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U ovome radu ponudili smo dvojaku perspektivu kognitivne lingvistike i semiotike analizi paleolitičke spiljske umjetnosti – najstarijeg prapovijesnog ostataka ljudske znakovne djelatnosti, s ciljem opisa kognitivnih i semiotičkih mehanizama u pozadini njihova znakovnog djelovanja. Problematikom spiljskih crteža bavile su se brojne humanističke discipline, poput povijesti umjetnosti, antropologije i arheologije, s primarnim ciljem utvrđivanja njihova značenja i eventualne utilitarne svrhe. Ovaj rad nastojao je graditi na novoj perspektivi njihovu tumačenju koja proizlazi iz interdisciplinarnog područja arheologije, semiotike i kognitivne znanosti koje ne nastoji utvrditi njihovo značenje, već načine na koji oni potiču gradbu značenja. Relativna recentnost discipline i manjak literature na temu rezultirali su površnim pristupom semiotičkoj komponenti spiljskih crteža koji ne iskorištavaju pun potencijal korištenih teorija, dok je kognitivnolingvistički doprinos temi uglavnom previđen. U teorijskom dijelu rada opisali smo istraživanju relevantne kognitivne mehanizme poput metafore, metonimije i kategorizacije, te načine kognitivnog ustroja pojmovnih struktura u obliku idealiziranih kognitivnih modela i pojmovnog miješanja. U semiotičkom dijelu usporedili smo nekoliko modela znakova s ciljem utvrđivanja najpogodnijeg opisu kompleksnih znakova, ali i sintezi s kognitivističkim uvidima u gradbu značenja. Kao korpus analize koristili smo pet najučestalijih motiva pronađenih u paleolitičkoj umjetničkoj tradiciji: otiske ruku, zoomorfne, antropomorfne i teriantropomorfne prikaze, te geometrijske oblike. Rezultati analize ukazali su na postepen razvoj kognitivne i semiotičke kompleksnosti paleolitičkih znakova s obzirom na način obnašanja predstavljačke funkcije koji prati kronologiju njihova nastanka. Počevši sa znakovnim indicijama u obliku otisaka ljudskih ruku, semiotička kompetencija naših predaka napreduje prema naturalističkim, ikoničkim prikazima antropomorfnih i zoomorfnih figura, te kulminira s kreacijom multi-modalnih teriantropomorfnih prikaza nastalih pojmovnim miješanje. Rezultati analize razotkrili su i značajan utjecaj postojećih struktura znanja o pojavnosti na njezinu znakovnu reprezentaciju. In this paper, we offer a dual perspective of cognitive linguistics and semiotics in the analysis of Paleolithic cave art—the oldest prehistoric evidence of human sign activity—with the aim of describing the cognitive and semiotic mechanisms underlying their signifying practices. Numerous humanities disciplines, such as art history, anthropology, and archaeology, have addressed the issue of cave drawings, primarily seeking to determine their meanings and potential utilitarian purposes. This paper seeks to build on a new perspective of interpretation emerging from the interdisciplinary field of archaeology, semiotics and cognitive science, which does not aim to establish their meanings, but rather focuses on how cave drawings facilitate the construal of meaning. The relative novelty of the discipline and the lack of literature on the subject have resulted in a superficial approach to the semiotic component of cave drawings, failing to fully exploit the potential of the theories they employ, and largely overlooking the potential cognitivelinguistic contribution to the topic. In the theoretical part of the study, we describe relevant cognitive mechanisms such as metaphor, metonymy, and categorization, as well as the ways in which conceptual structures are cognitively organized through idealized cognitive models and conceptual blending. In the semiotic section, we compare several models of signs to determine the one most suitable for description of complex signs, while also synthesizing them with cognitive insights into the construal of meaning. We used five of the most common motifs found in the Paleolithic artistic tradition as the corpus of our analysis: handprints, zoomorphic and anthropomorphic representations, therianthropic figures, and geometric shapes. The analysis indicated a gradual development of cognitive and semiotic complexity in Paleolithic signs which follows the chronology of their creation. Starting with indices in the form of human handprints, the semiotic competence of our ancestors progresses towards naturalistic, iconic representations of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures, culminating in the creation of multi-modal therianthropic representations resulting from conceptual blending. The results of the analysis also revealed a significant influence of existing knowledge structures on the sign representation of a given phenomenon.

Rad se temelji na istraživanju koje se provelo tijekom ukupno 6 tjedana nastave engleskog jezika, gdje se kroz dvije cjeline podijeljene u šest podskupina ispitivala uloga modaliteta u učenju stranog jezika kod djece predškolske dobi na temelju uspjeha u učenju nekoliko leksičko-semantičkih kategorija (životinje: divlje, domaće, morske; funkcionalni predmeti: školski, kuhinjski, kupaonski pribor). Predviđene su dvije dječje skupine: starija skupina – djeca u dobi između 6 i 7 godina (sedmero djece) i mlađa skupina – djeca u dobi između 5 i 6 godina (osmero djece); ukupno 15 ispitanika. U ukupno šest tjedana djeca su učila pojmove iz šest gore navedenih kategorija audiovizualnim putem (pomoću video materijala), vizualnim putem (pomoću edukativnih kartica) i taktilno (pomoću fizičkog predmeta). Nakon što su proučili svaku podskupinu i različite načine učenja, ispitivalo se koliko su djeca pojmova naučila vizualno, audiovizualno ili taktilno. Ispitivanje pojedine kategorije odvijalo se nakon tjedan dana učenja o kategoriji (2 sata tjedno engleskog jezika na kojem se uči o pojedinoj kategoriji) tako da se prikaže fotografija predmeta ili životinje (drugačija od one koja se koristila prilikom učenja, ali se radi o istom pojmu) te su djeca morala reći što vide, tj. pred njih je stavljen zadatak imenovanja. Nakon odrađenih šest tjedana i šest kategorija, uslijedilo bi završno ispitivanje u kojem bi svako dijete ponovno na prepoznavanje dobilo sve pojmove koji su obrađeni (svih 6 kategorija). Istraživanje je ukupno trajalo devet tjedana; šest tjedana učenja pojmova i ispitivanja prvih pet kategorija, jedan tjedan u kojem se ispitivala šesta kategorija te dva tjedna tijekom kojih se odvijao drugi, tj. završni krug ispitivanja. Ovim istraživanjem bi se pokazalo uče li djeca strani jezik lakše kroz edukativne kartice, video, pjesme i razgovor ili opipom fizičkog predmeta, tj. uče li djeca lakše kroz vizualni, kinestetički ili audiovizualni modalitet, te utječe li vremenski odmak (od nekoliko tjedana) na znanje pojedinih kategorija. Također je bilo riječi o tome utječu li spol, predznanje stranog jezika, materinski jezik ili motivacija za učenje i usvajanje stranog jezika kod djece predškolske dobi. The paper is based on research that was conducted during a total of 6 weeks of English language classes, where the role of modalities in learning a foreign language among preschool children was examined through two units, divided into six subgroups, through lexical-semantic categories (animals: wild, farm, aquatic; functional objects: school, kitchen, bathroom utensils). Two groups of children were included: an older group - children aged between 6 and 7 (seven children) and a younger group - children aged between 5 and 6 (eight children); a total of 15 respondents. In a total of six weeks, the children learned the terms of the six categories mentioned above audiovisually (using video material), visually (using educational cards) and kinesthetically (using a physical object). After studying each subgroup and different ways of learning, they were asked how many concepts the children learned visually, audiovisually, or kinesthetically. The examination of a particular category took place after a week of learning about the category (2 hours a week of English in which a particular category is taught) by showing a photo of an object or an animal (different from the one used during learning, but it is about the same concept) these children had to say what they saw, i.e. they were given a naming task. After six weeks and six categories, there would be a final examination in which each child would again be given all the concepts that were processed (all 6 categories) for recognition. The research lasted a total of nine weeks; six weeks of learning concepts and examination of the first five categories, one week of examination of the last category and two weeks during which the second, i.e., final round of examinations took place. This research would show whether children learn a foreign language more easily through educational cards, videos, songs and conversation or by touching a physical object, i.e. whether children learn more easily through a visual, kinesthetic or audiovisual modality, and whether the time lag (of several weeks) affects knowledge of certain categories. It would also be discussed whether gender, prior knowledge of a foreign language, mother tongue or motivation influence the learning and acquisition of a foreign language in preschool children.

Die Erfindung des Verbrennungsmotors ist die Grundlage für die Entwicklung des Automobilismus und Rennsports. Der Automobilismus und der Rennsport können aus unterschiedlichen Blickwinkeln untersucht werden. Sie sind facettenreiche, kulturelle und soziale Tatbestände, die auch auf der linguistischen Ebene untersucht werden können. Die Sprache des Automobilismus und Rennsports wurde mithilfe einer linguistischen Methode untersucht, die als Korpusanalyse bekannt ist. Das Korpus wurde so erstellt, indem man die Texte mithilfe von Sketch Engine kompiliert hat. Das linguistische Korpus ist die Grundlage für die Analyse der Fachsprache des Automobilismus und Rennsports aus der Sicht eines Autoenthusiasten. Das Ergebnis dieser Korpusanalyse ist ein onomasiologisches Wörterbuch, in dem die Fachbegriffe in 5 thematischen Einheiten eingeordnet sind. Es handelt sich um folgende thematische Einheiten – Antriebsstrang, Fahrwerk, Aufbau, Besonderheiten der Fahrphysik und Fahrdynamik und Rennfahrzeuge und Rennsport.

