to appease Canadian concern over catch imbalances. Major shifts in abundances combined with significant reductions in the value of the fishery were key factors in the negotiations. In this paper, we use the graph model for conflict resolution to examine the stability of the revised salmon treaty. Our assessment suggests that the treaty will be stable if the side-payment is maintained or enhanced even if both countries pursue aggressive fishing strategies. If the side-payment is not maintained, then it is likely that all groups will attempt to maximize their catch and Canada will seek a renegotiation of the treaty. Author Affiliation: (1) School of Advanced Technologies and Mathematics, Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, British Columbia, V2C 5N3, Canada (2) Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada (3) Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, M5B 2K3, Canada (4) Department of Mathematics, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3C5, Canada Article History: Registration Date: 15/09/2005 Online Date: 05/01/2006

A method of structured modeling for intergovernmental negotiations for improving European air quality is presented. The model integrates object-oriented programming, simulation methods, multiple-criteria decision-making methods and database management systems.

Previous formal models of two-level games to determine whether a domestic ratification constraint provides an executive with bargaining leverage in international negotiations and a game theoretic model to show that an executive with a national constituency such as a nationally elected president benefits by being constrained is used. Hence, testable hypotheses are derived on the effect of the party composition of the legislature on the executive's constraint.

ABSTRACT This paper examines the Multilateral Bargaining mode/of Rausser and Simon (1991), using the Uruguay Round Uruguay provides but one data point, limiting the possibilities for field testing, pilot experiments [...]

Byline: Melvin F. Shakun (1) Keywords: conflict; Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD); negotiation; problem solving Abstract: On April 1, 2000 an American surveillance plane and a Chinese fighter plane collided off the coast of China. The Chinese pilot parachuted out of his aircraft but was presumed dead his body was not found. The U.S. plane made an emergency landing at a Chinese military airfield without receiving permission. China thus had possession of the U.S. plane and crew. China said that the U.S. was responsible for the crash and demanded an apology. The U.S. expressed 'regret' over the collision but declared it had no apology to give as the fault lay with the Chinese pilot. On April 10 with negotiation between the two countries remaining deadlocked, the author considered the problem in the Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD) framework. The article discusses the author's analysis and solution, his efforts to implement it, and the agreed solution announced by the U.S. and China on April 11. Author Affiliation: (1) Leonard N. Stern School of Business, New York University, 44 West 4 Street, New York, NY, 10012-1126, USA Article History: Registration Date: 05/10/2004

Byline: Shira Tibon (1,2) Keywords: personality traits; integrative complexity; projective methods; Rorschach measures; support system in negotiation process Abstract: Much of the literature on negotiation focuses on the effect that various personality factors, characterizing the parties or mediators involved in the process, have on negotiation outcomes. Nevertheless, there hardly can be found a study, which examines these factors with psychometrically reliable and valid tools. The present study uses psychodiagnostic projective method for measuring the personality trait known as integrative complexity, which is considered as a basic factor that connects cognitive traits to attitudes toward conflict resolution. In a sample of 26 Israeli students this trait, assessed by two Rorschach measures - the blend responses and the frequency of organizational activity - has been revealed as a personality characteristic that might explain seeking compromise agreements in negotiation. Individuals low in integrative complexity tend to rely on highly competitive and less cooperative tactics much more than highly integrative complex individuals. Projective measures for integrative complexity, assessed in this study, are suggested to test people as they are assigned to teams charged with important tasks involving complex group decisions and negotiation. In future studies of complex group decisions this psychodiagnostic approach might be used as a part of the support systems in the process of group negotiation. Author Affiliation: (1) Tel-Aviv University, Israel (2) Gen-Gurion University, Israel Article History: Registration Date: 09/10/2004

Byline: Gregory Kersten (1), Sunil Noronha (2) Keywords: negotiation; international negotiation; cross-cultural study; Internet; World Wide Web; decision support; negotiation support; preferences Abstract: INSPIRE is a Web-based system for the support and conduct of negotiations. The primary uses of the system are training and research. Between July 1996 and April 1997, 281 bilateral negotiations were conducted through the system by managers, engineers and students from over 50 countries. INSPIRE has been used at eight universities and training centers. In research it is being used to study cross-cultural differences in decision making and the use of computer support in negotiation. This paper outlines the system, the negotiation methodology embedded in it, and reports the initial results of the experimental study of the impact of culture on Web-based bilateral negotiation. Author Affiliation: (1) International Institute for Applied Systems Sciences, Austria and CCAM, Carleton University, Ottawa, K1S 5B6, Canada (2) IBM Thomas J Watson Research Centre, Yorktown Heights, New York, USA Article History: Registration Date: 30/09/2004