Žanrovska su se obilježja pokazala značajnim čimbenikom u donošenju odluka u procesu prevođenja, stoga je i žanrovska analiza postala značajan metodološki alat u znanosti o prevođenju. Pristupajući tekstu holistički, naglašavajući komunikativnu funkciju različitih obilježja promatranog teksta, žanrovska analiza pruža sveobuhvatan okvir unutar kojega se mogu promatrati specifična obilježja prijevodnih tekstova te u tom kontekstu i prijevodnih univerzalija kao univerzalnih obilježja prijevoda. U ovome je radu žanrovska analiza upotrijebljena za utvrđivanje leksičkogramatičkih obilježja žanra pomorskopravnih tekstova na hrvatskome jeziku i obilježja pomorskopravnih tekstova prevedenih na hrvatski jezik kako bi se utvrdile razlike između izvornih i prijevodnih tekstova i uočila moguća manifestacija tzv. prijevodnih univerzalija. U tu je svrhu sastavljen jednosmjerni usporedni korpus pomorskopravnih tekstova, engleskih izvornika i njihovih hrvatskih prijevoda, uz usporedivi korpus pomorskopravnih tekstova izvorno napisanih na hrvatskome jeziku. Analiza je pokazala da se prijevodi po svojim leksičkogramatičkim svojstvima razlikuju od tekstova izvorno napisanih na hrvatskome jeziku te da se u prijevodima realiziraju određene prijevodne univerzalije, prvenstveno eksplicitacija, no u znatnoj mjeri i implicitacija, što nije inače specifično za prijevodne tekstove no proizlazi iz obilježja žanra. Osim toga, zahvaljujući žanrovskoj analizi utvrđena je i realizacija normalizacije kao prijevodne univerzalije. Rezultati istraživanja pružili su znanstveni doprinos u smislu iscrpnog opisa žanra institucionalnih pomorskopravnih tekstova na hrvatskom jeziku i njihovih prijevoda na temelju korpusne analize. Osim toga, istraživanjem se dao doprinos u teorijskom smislu analize prijevodnih univerzalija na primjeru hrvatskih prijevoda, ali i u praktičnom smislu važnosti prepoznavanja žanrovskih obilježja u svakodnevnom profesionalnom prevođenju, što nadalje ima i implikacije u obrazovanju prevoditelja. Genre implies formal and stylistic conventions of a particular text type, which inevitably affects the translation process. This „force of genre bias“ (Prieto Ramos, 2014) has been recognized by translation scholars as a relevant factor in the decision-making process, especially when it comes to the translation of legal texts. The common denominator of genre analysis and translation is the emphasis on communicative function, as the main focus of both is on the function of a particular linguistic unit in a (con)text. In this sense, one of the more important stages in translation is the process of adapting a target text to the genre conventions of the target culture, which means that a translator must be familiar with the genre conventions of the source and target cultures. In the Croatian linguistic tradition, genre has played a marginal role and has been associated with literary genres. In this research, it was assigned a central role as a yardstick against which maritime legal texts were analysed and their linguistic features defined. In this research, genre analysis was used as a methodological tool in the analysis of maritime legal texts originally written in Croatian and the translations of maritime legal texts into Croatian. In translation studies, analyses of translations into different languages have shown that translated texts differ from texts originally written in a particular language in various ways. Such an analysis of translated Croatian texts has not been done before. Therefore, the aim of the thesis is to analyse various features of this type of text, especially with regard to a possible realization of translation universals in Croatian translations. The topic of translation universals has attracted the interest of numerous scholars and has led to findings in various languages that shed light on both the translation process itself and translation strategies and procedures. However, the notion of “universal” features of translation inherent in the translation process itself has been controversial, and researchers have provided evidence for and against it, so that the term has been toned down over time to “tendencies” or “rules”. Regardless of the opposing views, the concept is still considered relevant because it provides insight into the translation process and decision-making during translation. The study in this thesis was conducted on two corpora of maritime legal texts. Specifically, one corpus was a unidirectional parallel corpus of maritime legal texts consisting of two subcorpora: maritime legal texts in English (MarLaw EN) and their translations into Croatian (MarLaw CRO). The other corpus was a comparable corpus of maritime legal texts in Croatian (MarLaw HR). The corpora were compiled using the online corpus analysis tool Sketch Engine, which immediately annotates and tags the corpora, but also contains ready- made corpora. The main goal of the research was to conduct a genre analysis of original maritime legal texts in Croatian and of translations of maritime legal texts into Croatian in order to determine the linguistic features of the genre and the manifestation of translation universals. It was assumed that translations will differ in their linguistic characteristics from texts originally written in Croatian, as research in other languages has shown that translations differ from texts originally written in that language. It was also predicted that explicitation and normalization will be the most common translation universals in translations. The first phase of the research involved benchmarking the generic features of maritime legal texts by comparing the MarLaw HR corpus with the two general Croatian language corpora available in Sketch Engine, hrWaC and Hrvatska jezična riznica (Croatian Language Repository). The hrWaC corpus is a web corpus compiled from the .hr domain, while the Croatian Language Repository is a corpus of standard Croatian language compiled from selected texts from literature, scientific publications, textbooks, online journals and newspapers, and non-fiction books. The comparison was based on quantitative indicators, in particular statistical results on lexical density, lexical richness, readability, average sentence length, and corpus results such as keywords, frequencies and distribution of parts of speech, ngrams, and collocations. To gain a deeper insight into the specific features, a quantitative analysis was conducted, which was complemented by a qualitative analysis that provided further explanations. The results showed that the MarLaw HR corpus has a lower type-token ratio, which is probably due to genre and thematic constraints, but the value of lexical density, as defined by Halliday (1985), is greater for the MarLaw HR corpus than for the general language corpora, indicating that the sentences in the specialized corpus are very dense and informative. The specialized corpus also has much longer sentences, which is consistent with the register of legal texts in general, which has a tendency to be all-inclusive and redundant (Bhatia 1996). Another feature of the legal register in maritime legal texts is nominalization, which is evident in a high noun-verb ratio, but also in quantitative corpus data, such as a larger number of nouns and adjectives compared to general language corpora. The specialized corpus also shows a larger number of nouns among the most frequent words, further confirming the tendency towards nominalization. The larger proportion of nouns in the specialized corpus contributes to information density (Biber 1989), since the focus is on the subject rather than the action, as well as to the impersonal, abstract style. The most frequent keywords in the MarLaw HR corpus, listed according to their keyness score, were divided into three main domains: legal, maritime and general lexis with technical meaning, which maps the range and scope of the genre. This analysis also revealed a larger proportion of verbal nouns compared to the two general language corpora and a larger proportion of prepositions, which is consistent with previous results. For verbs, the MarLaw HR corpus has a limited number of tenses, which is also consistent with the trends in the legal register. A distinctive feature of the genre is that present and future tenses are used to express obligation, while modal verbs are used as explicit expressions of strong obligation or strong prohibition. Adjectives and adverbs expressing obligation are also very common in the specialized corpus. Verbs are often decomposed into constructions consisting of a periphrastic verb and a noun, which also contributes to nominalization. Another feature of the specialized corpus is a larger proportion of performative verbs used as secondary means of expressing the imperative. At the discourse level, the specialized corpus shows an increased proportion of relative and demonstrative pronouns and certain groups of discourse markers, such as conditional, causal, relative, and explanatory. Another distinctive feature of the genre is multinomial expressions, particularly those involving verbs. The following part of the research involved the comparison of the specialized corpus of Croatian maritime legal texts with the parallel corpus of English and translated Croatian texts in order to analyse the specific features of translated texts and potential manifestations of translation universals. The analysis, also conducted in Sketch Engine, included statistical and corpus results, similar to the previous phase. Each identified feature was then associated with a particular translation universal. The statistical analysis showed that translations have the lowest average sentence length, lexical richness, and readability score, indicating their simplification compared to source and original texts. The translations also showed a similar tendency to nominalization as the original texts and a similar distribution of tenses. However, the translations also showed some peculiarities, such as lower valency of periphrastic verbs, a lower use of performative verbs, an increased use of modal verbs, and, at the discourse level, an increased use of pronouns, prepositions, and connectives. Manifestations of translation universals was considered from two points of view, that of the source text and that of the original text, in order to have a better insight into their realization. In this sense, explicitation was identified in the proportion and distribution of adjectives, pronouns, conjunctions and textual connectors, in expressing modality. The tendency to normalization was noted in the proportion and distribution of nouns and the reduction of English binomial expressions with synonymous components, the latter not being a feature of Croatian legal register. Another interesting feature is the tendency towards implicitation in the translations in the category of discourse markers, which are usually an example of explicitation in translations in other languages. Genre has been shown to be a decisive factor in identifying translation universals, as the texts written in a particular genre can be counterposed against texts written in the same genre, otherwise the results would be biased by specific generic features. It should be remembered that the specialized corpus MarLaw is limited both thematically and genre-wise, so the results obtained are specific to this particular genre. Nevertheless, it has revealed the tendencies in the translation of maritime legal texts, which can be reproduced for comparative purposes with other legal genres, and other genres to identify the differences and similarities in the translation process. The research has also contributed to the ongoing discussion on the translation universals from the perspective of the Croatian language, which has not been studied before. The results may have implications for professional translation, as well as for translator training. The research results may stimulate further research in the area of genre and translation analysis using corpus tools, as well as the compilation of other useful corpora of Croatian language to further develop Croatian language resources.

Na početku ovog rada istaknuta je razlika između raznih pojmova koji spadaju u domenu gluhoće te je prikazan medicinsko-patološki i sociološko-kulturni pogled na gluhoću. Zatim se objašnjava povezanost jezika i identiteta u individualnom, ali i društvenom kontekstu, te promatranje gluhih osoba kroz prizmu etničke odnosno jezične manjine – kulture Gluhih. Drugi dio posvećen je komunikaciji, odnosno vrstama manualne komunikacije, dvojezičnosti gluhih te znakovnom jeziku kao prirodnom jeziku gluhih osoba sa svim lingvističkim obilježjima s posebnim fokusom na Hrvatski znakovni jezik (HZJ). Treći dio razrađuje odgoj i obrazovanje gluhih i nagluhih osoba u svijetu i u Hrvatskoj, ističu se primjeri dobre prakse bilingvalno-bikulturalnog pristupa te se prezentira ideja poučavanja znakovnog jezika kao stranog jezika za čujuće. Empirijski dio donosi tijek i rezultate istraživanja provedenog s pedagozima zaposlenima u ustanovama ranoga i predškolskoga odgoja i obrazovanja na području grada Zagreba, usmjerenog na njihova dosadašnja iskustva te vlastitu procjenu kompetentnosti u radu s gluhim učenicama, suradnje s udrugama Gluhih te poznavanju HZJ-a i kulture Gluhih. At the beginning, this thesis highlights the difference between various terms that fall under the domain of deafness and presents the medical/pathological and social/cultural view of deafness. Furthermore, it discusses the connection between language and identity in the individual and social context, as well as the observation of deaf people through the lens of an ethnic and linguistic minority - Deaf culture. The second part is dedicated to communication, i.e. types of manual communication, bilingualism of the deaf, and sign language as the natural language of deaf people with all linguistic characteristics focusing on Croatian Sign Language (HZJ). The third part presents the history of education and teaching practices of deaf and hard-of-hearing people in the world and Croatia, highlighting the examples of good practices of the bilingual-bicultural approach and introducing the idea of teaching sign language as a foreign language for the hearing. The empirical part elaborates on the course and results of research conducted with pedagogues employed in institutions for early and preschool education in Zagreb, focusing on their past experiences and their assessment of competence in working with deaf students, cooperation with Deaf associations, and knowledge of HZJ and Deaf culture.

U ovom se radu istražuju kolokacije u strukovnom jeziku strojarstva primjenom višejezične kontrastivne analize. U kontrastivnoj se analizi polazi od morfosintaktičke razine te leksičke realizacije semantičke razine, a kolokaciju se promatra kao značenjsku jedinicu i kao istovrijednicu ili prijevodnu inačicu. Odabirom nekoliko teorijskih pristupa, kolokaciju se u ovom radu razumijeva kao tipičnu kombinaciju pretežito dviju riječi koju karakteriziraju uobičajenost, čestotnost supojavljivanja sastavnica i njihov specifični semantički hijerarhijski odnos (Hausmann, 1984, 1995). Prema korpusno utemeljenom metodološkom modelu iz engleskog su kao polazišnog potkorpusa ekstrahirane kolokacije primjenom računalnog softwarea AntConc, posebice funkcije Cluster/N-Grams i programa za konkordancije (Anthony, Windows 3.5.0.). Za analizu i opis odnosa kolokacijskih sastavnica te za pojašnjavanje stvaranja značenja njihovim supojavljivanjem u sintagmatskom nizu i značenjskim međudjelovanjem (engl. meaning by collocation, Firth, 1957) korištene su statističke mjere međusobne povezanosti u računalnoj lingvistici potvrđene kao zlatni standard za izračunavanje statistike. Na sljedećoj razini analize uspoređuju se specifične značajke i semantički odnosi identificiranih istovrijednih kolokacija u njemačkom i hrvatskom jeziku. Budući da su predmet istraživanja stručnojezične kolokacije, ispitivan je i njihov terminološki status, uloga u hijerarhijskoj strukturi taksonomija i odnos istovrijednosti u kontrastivnoj terminološkoj analizi. Pojavnosti utvrđene kontrastiranjem u okviru višerazinske analize sustavno su prikazane te čine osnovu za izvođenje univerzalija primjenom induktivne metode. Rezultati obrade empirijski prikupljenih podataka potvrdili su početno postavljene četiri hipoteze. U odnosu semantičke kohezije koju svojim značenjskih potencijalom uspostavljaju kolokacijske sastavnice, kolokator varijacijama svog osnovnog značenja aktualizira specijalizaciju značenja osnove te ujedno doprinosi semantičkoj transparentnosti kolokacije. Visoka stabilnost veze važno je obilježje odnosa kolokacijskih sastavnica, tako da je zamjena na paradigmatskoj osi moguća samo sinonimnim leksemima koji pripadaju istom pojmovnom polju. Terminološke su varijante potvrđene u sva tri potkorpusa, a karakterizira ih velika tipološka raznolikost i nejednaka zastupljenost. Nadalje, bitna međujezično utvrđena značajka je prevladavanje složenica u njemačkom potkorpusu kao istovrijednicâ engleskih kolokacija s visokom podudarnosti na leksičkoj, semantičkoj, pojmovnoj i funkcionalnoj razini. Specifičnost istovrijednicâ engleskih kolokacija identificiranih u hrvatskom potkorpusu je odnos obrnute linearnosti kolokacijskih sastavnica kao osnove za tvorbu značenja na kolokacijskoj razini i smjer međusobnog utjecaja tj. privlačenja. This study explores collocations in mechanical engineering texts by applying a multilingual contrastive analysis approach. The point of departure in the contrastive analysis is the morpho-syntactic properties and the lexical realization of the semantic level, viewing a collocation as a unit of meaning and as an equivalent or translation unit. British contextualism (Firth, Sinclair) and lexicological approaches (Hausmann, Cowie) were adopted as two major theoretical approaches, but, considering various distributional, semantic, conceptual, and pragmatic aspects of collocations, further theoretical approaches were needed that draw on theories of lexical semantics and corpus and computational linguistics methods. In this study, collocation is understood as a typical combination of mainly two words characterized by habitualness, high frequency of co-occurrence of its constituents, and their specific semantic hierarchical relationship (Hausmann, 1984, 1995). The aim of the study is to describe the specific properties of nominal collocations identified in the English sub-corpus (adjective + noun, noun + noun), to compare them with their equivalents in German and Croatian, and to highlight the most significant features of this sample as well as the observed universals. Applying a corpus-based two-tier methodological model, collocations were extracted from the English sub-corpus, serving as a starting sub-corpus, by use of the computer software AntConc, in particular the Cluster/N-Grams function and the concordance tool (Anthony, Windows 3.5.0.). Once a frequency-sorted list was created from each monolingual sub-corpus, a list of collocation candidates was created by applying a frequency threshold of 5, which provided data for the fine-grained quantitative and qualitative analysis. To describe the relationship of collocation constituents and to clarify the creation of meaning by their cooccurrence in a syntagmatic sequence as well as by the interdependence of their meanings (‘meaning by collocation’, Firth, 1957), typical association measures, popular in computational linguistics, were used (the mutual information, the t-score, the chi-square test, the loglikelihood ratios, and P). The comparison of the morpho-syntactic properties and semantic relations of identified equivalent collocations in German and Croatian revealed five different structural patterns, and a very high level of full lexical correspondence. The adjective + noun collocation pattern is found to be a multilingual equivalent, whereas nominal compounds proved to be an exclusive feature of German, and noun + prepositional phrase pattern of Croatian. The common matching pattern of German and Croatian is noun + genitive noun. According to these findings, the structural collocation patterns in the German and Croatian languages depend on the language type and the possibilities allowed by word formation processes. Since the subject of the research is LSP collocations, their terminological status, role in the hierarchical structure of taxonomies and the relationship of equivalence in a contrastive terminological analysis were also concerns of interest here. Phenomena observed by contrasting them within the multilevel framework were presented systematically and constituted the basis for the derivation of universals by inductive reasoning. The findings of the empirically collected data analysis confirmed the proposed four hypotheses. In the semantic relation established by the realization of collocation constituents’ meaning potential, the collocate generates the specialization of the base meaning by actualizing one of its meanings, and at the same time contributes to the semantic transparency of the collocation. Given the intra-collocational cohesion, and (non)substitutability of collocation constituents as one of the major features of collocations, the substitution of components is possible only with synonymous lexemes retaining the semantic value of the collocation. Variants of terminological collocations were confirmed in all three sub-corpora exhibiting remarkable typological diversity and uneven representation. Furthermore, an important distinctive feature established cross-linguistically is the prevalence of nominal compounds in German as equivalents of English collocations demonstrating high equivalency at the lexical, semantic, conceptual, and functional levels.

U ovome radu analizira se izražavanje pojma 'sukob' u srednjovjekovnim pravnim tekstovima pomoću uporabnih modela, posebice konstrukcijskih gramatika. S obzirom na to da se kreće od pojma, ovaj rad predstavlja onomasiološko dijakronijsko istraživanje, a za razliku od dosadašnjih radova na tom polju, analiziraju se složenije sintaktičke strukture – konstrukcije. Konstrukcijske gramatike i kognitivnolingvistički pristup koji preuzimamo prikladan su teorijski okvir za objašenjenje veze izvanjezičnih podataka, pojma i strukture u određenome kontekstu, tj. ističu se jasni strukturni obrasci i njihovo značenjsko i funkcionalno jedinstvo. Sprega teorijske literature i građe ukazala je i na mjesta dorade konstrukcijskih pristupa iz perspektive dijakronijske semantike. Kao pojam koji želimo istražiti odabran je 'sukob' zbog pretpostavke da pravni diskurs srednjovjekovlja obiluje strukturama za njegovo izražavanje, a pravni je srednjovjekovni diskurs, posebice staroštokavski ćirilički korpus, u domaćoj filologiji mnogo manje istražen od glagoljičkoga korpusa crkvene provenijencije. Taj korpus nije digitaliziran, a sakupljen je u dvjema zbirkama Lj. Stojanovića Stare srpske povelje i pisma, I i II (1929, 1932). Korpus je nazvan srpskim jer je tadašnja dijalektološka praksa (19.st.) štokavsko narječje smatrala dijelom srpskoga jezika. Periodizacija koju smo odabrali (12. do 14. st.) utemeljena je na povijesnojezičnim razlozima: to je razdoblje iz kojeg potječu najstarije isprave, glavnina najvažnijih isprava napisana je tada te je riječ o vremenu kada dijalektološka diferencijacija još nije završena pa očekujemo jezično vrlo zanimljive strukture. U skladu s uporabnim pristupima, uvodna su poglavlja posvećena analizi mikro- i makrokonteksta konstrukcija. Ona se sastoji u proučavanju srednjovjekovne gospodarske, kulturne i političke povijesti Dubrovnika i okolice jer to može objasniti više ili manje konstrukcija u određenome razdoblju, netrpeljivosti među određenim etničkim grupama, političke struje itd. Također je istražena i sama isprava kao tekstna vrsta, posebice s aspekta teorije govornih činova koji predstavljaju vezu makro- i mikrokonteksta jer preko performativa prenose snagu iskaza na propozicije, odnosno na da-klauze koje su glavni mikrokontekst u kojemu se pojavljuju konstrukcije za izražavanje 'sukoba'. Pritome je performativ otkriven kao važan element strukture i značenja isprava, tj. kao zaseban dio protokola koji se gradi istim mehanizmima jezičnih načela kao i same konstrukcije (npr. dekomponirani performativi, elidirani i sl). Konačno, značajan je dio rada posvećen i analizi pojma 'sukob' pomoću rječnika, leksikona, saznanja o srednjovjekovnim stavovima i odnosu prema sukobu te stručne, u prvome redu socio-psihološke literature. Uz pomoć tih izvora te koristeći kognitivnolingvistički model dinamike sile razvili smo jezgrenu strukturu 'sukoba' koja otkriva osnovne elemente njegova pojmovnoga značenja. Jezgrena struktura 'sukoba' upućuje na model prototipnoga sukoba koji možemo očekivati u ispravama u vidu tranzitivne konstrukcije s dvjema ulogama u suparničkom, negativnom odnosu, što se u konačnici i potvrdilo analizom. Analizom se pokazalo da neke konstrukcije odstupaju od jezgrenoga modela strukturom i značenjem, a ovisne su o kontekstu, posebno o konkretnoj domeni 'sukoba' koju iskazuju. Također, neke konstrukcije ovisno o enciklopedijskim podacima koje izražavaju i svojoj strukturi pokazuju više karakteristika idiomatiziranih struktura, a neke su više na polu shematiziranih, visoko produktivnih konstrukcija. As a contribution to the philological analysis of medieval texts, the main goal of this study is to develop a theoretical-methodological model for systematically approaching the reconstruction of meaning by applying cognitive linguistics and construction grammars. As far as we know, there is no Paleo-Slavistic analysis based on construction grammars. Our proposal of such a model aims to change the pessimistic current view of the reach of the older language state’s syntactic-semantic analysis. While such analysis is certainly more limited than that of a modern language, thanks to the precise methods of modern linguistic theory, it is not unfounded or hypothetical. The conceptual domain 'conflict' that we chose as the subject of research only represents one example of diachronic-semantic analysis, and we believe that the same, or somewhat adapted analytical methods could be used to analyze other conceptual domains and types of medieval texts. This model’s main goal is to show the language system’s complex functioning of meaning through combining data, both linguistic (syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic) and encyclopedic, in both micro- and macro-contexts. The research is based on three hypotheses: 1. The existence of certain structural and semantic regularities in the expression of 'conflict'. The analysis of the corpus is expected to establish clear constructions of different levels of complexity, and to observe more typical and marginal examples of constructions related to a certain scene of 'conflict'. 2. The regularity system established at the syntagmatic level in the form of constructions will also be noticeable at the paradigmatic level. The assumption is that the constructions for expressing 'conflict' form a network of culturally and time-specific relationships with a limited set of forms, lexical units and pragmatic functions. We expect to find a common tendency towards a certain way of formation, typical of the Middle Ages legal discourse. 3. The existence of conventional knowledge about administrative style with established vocabulary and constructions for specific legal topics and contexts. Although we know that the concepts of documents were taught in notary schools, this research shows and highlights the extent to which they are structurally and cognitively based, i.e. the extent to which they demonstrate the connection of knowledge of the language and knowledge of the world. Introduction: Corpus, context, and the concept of 'conflict': When it comes to Croatian medieval literature, the most versatile constructions for expressing 'conflict' are expected in text types which express power, rights, and social behavior, i.e. legal documents. We have selected the Cyrillic corpus of Old Štokavian legal texts from the area of Dubrovnik, Bosnia, Raška (medieval Serbia), and Hum, which is somewhat neglected in domestic philology and collected in Stojanović (1929, 1932). The period from the 12th to the 14th century is chosen for multiple reasons: we have no preserved Old Štokavian documents from before the 12th century, that time frame coincides with one period of dialectological development of Old Štokavian (Lisac 1996, 2009, Ivić 1994), and that is the period in which most of the documents (and historically the most important documents) were written (Kuzmić 2009). An important aspect of cognitively based diachronic-semantic analysis is the study of the relationship between society, culture, thought, and language (Geeraerts 1997, Raffaelli 2009). We have dedicated some of the first chapters of the study to those questions. Another subject of the introductory chapters is the analysis of the narrower and broader context, i.e. micro- and macro-context of the constructions (Raffaelli 2009, 2015). We are aware that the meaning and structure of the constructions for expressing 'conflict' are affected by characteristics of the administrative text type, different pragmatic factors (such as the fact that charters are speech acts, Austin 1962), and the syntactic environment (clauses, i.e. propositions) in which constructions are incorporated. Based on the observed similarities of 'conflict' and the theory of force dynimics (Talmy 2000), as a cognitive-semantic model for the description of a relationship between entities with regard to energy, data collected from the corpus and different historical, dictionary, lexicographic, and socio-psychological sources were systematized and we defined a core (schematic) structure of 'conflict'. 'Conflict' is an active and dynamic relationship of opposing forces between two living organisms in a hostile relationship that are connected by a goal (the achievement of the same deficient goal or the achievement of conflicting goals), and according to whom medieval society had negative attitudes (condemned it, punished it, cursed it, etc.). That schematic model indicates that on the language level we can expect verbs as the basic carriers of encyclopedic data on 'conflict' (because 'conflict' is an action) placed in prototypical transitive constructions (Langacker 1991) of the structure [Nom–V–Acc] with two semantic roles that denote typical participants of that direct (hostile) relationship – malefactor and malefactive. However, due to the fact that 'conflict' is a complex phenomenon (culturally, timely, and individually dependent, direct, indirect, covert, open; Galtung 1969, 1996), it can be expressed in very different ways, resulting in a reshaping of the postulated schematic structure in such a way that the two typical roles can be expanded to three, the transitive construction can be transformed into a ditransitive one, roles can be removed, etc. Yet, the schematic definition of 'conflict' serves as a basis for understanding all the variations. Hence, we have determined some expectations not only with regard to the core expressions of 'conflict', but also with regard to marginality and atypicality. Theoretical framework: This study aims to determine the medieval ways of expressing 'conflict' using diachronic semantics and construction grammars. As a part of cognitive semantics, contemporary diachronic semantics is one of the branches of cognitive linguistics which studies the relationship between meaning, experience, and conceptual system in a past language period. To study language from a cognitive-semantic perspective means to try to explain the language system in relation to the conceptual system, which is associated with the embodied mind (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, Johnson 1987, Varela, Thompson and Rosch 1991). Cognitive semantics, as well as cognitive linguistics and usage models in general, claim that language units are related to concepts (conceptual domains, Langacker 1987 or scenes, Fillmore 1976, 1977a, 1977b) and they represent access points to a vast storage of encyclopedic knowledge (knowledge of the world). Scenes and frames theory asserts that the meaning of linguistic units cannot be understood independently of the background experience with which it is associated. At the same time, the conventional meaning of language units is constructed by using, i.e. by choosing an appropriate interpretation in relation to the usage context. Taking over the above-mentioned perspective, the reconstruction of meaning in this study is based on the syntactic-semantic description of the constructions expressing 'conflict' used in a concrete micro- and macro-context and on establishing the relationship between them. We combine a so called semasiological approach, which aims to reconstruct the meaning structure of individual lexemes from which the constructions are composed, and the onomasiological approach, which aims to investigate the processes of naming, i.e. expressing a certain concept. So, in contrast to traditional diachronic onomasiology, we analyzed structures more complex than lexemes – constructions. This approach reflects one of the fundamental contributions of this work to diachronic semantics. Construction grammars are the theoretical backbone of the analysis, especially the grammar of A. Goldberg (1995, 2006), which represents a novelty in the analysis of medieval texts in the world and especially in domestic philology. Critically reviewing Goldberg’s definitions, we defined constructions as conventionalized combinations of form and meaning in a certain context. The settings of construction grammar largely grow out of the scenes and frames semantics (Fillmore 1976, 1977a, 1977b) and an experientially based approach to language (Lakoff 1977, 1987). Accordingly, we approached the corpus with regard to specific scenes or domains of 'conflict' that were expressed in it by means of constructions. These scenes are systems of knowledge of the world, and for each of them, we have found some general and some specific types of constructions. Methods and the analysis: As the main carrier of linguistic and encyclopedic data, in cognitive diachronic semantics the context is the key to a correct methodological approach to meaning. The micro- and macrocontext that we reconstruct in the opening chapters of this study together with the constructions that express 'conflict' form a whole and a complete speech act. Observing the micro- and macrocontext as a speech act completes the meaning and determines the structural aspects of the constructions that are an integral part of them. According to that, all the examples of all constructions are given in the form of clauses (actual use of sentences in a certain situation; Langacker 1991, Givón 2001). By introduction of clauses in the analysis, we take into consideration those elements of the context for which before the analysis we were not able to say to what extent they belonged to the profiled, i.e. obligatory construction elements (e.g. adverbs). The analysis of constructions is presented according to the scenes or domains of 'conflict' and within each domain according to the specific syntactic structure. We have determined five domains of 'conflict' based on the profiling of the same or similar encyclopedic (extra-linguistic) data, specific matches at the level of the structure (including similar word formation patterns), and meaning (semantic roles): 'lawlessness', 'violence', 'abduction', 'breach of the charter' and 'transgressions/incursions'. Specific semantic and structural overlaps can be observed amongst the domains because they all express the same background concept. However, there are important structural realizations by which the domains differ. On the next level of analysis, we divide constructions into syntactic components, specifically verb/predicate, complements, and additions, and into semantic components, i.e. into semantic roles. Realizing the problematic nature of dividing roles into participant and argument roles (Goldberg 1995, 2006) connected either to the verb or to the construction, we use the term semantic roles as the central place of the continuum between the participant and argument roles. We consider semantic roles not only a reflection of the semantic connection of verbs and constructions, but above all their compatibility with a wider event model whose concrete scene they express. This means that the roles are conventionalized and conditioned by the nature of 'conflict' as a phenomenon. We have established two prototype roles (malefactor and malefactive) and a few other roles which are shown to be important in scenes of 'conflict' (relationship, sociative, etc). Each semantic role that participates in the expression of some element of 'conflict' was marked as a concrete syntactic complement. Traditional syntactic markings such as subject, object, etc., which are usually used in construction grammars are not taken over, but we rather discuss complements with case markings (Nom, Gen, Acc, etc.) because they are more informative for Old Štokavian. In the analysis we first present the most common and frequent constructions (because frequency indicates entrenchment in the mind and conventionalization in the society) – simple transitive and ditransitive constructions in which the verb expresses the majority of the conceptual meaning of 'conflict', then we represent complex constructions in which the majority of the meaning lies in complex predicate constructions and finally other less regular, schematic and productive, but more idiomatic constructions. Some scenes or their parts are expressed by a specific type of construction, which is especially highlighted. After each chapter, the results are presented statistically in tables. Results: The constructions that express 'conflict' reflect the features of the conceptual meaning of 'conflict' presented in the schematic model, so there are certain common places in different domains ('lawlessness', 'violence', 'abduction', 'breach of the charter' and 'transgressions/incursions'). It is most important to note the dominance of the prototypical transitive construction [Nom–V–Ak], with nominative and accusative complements which express the direct relationship of opposition between the referents expressed by the semantic roles of malefactor and malefactive. In most of these constructions, the full-meaning verb (e.g. vezati ‘to tie up’, ubiti ‘to kill’, sramotiti ‘to embarrass’, etc.) is the basic carrier of extralinguistic information about 'conflict', and in the others it is usually a predicate complement, i.e. complex predicate constructions which are also typical for the administrative style (e.g. učiniti štetu ‘to do damage’, i.e. štetiti ‘to damage’, imati svađu ‘to have a fight’, i.e. svađati se ‘to fight’, etc). An important part of the meaning is carried out by other complements as well (semantic roles, adverbials, etc). Such language realizations are expected systematicity. However, in a non-negligible number of examples, we have observed some specific differences with respect to the context and domain. The typical direct relationship of opposition was coded in various other ways indicating some other elements in the conceptual meaning of 'conflict', for example receiving in a non-prototypical transitive construction [Nom–V–Dat]. The tendency to express malefactives with a dative complement (“dative of misfortune”, Wierzbicka 1988) instead of the expected accusative comes to the fore even more in ditransitive constructions [Nom–V–Ak–Dat] and various atypical transformations. Thus, it was noticed that dative complement, if it carries one of the two key roles of 'conflict', is not ommitable, i.e. it is profiled. Contrary to the theoretical literature, the accusative was an emissive or non-profiled complement because it usually denoted a semantically empty object (“empty/null complement”, Fillmore 1986), e.g. pakostiti nešto nekomu ‘to harm something to someone’. In this way, we saw an important methodological detail: before determining the (un)profiledness of complements and additions, it is necessary to carry out a full semantic analysis and reconstruct which syntactic units have which meanings. They could express the core of some extralinguistic data in a certain context and thus be profiled. This was shown for adverbials po sili, silom, posilijem ‘by forcing’ in the constructions for expressing 'abductions'. Pragmatically very specific bez- and ne-constructions (‘without- and no-constructions’) whose usage has also been shown to be limited to only two domains – 'lawlessness' and 'breach of the charter', indicated caution in removing additions as non-profiled parts of constructions. Both constructions are syntactic additions and semantically completely eliminable, but for pragmatic reasons (emphasis) they appeared regularly and frequently as post-modifications and are a permanent part of the context. In some constructions, the fundamental parameters of 'conflict' can be shaded (Goldberg 1995). This is observed in the construction of society for expressing 'transgressions/incursions' where semantic roles are expressed in a more neutral way (X and Y are fighting, X is fighting with Y). Also, instead of using a typical transitive construction (X attacks Y), the direct relationship between the opponents in fights is mitigated by using the construction of directed movement (X approaches on the top of Y) based on the conceptual metaphor CONTROL IS UP/LOSS OF CONTROL IS DOWN (Lakoff i Johnson 1980). From the above, we can conclude that directness and negativity connected to the roles in war and fights were clearly not a part of the medieval legal-diplomatic convention on the Balkans. In each domain, we also saw some less productive, substantive constructions with idiomatized meaning. They can be both encoding (prići na koga ‘approach upon someone’, i.e. napasti ‘attack’) and decoding (ponesti ponos ‘bring pride’, i.e. osramotiti ‘ashame’) (Fillmore et al. 1988). Furthermore, we noticed that many constructions and domains show structural mixtures (e.g. curses), so we analyzed synonymous strings of lexemes and constructions that indicate those mixtures. Comparable to that, on the level od macro-context, we noted synonymous sequences of performatives that introduce constructions. We concluded that this is obviously a principle that acts on linguistic units at different levels. This conclusion speaks in support of the cognitivist thesis about generalization and the absence of fundamental differences in the functioning of different language levels. Finally, from 544 examples of constructions we were able to abstract the following formal, i.e. schematized constructions for expressing 'conflict': typical transitive [Nom–V–Ak], untypical transitive [Nom–V–Dat], ditransitive [Nom–V–Ak–Dat], constructions with eliminated roles (different structure, e.g. [Vrefl–Ak]), construction of society that is used in the domain of 'transgressions/incursions' [Nom–Vrefl–PrepInst], construction of directed movement that is used to express 'attack' [Nom–V–PrepAk], and complex predicate constructions that can be transitive, ditransitive and elided, for example [Nom–Pred–Dat], učiniti pakost komu ‘to make malice to someone’, i.e. pakostiti ‘harass’. Conclusion: This dissertation has interpreted many aspects of the conceptual meaning of 'conflict' and its general and typical, as well as those more peripheral, or less typical realizations. The analysis of the corpus built on cognitive and constructional theoretical-methodological foundations enabled a wider insight and more convincing possibilities of interpretation of the concept and its expressions. Construction grammars proved to be a very suitable tool for a comprehensive description of complex syntactic-semantic structures due to the fact that linguistic realizations of the concept of 'conflict' are more complex than the lexical level, they are context-dependent, and carry rich encyclopedic data. Therein lies the proof that syntactic-sematic analysis of the older language state can have solid theoretical-methodological foundations. The research results confirmed the three initial hypotheses of this paper. The first and main hypothesis – the existence of structural and semantic regularities in the expression of the term 'conflict', is confirmed by the calculated predominance of those constructions that are predicted by the core (schematic) model. The deviations from that prototype are semantically and pragmatically motivated and are also limited by their number and forms to a certain domain of 'conflict' and a certain context. The second hypothesis – that the system of regularities established at the syntagmatic level in the form of constructions is observable at the paradigmatic level is shown in many examples. First of all, in the tendency to express 'conflict' as a receiving relationship, which is reflected in the expressing of malefactive with a dative complement. This tendency has been observed even in idiomatized, more irregular, and less productive constructions. The second hypothesis is also confirmed by the tendency to express 'conflict' with a complex transitive construction (complex predicate constructions), which sometimes shows the possibility of expanding the meaning (činiti krv ‘make blood’, i.e. ubiti ‘kill’ compared to other non-metaphorical constructions [make X], such as činiti pakost ‘make malice’, i.e. pakostiti ‘spite/harass’). It is precisely the paradigmatic relationship of idiomatized constructions with more regular and expected constructions that makes it possible to understand such structures as well. The principles of elidation and complex predicate constructions encompass different linguistic levels, including performatives, i.e. speech acts themselves. The proof of the third hypothesis – the existence of conventional knowledge about administrative style with common vocabulary and expressions consists in the observed repetition of structural-meaning units, i.e. constructions throughout a period of 300 years in the texts of different authors from different geographical areas. This cannot be explained only by copying or translating from Latin, Greek or Italian. Over the centuries, we can observe variations that indicate certain conventions and this study highlights to what extent these units are structurally and cognitively based, that is, to what extent they form a connected part of the language system. When expressing a concept that is as current and universal as 'conflict', the syntactic and semantic reconstruction of the constructions carried out in this research not only sheds light on the ways of expressing 'conflict' in one linguistic period, but also points to those features that we could find in other periods and cultures, and that is the goal of diachronic semantics. The onomasiological approach and detailed syntactic-semantic analysis of constructions in the micro- and macro-context, as well as bringing the constructions into connection at the paradigmatic level, can serve as a model for the description of other concepts in the Croatian Old Slavonic language.