Byline: Jeswald W. Salacuse (1) Keywords: negotiation; culture; international business; transactions; relationships; contract; values; joint venture; management; conflict; dispute; deal making; process Abstract: Cultural differences among negotiators is a constant in international business negotiations. Four element of culture - behavior, attitudes, norms and values influence such negotiations particularly with regard to communication, the form and substance of transactions, and negotiating style. Negotiating style involves ten factors, and the article reports survey data on how negotiators cultural differences are suggested. Author Affiliation: (1) The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University, Medford, MA, 02155, USA Article History: Registration Date: 30/09/2004

Byline: Melvin F. Shakun (1) Keywords: intercultural problem solving and negotiation; Evolution System Design (ESD); group support systems (GSS); ESD computer culture; cultural emergence Abstract: Intercultural problem solving and negotiation involves interaction of two or more cultures. These processes may be formally modeled using the Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD) framework implemented by appropriate computer group support systems (GSS). The ESD/GSS combination provides an ESD computer culture for intercultural problem solving and negotiation in a same place/same time or telework mode. With this, players in a multicultural group can be computer supported in generating and formally representing an evolving common culture (a situational culture) with regard to the specific problem at hand - an intercultural evolving group problem representation and solution. At the same time, the ESD computer culture provides an operational cybernetic/self-organization framework for the empirical study of cultural emergence in a multicultural group. This paper uses and develops work by Shakun (1996b). Author Affiliation: (1) Leonard N. Stern School of Business, New York University, 44 West 4th Street, New York, NY, 10012-1126, USA Article History: Registration Date: 30/09/2004

Byline: Paul Meerts (1) Keywords: international negotiation; multilateral negotiation; diplomaticnegotiation; negotiation skills; negotiation styles; negotiation forums; European Union; European Community; European Cooperation; conference diplomacy Abstract: Negotiation is one of the major tasks of the 15 member states comprising the European Union (EU). However, not much is known about the behavior and perceptions of those negotiating on behalf of these member states. On the basis of the responses to a survey of EU diplomats and civil servants of the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, and Portugal, an attempt has been made to develop a profile of 'the' European Union Negotiator. The EU negotiator is less outspoken and more likely to compromise than an 'ideal' profile of the diplomatic negotiator. While negotiators from these member states share important behavioral and attitudinal proclivities, they also differ in many significant ways. This healthy diversity of negotiating approaches is likely to be nurtured by the cooperative and synergistic atmosphere within the European Union. Author Affiliation: (1) Netherlands Institute of International Relations-Clingendael, Clingendael 7, PO Box, 93080, 2509 AB, The Hague, The Netherlands Article History: Registration Date: 18/10/2004

Byline: Pamela Chasek (1) Keywords: multilateral environmental negotiation; process analysis; United Nations; comparative analysis Abstract: Global environmental problems pose important diplomatic and legal challenges to the international community. The nature of these problems requires an unprecedented degree of international cooperation that is achieved through multilateral negotiation, which is often shaped by scientific uncertainty, the complexity of the issues, and the wide range of actors and interests. One way of analyzing and explaining this complicated process is through the use of comparative analysis. By breaking down the negotiating process into a series of phases and turning points, it becomes easier to analyze the roles of different actors, the management of issues, the formation of groups and coalitions, and the art of consensus building. This article uses comparative analysis to characterize, develop, and specify a model of the multilateral environmental negotiation process. The model is elaborated upon inductively through a comparative analysis of eleven cases of multilateral environmental negotiations. Statistical techniques are used to determine whether there is any relationship among attributes of the process (within the phases or at the turning points) and between these characteristics and outcomes. Author Affiliation: (1) Earth Negotiations Bulletin, 212 East 47th Street, Apt. 21F, New York, NY, 10017 Article History: Registration Date: 18/10/2004