Questa tesi analizza la strategia traduttiva utilizzata nell'adattamento teatrale del film Perfetti sconosciuti intitolato Potpuni stranci, eseguito nel 2020 dal teatro Luda Kuća a Zagabria. È importante sottolineare che gli autori che analizzano l'adattamento dal punto di vista traduttologico concordano sul fatto che l'adattamento di un testo per la messa in scena teatrale richiede numerosi cambiamenti che nella traduzione filologica di regola non sono necessari. L'adattamento come concetto terminologico appare per la prima volta nella classificazione di Vinay e Darbelnet come una delle sette possibili strategie traduttive, mentre nella traduzione per il teatro viene usato come un termine che si riferisce alla produzione del metatesto nella sua interezza. Nelle analisi teoriche dei cambiamenti che avvengono nel processo di traduzione per il teatro di solito vengono sottolineati il registro, lo stile e il contesto come gli elementi principali che subiscono cambiamenti. In questa tesi verranno esaminate diverse tipologie di procedimenti appartenenti all’adattamento che sono state utilizzate nella creazione del metatesto. Il corpus utilizzato nella tesi è ottenuto per via della trascrizione della lista dei dialoghi del film italiano che funge da prototesto, nonché della trascrizione delle battute dello spettacolo croato che è, infatti, il metatesto. L’analisi dell’adattamento viene eseguita confrontando le differenze tra gli esempi rilevanti appartenenti al prototesto e al metatesto. Da questo confronto sorge la divisione in diverse sottocategorie di procedimenti, che verifica le ipotesi già poste nella letteratura teorica consultata. In aggiunta, il nostro lavoro interpretativo è stato arricchito dal materiale ottenuto da un'intervista etnografica che ci ha fornito tante informazioni estensive su tutte le fasi del processo di adattamento. Ovaj rad analizira prevoditeljsku strategiju korištenu u kazališnoj adaptaciji filma Perfetti sconosciuti, koju je pod hrvatskim naslovom Potpuni stranci 2020. godine predstavilo kazalište Luda Kuća u Zagrebu. Važno je istaknuti kako su autori koji se bave traduktološkim analizama adaptacije suglasni u tome da adaptacija teksta za kazališnu izvedbu zahtijeva brojne intervencije kakve u filološkom prijevodu obično nisu potrebne. Adaptacija se kao traduktološki termin po prvi put pojavljuje u klasifikaciji Vinayja i Daberlneta kao jedna od sedam mogućih prevoditeljskih strategija, a u prevođenju za kazalište koristi se kao termin koji se odnosi na proizvodnju čitavog metateksta. U teorijskim analizama promjena koje se događaju u procesu nastajanja kazališnoga prijevoda najčešće se ističe da su njima najviše izloženi registar, stil i kontekst. U ovome se radu ispituju različite vrste adaptacijskih postupaka koji su iskorišteni u procesu stvaranja metateksta. Korpus na kojem se provodi analiza dobiven je transkripcijom filmskih dijaloga talijanskoga filma koji čine prototekst te dijaloga u hrvatskoj kazališnoj predstavi koja prestavlja metatekst. Analiza postupaka provodi se kroz usporedbu relevantnih primjera iz prototeksta i metateksta. Iz usporedbe razlika prototeksta filma s metatekstom kazališne adaptacije proizašla je podjela na nekoliko različitih vrsta adaptacija koja potvrđuje pretpostavke iz konzultirane literature. Dodatni materijal za rad dobiven je primjenom metode etnografskog intervjua koja je dala uvid u sve etape procesa adaptacije.

Od najranije dobi djeca su izložena medijima, oni oblikuju dječje razmišljanje, ponašanje i način komuniciranja te samim time oni imaju veliki utjecaj na djetetov odgoj i obrazovanje od najranije dobi. Upravo se djeca i adolescenti smatraju posebno osjetljivom vrstom medijske publike jer nemaju dovoljno razvijene emocionalne, kognitivne i moralne sposobnosti te su u fazi izgradnje stavova, usvajanja i stalnoga prilagođavanja socijalizacijskim okvirima i normama ponašanja. Iako se vrlo često ističu tri glavne zadaće medija – informirati, formirati i zabaviti – isto se tako često spominju i njihove negativne strane. Pozitivne strane medija uključuju razvijanje vještine pisanja, djeca mogu učiti pisati slova abecede uz pomoć raznih edukacijskih videoigara i aplikacija. Mediji također potiču razvoj kreativnosti, učenje brojenja, a igranje videoigara s prijateljima i članovima obitelji može im pomoći u svladavanju i poštivanju igranja uloga i u razvijanju suradničkih vještina. Uz sve te pozitivne strane djeca također preko ekrana mogu vidjeti nasilje, gledati emisije neprimjerenih sadržaja za njihovu dob, raditi razne izazove koji se nude preko YouTube-a. Elektronički mediji za vrijeme pandemije COVID-19 postali su neizostavan dio dječjega života. U radu se prikazuje analiza rezultata prikupljenih anketom kojom su ispitana djeca predškolske dobi u dobi od pet do sedam godina. Istraživanje se temelji na utvrđivanju korištenja medija prije i za vrijeme pandemije COVID-19 te vrijeme korištenja medija sada. Analiza je pokazala kako je najveći broj djece prije pandemije provodio ispred ekrana do dva sata, a u vrijeme pandemije i sada ta količina se povećala na više od dva sata dnevno. Kao najzastupljeniji medij djeca su navela televizor, zatim slijedi tablet, mobitel, igraće konzole i računalo. Od ukupnog broja ispitanika, 87% izjasnilo se kako su najčešće gledali animirane crtiće. Zabrinjavajuće situacije osim provođenja previše vremena uz elektroničke medije su i te da pojedina djeca gledaju sadržaje ispred malih ekrana sama te da ne razgovaraju o odgledanom sadržaju sa starijima, što je veoma bitno zbog neprimjerenih sadržaja s kojima se mogu susresti. Usprkos toga što mediji nude veliki izbor sadržaja, djeca svoje slobodno vrijeme provode uz igru sa svojim igračkama. From an early age, children are exposed to the media, and they shape children's thinking, behavior and way of communicating, and thus they have a great influence on the child's upbringing and education from an early age. It is children and adolescents who are considered a particularly sensitive type of media audience because they do not have sufficiently developed emotional, cognitive and moral abilities and are in the phase of building attitudes, adopting and constantly adapting to socialization frameworks and behavioral norms. Although the three main tasks of the media are very often emphasized - to inform, to form and to entertain - their negative aspects are also often mentioned. The positive sides of media include developing writing skills, children can learn to write the letters of the alphabet with the help of various educational video games and applications. Media also encourages the development of creativity, learning to count, and playing video games with friends and family members can help them master and respect role-playing and develop cooperative skills. In addition to all these positive aspects, children can also see violence on the screen, watch programs with inappropriate content for their age, and do various challenges that are offered on YouTube. During the COVID-19 pandemic, electronic media have become an indispensable part of children's lives. The paper presents an analysis of the results collected by a survey that examined preschool children aged five to seven. The research is based on the determination of media use before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the time of media use now. The analysis showed that before the pandemic, the largest number of children spent up to two hours in front of the screen, and during the pandemic, even now, this amount has increased to more than two hours a day. Children cited television as the most represented medium, followed by tablets, mobile phones, game consoles and a computer. Out of the total number of respondents, 87% declared that they most often watched animated cartoons. Worrying situations besides spending too much time with electronic media are also that some children watch content in front of small screens alone, and that they do not discuss the viewed content with their elders, which is very important because of the inappropriate content they may encounter. Even though the media offers a wide variety of content, children spend their free time playing with their toys.

Moda je oduvijek bila jedan od najzastupljenijih načina samoizražavanja i autonomije. Dvadesetih godina prošlog stoljeća počinje se mijenjati uloga žene u društvu što je rezultiralo promjenama u modi, a samim time i promjenama na naslovnici. U tom periodu naslovnice Vogue časopisa krasile su ilustracije koje su savršeno predstavljale stil svoga vremena. Suprotno tome, danas više nema neviđenoga u modi. Teško je postaviti nove trendove koji nisu samo povratak nečega iz prijašnjih desetljeća. Nekada su na naslovnicama bile imaginarne djevojke, a danas naslovnice krase svjetski poznate zvijezde. Na taj se način pažnja s odjevne kombinacije prebacila na osobu koja se nalazi na naslovnici i na njezinu priču. Prema tome, cilj istraživanja bio je istražiti način na koji se naslovnica Vogue časopisa mijenjala kroz stoljeće te kako se mijenjala poruka koju naslovnica želi prenijeti. Istraživanje se temelji na Barthesovoj semiološkoj analizi odijela na naslovnicama časopisa Vogue u razdoblju između 1920.-1930. godine usporedno s razdobljem između 2010.-2020. godine. Fashion has always been a way of self-expression and autonomy. In the 1920s, women's role in society began to change, which resulted in changes in fashion, and at the same time in the changes on the covers. In that period, the covers of Vogue magazine consisted of illustrations that perfectly represented the style of their time. On the contrary, in today's fashion, there's nothing that hasn't been seen already. It is difficult to set new trends that are not just the return of something from previous decades. In the past, the covers portrayed imaginary girls, and today on the covers we can find only celebrities. Accordingly, the attention shifted from the fashion itself to the person on the cover. The main goal of the analysis is to research how did the covers of Vogue magazine change throughout the century and how the message that the cover wants to communicate has changed with it. The research is based on Barthes' semiological analysis of the clothing on the covers of Vogue magazine in the period between 1920.-1930. compared to the period between 2010.-2020.

Poslovice su metaforički izrazi koji se prenose s koljena na koljeno, a izražavaju opća zajednička iskustva te služe kao savjet ili životna mudrost. Poslovice su usko povezane s kulturom i tradicijom i stoga se razlikuju među jezicima. Mnoge poslovice potječu iz narodnih pripovijesti, religije i književnosti. Iako engleski, hrvatski i njemački nemaju mnogo toga zajedničkog osim što su indoeuropski jezici, dijele znatnu količinu poslovica koje se javljaju u istom sintaktičkom i leksičkom obliku te imaju isto značenje. Poslovice karakterizira nepromjenjiva struktura. U ovom se diplomskom radu analiziraju modifikacije poslovica u engleskom, hrvatskom i njemačkom jeziku te se ispituje njihova pojavnost u korpusu. Za istraživanje se rabe mrežni korpusi dostupni preko platforme Sketch Engine. Istraživanje prikazuje načine na koje se poslovice mijenjaju u korpusu, koje su njihove moguće varijacije, koji su dijelovi poslovice najskloniji promjenama, a koji ostaju relativno nepromjenjivi. Cilj je rada istražiti koliko su ova tri jezika fleksibilna kada je riječ o modificiranju poslovica. Ispitano je primjerice je li moguće zamijeniti leksičku jedinicu u poslovici, kao što je imenica, i ako je tako, koje su to imenice. Dobivene su se varijacije usporedile u ova tri jezika pritom se usredotočujući na poslovice koje imaju isto značenje i strukturu u engleskom, hrvatskom i njemačkom jeziku. Rezultati pokazuju da struktura poslovica nije toliko fiksna kako njene definicije nalažu. Proverbs are metaphorical expressions that are passed down from generation to generation, expressing common shared experiences and folk wisodm serving as advice for life. Proverbs are closely related to culture and tradition and therefore differ between languages. Many proverbs come from folk tales, religion and literature. Although English, Croatian and German do not have much in common other than being Indo-European languages, they share a considerable amount of proverbs that appear in the same syntactic and lexical form and have the same meaning. Proverbs are characterized by a fixed structure. The aim of this thesis was to analyze the modifications of proverbs in English, Croatian and German by examining their occurrence in the corpus. Internet corpora available through the Sketch Engine platform were used for this research. The research shows the ways in which proverbs change in the corpus, what are their possible variations, which parts of the proverb are most prone to change, and which remain relatively unchanged. The aim was to determine how flexible these three languages are when it comes to modifying proverbs. It was examined, for example, whether it is possible to replace a lexical unit in a proverb, such as a noun, and if so, which are these nouns. The resulting variations were compared in these three languages while focusing on proverbs that have the same meaning and structure in English, Croatian and German. The research showed that the structure of proverbs is not as fixed as its definitions suggest.

Cilj ovog rada usporedba je nizozemskih i hrvatskih frazema na temelju prikaza na Bruegelovoj slici Nizozemske poslovice. Slika je nastala u 16. stoljeću i već je dugo predmetom frazeoloških istraživanja. Kontrastivnom analizom uspostavljen je odnos podudarnosti između nizozemskih frazema i odabranih im hrvatskih ekvivalenata. Teoretski dio rada uspoređuje razvoj frazeologije na oba govorna područja te daje opći uvid u jezikoslovnu tradiciju kojoj pripada proučavanje ove slike, s kratkim osvrtom na povijest prikupljanja poslovica. Slijede usporedba terminologije na oba jezična područja te uspostava terminologije koja će se potom koristiti, definicija te kategorizacija frazeoloških cjelina. Potom se objašnjavaju alati korišteni za srž rada, a to su kontrastivna analiza te pojam ekvivalencije. U teoretskom dijelu se još i kontekstualizira nastanak slike – od kulturne klime 16. stoljeća na sjeverozapadu Europe, do Bruegelova nastavljanja tek započete tradicije monumentalnih prikaza jezičnih pojava. Također, sumarno se navodi Bruegelov život te se opisuju neke formalne karakteristike slike. U praktičnom dijelu rada uspostavlja se korpus frazema koje će se potom analizirati, iznose se njegovi izvori te kriteriji korišteni za odabir. Konačni korpus čini 117 frazema nad kojima je provedena strukturna, tipološka te semantička analiza, a izneseno je i objašnjenje svakog pojedinog frazema. Kontrastivna analiza frazema čini zadnji, glavni dio rada. Pokazala je da gotovo četvrtina frazema iz korpusa ima istovrijedan ekvivalent u hrvatskom jeziku, a 23,9 % ih se djelomično podudara s nekim od hrvatskih frazema i oni su uglavnom zasnovani na zajedničkom izvoru. Više od polovica frazema iz korpusa nema odgovarajući frazem u hrvatskom jeziku, ali je pronađen neki slična značenja. Tek 8 frazema nema apsolutno nikakav usporediv frazem u hrvatskom jeziku. Iz navedenog se može zaključiti da, unatoč kulturnoj razlici, postoji niz ekvivalentnih frazema u oba jezika koji vuku podrijetlo iz antike ili Biblije, no veći dio frazema ipak ostaje kulturno specifičan. The aim of this paper is to compare Dutch and Croatian idioms depicted in Bruegel's painting Netherlandish Proverbs. The painting was made in the 16th century and has been the subject of phraseological research for a long time. A contrastive analysis was used to find Croatian equivalents to the depicted Dutch phrases. The theoretical part of the paper compares the development of phraseology in the Netherlands and Croatia and gives a general insight into their linguistic tradition, with a summary of paremiology. This is followed by a comparison of the terminology in both language areas and the establishment of the terminology that will be used later, the definition and categorization of phraseological units. After that, the tools which are used for the core of the paper are explained – the contrastive analysis as well as the concept of equivalence. The practical part of the thesis is focused on the establishing of the phraseological corpus, which will be later analysed, as well as its sources and criteria for choosing presented. The final corpus consists of 117 idioms on which a structural, typological and semantic analysis was carried out, and an explanation of each idiom was presented. Contrastive analysis of idioms constitutes the last, main part of the paper. It showed that almost a quarter of the idioms from the corpus has an equivalent in the Croatian language, and 23.9% of them partially coincide with some of the Croatian idioms as they are mostly based on a common source. More than half of the idioms from the corpus do not have a corresponding idiom in the Croatian language, but an idiom with a similar meaning can be found. Only 8 idioms have absolutely no comparable idiom in the Croatian language. It can be concluded that, despite the cultural difference, we can find equivalent idioms in both languages, and their origins are common to be traced either to antiquity or the Bible, but most of the idioms remain culturally specific.