Byline: Daniel Druckman (1) Keywords: comparative analyses; international negotiation cases; multidimensional scaling; number of parties and issues; processes and outcomes; taxonomies Abstract: Cases of international negotiation are compared in terms of their similarities and dissimilarities. Using both primary and secondary source materials, each case is coded in terms of aspects of the issues, structure, situation, processes, and outcomes of negotiation. One analysis consisted of 23 cases in which Austrian delegations participated. Multidimensional scaling results indicated that a key dimension was the distinction between small bilateral talks and larger multilateral negotiations. Bilateral talks were more likely to be characterized by treaties, low turnover, stage-like processes, and no deadlines. Correlational findings also showed that outside influences had stronger impacts on outcomes than such internal factors as bureaucratic support. A second scaling analysis, based on cases published by the Johns Hopkins' Foreign Policy Institute, produced two dimensions, number and complexity of the issues. The groupings of the cases also corresponded to Ikle's distinctions among types of negotiation. Correlational findings indicated relationships among aspects of the negotiating situation and outcomes. The article concludes with a comparison of the two analyses. Author Affiliation: (1) National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20418 Article History: Registration Date: 18/10/2004

Byline: Bertram I. Spector (1) Keywords: analytical methods; analytical requirements; comparative analysis; negotiation training Abstract: Twenty-three cases of international negotiation are analyzed and compared to better understand the role of analytical and informational tools in supporting practical negotiators. For each case, data were gathered through interviews with Austrian diplomats on the type and amount of analytical support provided, associated bureaucratic support, and problems encountered, along with a host of key factors about the case itself-the issues, situation, strategies, process, structures, and outcomes. These data were coded and analyzed statistically. It was found that most analytical support is qualitative in nature and can be categorized as information organizing tools, comparison methods and creativity techniques economic negotiations, in particular, tended to be supported more by quantitative methods, including forecasting and statistical models. Analytical support is particularly important to understand own and other side positions and strategies and to bolster complex negotiations that require issue packaging. A generational gap between senior and mid-level diplomats emerged: junior practitioners expressed a greater interest in analytical support tools. In general, the application of analytical support was perceived positively among practitioners and was correlated with the achievement of treaties and comprehensive solutions. These findings suggest that there needs to be greater investment in developing and providing practical analytical support to negotiators, more supporting infrastructure to facilitate the use of these techniques, and increased training opportunities. Author Affiliation: (1) Center for Negotiation Analysis, 11608 Le Havre Drive, Potomac, MD, 20854 Article History: Registration Date: 18/10/2004

Human resource managers everywhere have to deal with a host of disturbing disputes. Unfortunately, or fortunately, managers in a diverse world differ about how to deal with problems emanating from [...]

Proposals to resolve conflicts and obtain negotiated agreements might be greatly improved and gain greater acceptance by exploiting recent evidence of people's economic preferences and motivations. For example, numerous studies [...]

Negotiations at the United Nations climate summit in Paris this December will adopt a 'pledge and review' approach to cutting global carbon emissions. Countries will promise to reduce their emissions [...]

A study was undertaken to assess the interpersonal effects of anger communication in a three-party negotiation setting is addressed. Findings showed that participants form negative impressions of players who communicate anger and exclude them from coalitions and from obtaining a payoff share.

The debates generated by non-UN peace operations during the Cold War in the past few years and the limitations imposed by thinking of these developments in terms of regionalization are discussed. It is revealed that in the longer term a consistent trend toward non-UN peace operations could undermine international peace and security.

Byline: Ariane Konig The precautionary principle has been a bone of contention in international negotiations on the governance of environmental and health risks. The US administration and European institutions often present opposing views on whether formal references to precaution help or hinder the global governance of risk, in particular where linked to world trade. The European Commission official position, backed by Council, Parliament and some Member States, advocates the principle's use in legal texts and pushes for the elaboration of international guidelines for its application. The proposed guidelines, whilst explicitly conforming to basic principles of trade law, include recommendations on broad socio-economic impact analyses of alternative risk mitigation measures and emphasise political aspects of decisions on risk. The US administration's official position papers oppose references to precaution and socio-economic impact analysis in international laws and guidelines on risk analysis. They mainly cite fears of abuse of the concept as guise for protectionist measures. In each administration a wide range of state and non-state actors with disparate views inform policy makers who then have to adopt one coherent position. This article suggests that overarching differences in the negotiating positions adopted by the US and European institutions, often attributed to culturally and politically rooted biases on risk and uncertainty, are also reflected in institutional practices and regulatory frameworks of the two jurisdictions. It recommends taking disparate institutional structures and regulatory frameworks into account in future deliberations on international guidelines on risk analysis.

A sudden climate truce between China and the United States has renewed hopes that a two-decade stand-off between developed and developing nations over addressing climate change may at last be [...]