U ovome je radu predstavljen model leksikona hrvatskih vidskih parnjaka. Zadaća ovoga rada bila je predočiti potencijal izgradnje takva leksikona, istaknuti probleme koji bi se mogli pojaviti pri toj izgradnji te navesti neka moguća proširenja leksikona. U prvome dijelu rad sadrži teorijske postavke potrebne za izradu takva leksikona. Najvažniji su dijelovi tih teorijskih postavki opisi morfema, afikasa, različitih tvorbenih procesa i tvorbe glagola. Rad se ujedno osvrće i na glagolskovidska značenja. U sljedećemu dijelu rada opisuje se Lexonomy kao alat za izradu leksikona, a zatim se detaljno definira struktura natuknice koja se koristi u leksikonu. Najvažniji su elementi te strukture u svrhu pretraživanja leksikona korijen i element u kojemu se nalazi polazni oblik od kojega je glagol u natuknici nastao. S pomoću ovih dvaju elemenata korisnici mogu lako pronaći vidske parnjake, a i sve ostale glagole istoga korijena koji se nalaze u leksikonu. Potencijalni problemi koji se mogu pronaći u ovakvu leksikonu jesu složenice, prijevoj i homonimija, a moguća dodatna proširenja koja mogu ovakav leksikon obogatiti jesu drugi korijen, raščlamba na morfeme, glagolskovidska značenja, označavanje sekundarne imperfektivizacije i proširenje pretrage drugim elementima. In this paper, a model of the lexicon of Croatian aspectual pairs is presented. The task of this paper is to present the potential of building such a lexicon, highlight the problems that could arise in that construction, and list some possible expansions of the lexicon. At the beginning, the paper describes the theoretical principles necessary for creating such a lexicon. The most important parts of these theoretical principles are the descriptions of morphemes, affixes, different formation processes and verb formation. The paper also reviews semantic categories of verbs. In the next part of the paper, Lexonomy is described as a tool for creating a lexicon and the structure of the entry used in the lexicon is defined in detail. For the purpose of searching the lexicon, the most important elements of that structure are the root and the element that contains the stem from which the verb in the entry was derived. Using these two elements, users can easily find aspectual pairs and other verbs of the same root found in the lexicon as well. Potential problems that can be found in such a lexicon are compounds, ablaut and homonymy, and possible additional extensions that can enrich such a lexicon are the second root, segmentation into affixes, semantic categories of verbs, marking of secondary imperfectives, and expanding the search through other elements.

Ovaj se diplomski rad bavi pregledom hrvatske i engleske literature u kojima se diskutira o glagolskim perifrazama, kao i o perifraznim glagolima. Svrha je pregleda literature smišljanje i određivanje kriterija za odabir glagolskih perifraza i u konačnici za izradu leksikona. Rad je podijeljen na teorijski i praktični dio. U teorijskome se dijelu, osim literature koja se dotiče glagolskih perifraza, nalazi i pregled modernih leksikografskih teorija i metoda. One su primijenjene kasnije u radu za izradu leksikona. Leksikonu se može pristupiti preko poveznice koja je uključena u rad. U radu je prikazan i izgled sučelja leksikona, a detaljno je opisan i proces njegova kreiranja. This master's thesis deals with an overview of Croatian and English literature in which light verb constructions and light verbs are talked about. The purpose of the overview of the literature is both to create and determine criteria for the choice of light verb constructions, as well as lexicon creation. The thesis is divided into theoretical and practical parts. In theoretical, apart form the literature which deals with light verb constructions, an overview of modern lexicographic theories and methods can be found. They are later applied during the process of lexicon creation. The lexicon can be accessed through the link which is included in the thesis. We have shown the interface of the lexicon, and the process of its creation was shown in great detail.

La presente tesi tratta il processo del sottotitolaggio del film italiano Benvenuti al Sud (2010). Nella tesi vengono proposte la traduzione del film (dall’italiano al croato) e l’analisi della traduzione. Il film scelto è una commedia piena di espressioni dialettali, per cui questa tesi riguarda anche le problematiche relative al processo del sottotitolaggio riguardanti il dialetto. Il film è risultato piuttosto complesso da tradurre perché, oltre la lingua italiana, va considerato anche il dialetto napoletano e quello milanese. La tesi è divisa in dieci capitoli. Prima va affrontato il sottotitolaggio come una pratica traduttiva, molto limitata dallo spazio e dal tempo, che consiste nel presentare un testo scritto, più precisamente i dialoghi della colonna sonora, generalmente nella parte inferiore dello schermo. Si riflette sulla traduzione audiovisiva, sulle sue strategie (riduzione testuale, condensazione e riformulazione, omissione, coesione e coerenza) e sulle caratteristiche della lingua nel sottotitolaggio (discorso marcato: dialetto e turpiloquio, elementi culturali e umorismo). Tra l’altro, vengono date le informazioni più importanti sul film Benvenuti al Sud, vanno presentate la trascrizione del film e la traduzione dei sottotitoli e va proposta l’analisi e il commento della traduzione dei sottotitoli. Vengono analizzate le imprecazioni, il dialetto oppure la lingua non standardizzata, gli elementi culturali, l’umorismo e molti casi di intraducibilità che sono stati tradotti con una maggiore libertà. Nell’analisi gli esempi vengono divisi in tabelle e spiegati insieme a tutte le difficoltà incontrate durante il processo del sottotitolaggio. Alla fine, si sottolinea l’importanza e la complessità del sottotitolaggio come tale. Si conclude che ogni lingua è speciale e che la lingua di arrivo dovrebbe adattarsi alla lingua di partenza, per cui molte cose, purtroppo, vengono perse durante il processo del sottotitolaggio., Ovaj diplomski rad bavi se procesom titlovanja talijanskoga filma Benvenuti al Sud (2010.). U radu se prikazuje prijevod filma (s talijanskog na hrvatski) i analiza prijevoda. Odabrani film je komedija puna dijalektalnih izraza pa se ovaj diplomski rad bavi i problemima u samom procesu titlovanja koji se tiču dijalekta. Film je vrlo složen za prevođenje jer osim talijanskog jezika treba uzeti u obzir i napuljski i milanski dijalekt. Diplomski rad je podijeljen u deset poglavlja. Prvo se proučava titlovanje kao prevoditeljska praksa, vrlo ograničena prostorom i vremenom, koja se sastoji od predstavljanja pisanog teksta, točnije dijaloga zvučnog zapisa, uglavnom u donjem dijelu ekrana. Govori se o audiovizualnom prijevodu, njegovim strategijama (tekstualna redukcija, kondenzacija i preformulacija, izostavljanje, kohezija i koherencija) i karakteristikama jezika u titlovanju (obilježeni govor: dijalekt i psovke, kulturološki elementi i humor). Između ostalog, daju se najvažniji podaci o filmu Benvenuti al Sud, transkript filma i prijevod titlova te analiza i komentar na prijevod titlova. Analiziraju se psovke, dijalekt ili nestandardni jezik, kulturološki elementi, humor i mnogi slučajevi neprevodivosti koji su prevođeni s više slobode. U analizi su primjeri podijeljeni u tablice i objašnjeni zajedno sa svim poteškoćama uočenim tijekom procesa titlovanja. Naposljetku, ističe se važnost i kompleksnost titlovanja kao takvog. Zaključuje se da je svaki jezik poseban i da se izvorni jezik treba prilagoditi ciljnom jeziku pa se, nažalost, mnogo toga gubi tijekom samog procesa titlovanja

Djetetov govor važno je njegovati od samoga početka te se kroz ovaj rad mogućnost dramskog izričaja prikazao kao odličan alat za komunikaciju između odgojitelja i djeteta isto kao i djece međusobno. Kroz različite načine djeca su imala mogućnost sudjelovanja u stvaranju predstave, kroz zabavu i igru što je djeci najbliži oblik učenja. Kroz uvodni dio rada, proučilo se kako se govor razvija, koje su početne govorne etape, koji su simptomi usporenog razvoja govora te kakav utjecaj zaostajanje govora ima na daljnji djetetov cjelokupni razvoj. Zatim se naznačilo koliko različiti čimbenici imaju utjecaj na razvoj govora, poput okoline u kojoj se dijete nalazi, kretanje samog djeteta, izlaganje prirodnom svjetlu, razgovaranje, čitanje, utjecaj razvoja fine motorike, te naposljetku utjecaj i samog odgojitelja na djetetov razvoj govora. Sljedeća stavka ovog rada bio je dramski izričaj, odnosno kako različiti segmenti dramskog izričaja utječu na razvoj djetetova govora. Tako smo se dotakli nekih od elemenata dramskog izričaja poput slikovnice, lutke, glazbe, likovna umjetnost i pokret. Glavni sadržaj ovog rada bila je izvedba aktivnosti u dječjem vrtiću gdje su se ukomponirali prethodno navedi elementi dramskog izričaja u cijeli proces učenja i stvaranja kroz igru. Djeca su imala priliku iskusiti stvaranje i izvedbu predstave za koju su prethodno izradili sve potrebne rekvizite. Svakako bi se iz provedenih aktivnosti moglo zaključiti da dijete uči kroz igru i stvaranje, razvijanje svoje kreativnosti, promatranju sebe i drugih te na taj način ne razvija se samo govor već i ostali čimbenici koji su potrebni za kvalitetan rast i razvoj djeteta. It is important to nurture the child's speech from the very beginning and through this work the possibility of dramatic expression has been presented as an excellent tool for communication between the educator and the child as well as the children with each other. Through different ways, children had the opportunity to participate in the creation of the show, through fun and play, which is the closest form of learning to children. It was studied how speech develops, what are the initial speech stages, what are the symptoms of slow speech development, and what impact lagging speech has on the child's further overall development. It was then indicated how much different factors have an impact on the development of speech, such as the environment in which the child is located, the movement of the child himself, exposure to natural light, talking, reading, the impact of the development of fine motor skills, and finally the influence of the teacher’s himself on the child's speech development. Further-on, how different segments of dramatic expression affect the development of the child's speech. So, we introduced some of the elements of dramatic expression such as picture book, doll, music, fine art and movement. The main content of this work was the performance of activities in the kindergarten where they incorporated the previously listed elements of dramatic expression into the whole process of learning and creating through play. The children had the opportunity to experience the creation and performance of the show for which they had previously created all the necessary props. It could certainly be concluded from the activities carried out that the child learns through play and creation, developing his creativity, observing himself and others, and in this way not only speech develops, but also other factors that are necessary for the quality growth and development of the child.

Ovaj diplomski rad bavi se temom jezičnoga izražavanja emocije ljutnje s pomoću niječnih imperativnih konstrukcija u hrvatskome jeziku, a temeljni je cilj proširiti opseg tema posvećenih jezičnome izražavanju emocija u hrvatskoj lingvistici. U tu je svrhu provedena semantičko-pragmatička i sintaktička analiza dva korpusa – vlastito sastavljenoga korpusa komentara s društvene mreže Facebook i hrvatskoga mrežnog korpusa pod nazivom hrWaC – uzimajući u obzir podjednako saznanja iz psihologije i lingvistike. Sam rad podijeljen je na teorijski i praktični dio. U prvome se dijelu predstavlja teorijsko-metodološki okvir kognitivne lingvistike i konstrukcijskih gramatika koji smo usvojili za ovaj rad, definira se emocija ljutnje i postavlja se pitanje njezina jezičnog izražavanja te se objašnjava pojam imperativnosti i imperativnih konstrukcija, a posebice onih niječnih. S druge strane, u praktičnome se dijelu prvo prikazuju rezultati preliminarne analize korpusa komentara s Facebooka koji su bili polazište za središnju analizu hrWaC-a, a zatim prikazujemo potonju i njezine rezultate. Naposljetku, na temelju dobivenih uvida iz analiza nastoji se pružiti odgovor na pitanje mogu li se i kako niječne imperativne konstrukcije smatrati jezičnim izrazima koji kodiraju emociju ljutnje. El tema de la presente tesina es la expresión lingüística de la emoción de enfado mediante las construcciones imperativas negativas en la lengua croata, mientras que el objetivo principal es contribuir al estudio de la expresión lingüística de las emociones en dicha lengua. Por lo tanto, se ha hecho un análisis semántico-pragmático y sintáctico de dos corpus, teniendo en cuenta tanto los conocimientos psicológicos como los lingüísticos. Uno de los corpus en cuestión contiene comentarios de Facebook, y lo hemos formado nosotros mismos, mientras que el otro es el corpus croata más grande denominado hrWaC (corpus web croata). La tesina está dividida en la parte práctica y en la parte teórica. En la primera parte se presenta el marco teórico-metodológico de la lingüística cognitiva y de la gramática de construcciones que hemos adoptado, se define el enfado y se introduce la cuestión de su expresión lingüística y, además, se explica la noción de construcciones imperativas, poniendo énfasis en las construcciones negativas. Por otro lado, en la parte práctica se presentan los resultados del análisis preliminar del corpus de los comentarios de Facebook porque se trata de la base del análisis principal realizado de hrWaC. Claramente, se presentan también los resultados del análisis principal. Al fin, a base de todos los resultados, se trata de explicar si y cómo las construcciones imperativas negativas pueden considerarse unas de las expresiones lingüísticas del enfado. In this master’s thesis, we aim to illustrate how Croatian speakers use negative imperative constructions to linguistically express their anger. Accordingly, the main aim of this thesis is to contribute to the study of the linguistic expression of emotions in Croatian linguistics. For that reason, we conducted a semantic-pragmatic and syntactic analysis of two corpora – a self-made corpus of Facebook comments and the Croatian Web Corpus (hrWaC) – taking into account both psychological and linguistic knowledge. Also, the thesis is divided into the practical part and the theoretical part. In the first part, the theoretical-methodological framework of cognitive linguistics and the construction grammar is presented, the emotion of anger is defined and the question of its linguistic expression is introduced, and the notion of imperative constructions (especially the negative ones) is explained. On the other hand, in the practical part, the results of both the preliminary analysis of the Facebook comments corpus and the central analysis of hrWaC are presented. Finally, we intend to explain if and how can negative imperative constructions be considered linguistic expressions of anger in the Croatian language.

Cilj se ovoga rada prepoznaje u sustavnu prikazu i opisu metaforâ i gestâ u četirima Evanđeljima na postavkama teorije konceptualne metafore koja se razvija u kognitivnoj lingvistici krajem osamdesetih godina dvadesetoga stoljeća i temelji se na preslikavanju iz jedne pojmovne domene u drugu na temelju sličnosti. Polazeći od te postavke u kognitivnoj se lingvistici naglašava da su verbalni izrazi samo jedan od oblika u kojemu se metafora može pojaviti. Geste su također jedan vid izraza metafore. Povećano zanimanje za geste kao neverbalne metaforičke izraze počinje devedesetih godina prošloga stoljeća, što se odrazilo i na proučavanje odnosa između metafore i geste. Opis metaforâ i gestâ u evanđeoskim tekstovima usmjeren je na njihovu snagu izražavanja i približavanja apstraktnih domena koje se ne mogu izreći doslovnim jezikom, ali ni pojmovno ni jezično neposredno razumjeti. U reprezentativnome prikazu izabrana je metafora pastira koja se pojavljuje u svim četirima Evanđeljima. Bit će vidljivo da metafora pastira odražava određeno bliskoistočno poimanje i znanje o svijetu, posebnu životnu povezanost između pastira i ovaca koja se u sinoptičkim Evanđeljima izravno ili neizravno preslikava na Isusa. Uvid u pojmovne strukture evanđeoskoga teksta i sržnu poruku nudi sedam samoobjaviteljskih metafora iz Ivanova Evanđelja kojima Isus predstavlja svoju ulogu u odnosu prema ljudima: „Ja sam kruh života“, „Ja sam svjetlost svijeta“, „Ja sam vrata (ovcama)“, „Ja sam pastir dobri“, „Ja sam uskrsnuće i život“, „Ja sam Put i Istina i Život“ i „Ja sam istinski trs“. Metaforama u drugome licu jednine: „Ti si Petar-Stijena...“ i u drugome licu množine: „Vi ste sol zemlje“ i „Vi ste svjetlost svijeta“ Isus također određuje i približava poslanje svojih učenika. Zaokruženu cjelinu promatranja metaforičnosti evanđeoskih tekstova čine odabrane geste, osobito one koje odražavaju apstraktne domene i sudjeluju u prenesenome značenju evanđeoske poruke, od kojih treba izdvojiti Judin poljubac i Pilatovo pranje ruku koji su ušli u frazeologiju mnogih jezika. The aim of the thesis is recognised in a systematic presentation and description of metaphors and gestures in the four Gospels on the basis of conceptual metaphor theory, which was developed in cognitive linguistics at the end of 1980s and is based on replicating out of one concept domain to another based on similarity. Starting from that assumption, cognitive linguistics emphasises that verbal expressions are only one of the forms in which a metaphor can appear. Gestures are also another form of expressing metaphors. An increased interest in gestures as nonverbal metaphoric expressions started in the 1990s, which was reflected in research on the relationship between metaphors and gestures. A description of metaphors and gestures in Gospel texts is directed at their strength of expression and approach to abstract domains which cannot be uttered literally, nor can they be either conceptually or linguistically directly understood. A metaphor of the shepherd who appears in all four Gospels was chosen in the representative demonstration. It will be seen that the metaphor of the shepherd reflects a certain Middle Eastern notion and knowledge about the world, a special life bond between the shepherd and the sheep which is directly or indirectly copied onto Jesus in the synoptic Gospels. An insight into conceptual structures of the Gospel text and the core message offers seven self-revelatory metaphors from the Gospel of John in which Jesus represents his relationship towards people: “I am the bread of life”, “I am the light of the world”, “I am the gate (for the sheep)”, “I am the good shepherd”, “I am the resurrection and the life”, “I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life”, “I am the true vine”. Using second person singular metaphors: “You are Peter...” and second person plural metaphors: “You are the salt of the earth” and “You are the light of the world”, Jesus determines and draws closer the mission of his disciples. A full circle of viewing metaphoricity of the Gospel texts constitute the selected gestures, especially the ones which reflect abstract domains and participate in the message of the Gospel figuratively, where the kiss of Judas and Pilate washing his hands need to be isolated as they have entered the phraseology of many languages. The thesis is divided in three chapters and includes a theoretical part which is the basis and the framework within which the corpus research will be performed, i.e. the description and the analysis of individual examples of metaphors and gestures in the four Gospels. The first chapter will conceptually define metaphors firstly and mark their specificities and multiplicities which is the reason why they are being researched in many fields of science, e.g. philosophy, linguistics, psychology, theology. A historical overview of the most important theories of metaphor will follow the sequence from Aristotle’s definition and understanding the metaphor as a poetic device and a figure of speech which is based on borrowing and deviation from the literal use of language, all until cognitive linguistic and semantic definition of the metaphor as a cognitive tool and experience of the world. The choice of the authors and theoretical approaches shows the most important emphases in metaphor study which led to the cognitive theory of metaphor in which metaphors are presented as a foundation of thought, language and the understanding of the world. Along with the cognitive theory of metaphor, there grows an interest for gestures as nonverbal expressions of metaphor. That is the reason this theory will be the basis for describing metaphors and gestures in the Gospels. The second chapter refers to individual examples of metaphors in Gospel texts. It needs to be said that the Gospels are full of figurative speech, abstract notions and explicit metaphors. A metaphor is not simply a figure of speech which serves as a replacement or a fulfilment of conceptual and lexical voids, but it can be used simply, clearly and directly to approach the divine, invisible reality which transcends the visible world and physical experience. The greatest power of metaphors is exactly in the fact that we can mediate and explain something unavailable, unexperienced and unattempted based on the visible, available and experienced in the physical world. With this knowledge, it is easier to follow the description of the selected metaphors, starting with the metaphor of the shepherd which, as a repeating motif and symbol, finds its place in all four Gospels. In order to completely understand the importance of Jesus’s metaphor “I am the good shepherd, it was necessary to provide a historical, traditional and cultural framework from which it stemmed, as its rootedness in the Old Testament texts. All the other Jesus' self-revelatory metaphors, as well as metaphors in the second person singular and plural, require an interdisciplinary approach on a contextual, intertextual, philological and exegetical level. This approach should enable the discovery of an authentic meaning of these notions and their role in the creation of the theological message of each of the evangelists. A special contribution in this part of the thesis is the derivation of new conceptual metaphors. The last chapter includes gestures as nonverbal metaphorical expressions in Gospel texts. Same as with the analysis of metaphors, the first part of the chapter is the theoretical presentation of the gesture research, with a conceptual definition and relationship to metaphors and concludingly with the divisions certain authors have suggested. It is important to emphasize that gestures differ from other acts and movements by a communication characteristic, and in the Gospel texts gestures take part in the figurative sense with a precisely defined message and may not be taken literally. The metaphoricity of the described gestures stems firstly from the context and the Gospel message, but also from the cultural and linguistic background, which tried to reveal itself and connect to wider contextual frameworks. Certainly, that adds an additional value to this description. A division of gestures in the Gospels relies greatly on the division from the theoretical overview, except in the examples of Gospel gestures which by their roles and participation in communication do not fit in the established framework. Examples of this include the kiss of Judas, Jesus washing the feet of his disciples, writing with his finger in the sand, and Pilate washing his hands, all of which could be classified in a broad and general division of metaphorical gestures. By using an interdisciplinary approach, the set goal was reached – to systematically describe metaphors and gestures in the four Gospels beginning with their specificities and different understanding from everyday speech and other types of texts and to leave the door open for further research.

Ovaj se diplomski rad temelji na sociolingvističkom istraživanju kojim se pokušalo utvrditi kako istarski srednjoškolci percipiraju različite jezične varijetete hrvatskoga jezika koji se govore u Istri i Hrvatskoj te kamo ih zemljopisno smještaju. Kao teorijski okvir poslužila nam je percepcijska dijalektologija, sociolingvistička poddisciplina i dio pučke lingvistike čija je temeljna metoda prikupljanja podataka iscrtavanje karte (draw-a-map). Učenici su popunjavali sociolingvističke upitnike koji su sadržavali slijepe karte Republike Hrvatske i Istarske županije, a ispitanici su odgovarali i na pitanja otvorenog tipa. Rad je usmjeren na proučavanje konvencionalizirane veze između jezičnih varijeteta i mentalnih karata ispitanikâ, no pritom se uzimaju u obzir raznovrsni čimbenici koji se tiču sprege jezika i regionalnog identiteta u Istri, vrednovanja varijeteta koje su ispitanici označili s obzirom na točnost, društvenu privlačnost i intelektualnu sposobnost govornika koji njima govore (odnosno otvoreni i prekriveni prestiž), jezičnih ideologija, ali i same dijalektalne raznolikosti i sociolingvističke situacije u Hrvatskoj, koja čini makrorazinu istraživanja. Pozornost smo također obratili na prakse imenovanja, odnosno glotonime koje su rabili ispitanici. Potvrđene su opće tendencije u načinu označavanja karata u ovakvoj vrsti istraživanja: ispitanici su najčešće ucrtavali obilježene i lokalne varijetete, više su razlika uspostavljali oko svojeg mjesta stanovanja nego u udaljenijim područjima, a varijetet koji su procijenili kao najmanje razumljiv često je ujedno i najmanje društveno privlačan, točan ili prestižan. Utvrdili smo usto da u izgradnji takvih predodžbi sudjeluju semiotički procesi brisanja, ikoničnosti (poglavito fonetskih obilježja) i fraktalne rekurzivnost. Najobilježenijim varijetetom za istarske srednjoškolce na nacionalnoj razini pokazao se kajkavski, dok je na razini Istre to govor Labina. This MA thesis is based on sociolinguistic research intended for establishing the way in which Istrian high school students perceive different varieties of Croatian language spoken in Istria and Croatia, and the geographical space they would assign to these. As a theoretical framework we used perceptual dialectology, a subdiscipline of sociolinguistics and a part of folk linguistics that uses draw-a-map as its fundamental method of data collection. Students filled out sociolinguistic questionnaires that consisted of blank maps of the Republic of Croatia and the Istrian County, and participants also answered some open-ended questions. The thesis is aimed at studying a conventionalized link between language varieties and mental maps of the participants, whilst taking into consideration various factors related to the connection between language and regional identity in Istria, to evaluation of the varieties the participants have marked taking into account correctness, social attractiveness and intellectual capacity of their speakers (i.e. overt and covert prestige), to language ideologies, but also to the dialectal diversity itself, as well as to the sociolinguistic situation in Croatia, which constitutes the macro level of the research. We also paid attention to naming practices, that is, the glottonyms the participants used. General tendencies in the way of mapping in this kind of research have been confirmed: the participants most frequently mapped marked and local varieties, they established more diversity around their place of residence than in more remote areas, and the variety they evaluated as the least intelligible was, at the same time, the least socially attractive, correct, or prestigious. Moreover, we established that semiotic processes of erasure, iconization (especially of phonetical features) and fractal recursivity participate in the process of forming such ideas. For Istrian high school students, the most marked variety on the national level turned out to be the Kajkavian dialect, while on the Istrian level this turned out to be the speech of the Labin region.

Unatoč brojnim istraživanjima jezičnoga razumijevanja, uključujući jezičnu obradu kao njegov nesvjesni vid, nije u potpunosti poznato kako govornici razumiju složene sintaktičke strukture. Jedan je od temeljnih preduvjeta uspješnoga jezičnoga razumijevanja sposobnost uspostavljanja anafore. Anafora podrazumijeva upućivanje, najčešće ličnim zamjenicama, na neki prethodni jezični element (antecedent). Razdvosmislenje upućivanja anaforičnom zamjenicom 3. lica široko je istraživana tema u različitim jezicima i iz više teorijskih pristupa. No dosadašnja su istraživanja proturječna i nije potpuno poznato što sve utječe na tu jezičnu pojavu. Cilj ovoga istraživanja bio je ispitati razdvosmislenje upućivanja anaforičnom zamjenicom 3. lica u hrvatskome, jeziku ispustivih zamjenica. Polazeći od probabilističkoga pristupa, razdvosmislenje je ispitano s obzirom na značenjsku pristranost implicitnouzročnih glagola te zamjeničku pristranost, to jest upućivanje odsutnošću ili prisutnošću zamjenice 3. lica, u rečenici. Provedeni su eksperimenti metodom praćenja pokreta očiju i upitnikom sa zadatcima odabira antecedenta. Sudionici su bili odrasli hrvatski govornici (N = 126). Eksperimentalne podražaje činile su rečenice s implicitnouzročnim glagolima jake pristranosti navođenja na subjekt ili objekt te rečenice s neutralnim glagolima u kojima je zamjenica 3. lica bila prisutna ili odsutna. Pronađeno je značajno međudjelovanje glagolske i zamjeničke pristranosti na mjerama praćenja pokreta očiju u ranim i kasnim fazama rečenične obrade, pri čemu odsutnost zamjenice u hrvatskome navodi na subjekt, a prisutnost zamjenice na objekt. Implicitnouzročni glagoli utječu na razdvosmislenje već pri početku rečenične obrade usmjeravajući govornikovu pozornost na antecedent na koji će se u nastavku upućivati. Učinak implicitnouzročne pristranosti glagola zadržava se u kasnijim fazama obrade, što bitno olakšava razdvosmislenje. Međudjelovanje glagolske i zamjeničke pristranosti potvrđeno je i u konačnim odabirima antecedenta, dok se u uvjetu nepodudaranja pristranosti govornici u većoj mjeri oslanjaju na implicitnouzročnu pristranost glagola. Dobiveni rezultati upućuju na unutarjezične i međujezične razlike u razdvosmislenju te nužnost njihova uključivanja u polazni teorijski pristup. Spoznaje o međudjelovanju čimbenika u razdvosmislenju potvrđuju postavke suvremenih funkcionalnih lingvističkih pristupa u okviru kojih se sintaktičke pojave tumače u strukturno-značenjskom međudjelovanju. Language comprehension is a complex process that requires rapid integration of information at multiple levels (Carreiras and Clifton, 2004; Jelaska, 2021). The automatic, unconscious aspect of this process is called language processing. The ultimate goal of comprehension is to interpret a linguistic structure, i.e. to create a mental representation of the meaning of that structure based on linguistic knowledge, world knowledge and the features of the immediate linguistic and extra-linguistic context (Harley, 2014; Raffaelli, 2015). One of the prerequisites for successful language comprehension is the ability to establish anaphora. Anaphora refers to the relationship between two elements in a sentence or text, where the interpretation of one element (anaphor) depends on the interpretation of the preceding element (antecedent) (Crystal, 2008). Anaphora has been one of the central topics in linguistics for several decades, including theoretical linguistics, experimental linguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and computational linguistics (Huang, 2000; Holler and Suckow, 2016). Research on anaphora is generally experimental and focuses on 3rd person anaphoric pronouns at the sentence level. However, the phenomenon itself is complex, as the reference can be ambiguous, i.e. when pronoun and antecedent agree in morphosyntactic features. Due to typological differences between languages, it is difficult to draw conclusions about what determines pronoun ambiguity resolution (Hemforth et al., 2010). In pro-drop languages, pronouns can be omitted and reference can be made either in the presence or in the absence of the pronoun. Moreover, studies have shown that there are differences in pronoun ambiguity resolution preferences even between speakers of typologically similar languages such as Italian and Spanish (see Filiaci, Sorace and Carreiras, 2014). Although research on this phenomenon is extensive, many questions remain unanswered: How do speakers resolve pronoun ambiguity resolution? What is the cause of language-specific and/or cross-linguistic differences in pronoun ambiguity resolution? What mental processes underlie pronoun ambiguity resolution during sentence processing? What factors determine the final choice of antecedent? By studying pronoun ambiguity resolution, one can gain insight into the nature of language comprehension in general, as this phenomenon can reveal what information triggers sentence processing at different levels and influences the final sentence interpretation. Many studies have attributed an important role to the notion of salience in pronoun ambiguity resolution. The most salient antecedent is more accessible in the speaker’s mind, i.e. it is the focus of attention and it is referred to by the 3rd person pronoun (Arnold and Lao, 2015). Psychological studies of perception confirm that attentional processes in the brain make decisions about which information is crucial for further processing, thus reducing processing effort (Wolfe and Horowitz, 2004). Different theoretical approaches have been developed to explain which factors influence salience and thus contribute to pronoun ambiguity resolution. Formal approaches are based on structural factors and assume that pronoun ambiguity resolution is determined by the correlation between the grammatical role of the antecedent and the type of anaphor (Ariel, 1990; Walker, Joshi and Prince, 1998; Carminati, 2002). The most phonologically reduced and less informative anaphors, such as 3rd person pronoun, are used to refer to the most salient antecedent. Salience is influenced by the grammatical role, according to the scale subject > object > other. In English, a non-pro-drop language, the 3rd person pronoun is the most reduced anaphor and is used to refer to the most salient antecedent, i.e. the subject. In pro-drop languages, the most salient antecedent is referred to in the absence of the 3rd person pronoun, while the less salient antecedent is referred to in the presence of the 3rd person pronoun. Previous studies have mostly considered the complementary distribution in pronoun ambiguity resolution in pro-drop languages as universal. However, some studies question the generalisability of this hypothesis and reveal language-specific preferences (Filiaci, Sorace and Carreiras, 2014). Semantic approaches are based on factors such as implicit causality verb bias and coherence relations (Kehler, 2002; Koornneef and van Berkum, 2006). Implicit causality verbs influence pronoun ambiguity resolution by directing the speaker’s attention to the antecedent that is likely to be the cause of the event or state. Since this depends on individual preferences, the direction (subject- or object-biased) and strength (from weak to strong) of the bias vary. Although the implicit causality bias is considered universal, cross-linguistic differences in the direction and strength of the bias have been found, and not many languages have been studied (see Hartshorne, Sudo and Uruwashi, 2013). However, these theoretical approaches prove insufficient, as they focus on only one type of factor and disregard the potential relationship between factors and their influence on pronoun ambiguity resolution. Formal approaches do not take into account meaning as a relevant factor and assume that pronoun ambiguity resolution occurs during the structural representation of the sentence, thus separating the structural from the semantic level of the sentence. Semantic approaches, on the other hand, pay no attention to the importance of structural factors and ignore the fact that the presence or the absence of the 3rd person pronoun also contributes to the meaning of the sentence. The studies conducted within these approaches have mostly used offline methods. When pronoun ambiguity resolution has been studied using online methods, the relationship between the factors has not been closely examined. The probabilistic approach (Kehler et al., 2008; Kehler and Rohde, 2013a, 2013b) is based on the assumption that pronoun ambiguity resolution is determined by the interaction of two factors – the implicit causality bias (semantic factor) and the pronoun bias (structural factor). Apart from considering both factors, pronoun ambiguity resolution is explained from the perspective of both language processing and the final choice of antecedent. Pronoun ambiguity resolution is seen as an incremental and predictive process based on the likelihood that each of the factors plays a role. Based on implicit causality verbs, speakers can predict already at the beginning of the sentence which verb argument (subject or object) is likely to be re-mentioned. When speakers encounter the pronoun (or the part of the sentence in which the pronoun is omitted), they integrate their prior predictions made based on the implicit causality bias with those made based on the pronoun bias. In pro-drop languages, the absence of the pronoun leads to a bias towards the subject antecedent, while the presence of the pronoun leads to a bias towards the object antecedent. When the biases are inconsistent (i.e., they indicate the antecedent with a different grammatical role), processing effort occurs. Final preferences are largely influenced by the implicit causality verbs and the meaning of the entire sentence but can be modulated in interaction with pronoun bias. The probabilistic approach offers a more comprehensive view of the phenomenon from (a) a linguistic point of view, as it allows us to observe the relationship between the factors that are assumed to contribute to salience in language comprehension, and (b) from a methodological point of view, as it allows us to examine how the relationship between these factors influences pronoun ambiguity resolution during sentence processing and the final interpretation of the sentence. However, the approach was initially developed for English and does not further explain the phenomenon from a cross-linguistic perspective (Rohde and Kehler, 2013b). The results of previous studies in pro-drop languages are rather inconsistent, and a systematic understanding of how the pro-drop feature contributes to pronoun ambiguity resolution is still lacking (Fedele and Kaiser, 2015; Ueno and Kehler, 2016; Mayol, 2018; Zhan, Kehler and Levy, 2020). The methodological inconsistency of previous studies calls for new studies that test the theoretical assumptions of the probabilistic approach using both online and offline methods. There are no comprehensive studies on pronoun dropping in Croatian, nor on the interplay of factors influencing this phenomenon or their effects on sentence comprehension in general. Aims and hypotheses: The aim of this study was to investigate the ambiguity resolution of the 3rd person anaphoric pronoun in Croatian, a pro-drop language, both during sentence processing and in the final choice of antecedent. Pronoun ambiguity resolution was observed within the probabilistic approach by considering the implicit causality verb bias as a semantic factor and the pronoun bias, i.e. the absence or presence of the 3rd person pronoun, as a structural factor. Several research questions were posed and hypotheses were formulated: 1) Is the pronoun ambiguity resolution during sentence processing determined by the interaction of implicit causality bias and pronoun bias in accordance with the assumed direction of these biases? (Experiment 1) 2) When does the effect of implicit causality bias occur in pronoun ambiguity resolution during sentence processing? (Experiment 2) 3) Is the final choice of antecedent determined by the interaction of implicit causality bias and pronoun bias in accordance with the assumed direction of these biases? (Experiment 3) 4) Which of the two factors – implicit causality bias or pronoun bias – has a greater effect on the final choice of antecedent? (Experiment 3) 5) Is the final choice of antecedent in the sentences without implicit causality verbs determined by the pronoun bias in accordance with the assumed direction of that bias? (Experiment 4) H1: The pronoun ambiguity resolution will be determined by the interaction of implicit causality bias and pronoun bias in accordance with the assumed direction of these biases. In sentences with subject-biased implicit causality verbs, the processing time will be significantly faster when the 3rd person pronoun is omitted. In sentences with object-biased implicit causality verbs, the processing time will be significantly faster when the 3rd person pronoun is present. H2.1: Implicit causality verbs will affect pronoun ambiguity resolution already at the beginning of sentence processing. Accordingly, sentences with implicit causality verbs will be processed faster in the earlier stages of processing than sentences with neutral verbs, namely in the part of the subordinate clause containing the 3rd person pronoun and the verb, or only the verb if the 3rd person pronoun is omitted. H2.2: The effect of implicit causality bias will persist in pronoun ambiguity resolution during sentence processing. Accordingly, sentences with implicit causality verbs will be processed faster in the later stages of language processing than sentences with neutral verbs. H3: The final choice of antecedent will be determined by the interaction of implicit causality bias and pronoun bias in accordance with the assumed direction of these biases. In sentences with subject-biased implicit causality verbs, the percentage of choosing the subject antecedent will be significantly lower when the 3rd person pronoun is present. In sentences with object- biased implicit causality verbs, the percentage of choosing the subject antecedent will be significantly higher when the 3rd person pronoun is omitted. H4: The implicit causality bias will have a stronger effect on the final choice of antecedent than the pronoun bias – regardless of whether the 3rd person pronoun is omitted or present in the sentence, there will be a significantly higher percentage of choosing an antecedent in accordance with the verb bias. H5: In the sentences without implicit causality verbs, the final choice of antecedent will be determined by the pronoun bias – the percentage of choosing the subject antecedent will be significantly higher when the 3rd person pronoun is omitted and it will be significantly lower when the 3rd person pronoun is present. Methodology: To answer the research questions, four experiments were conducted. Experiments 1 and 2 were conducted using an online method (eye-tracking reading paradigm), while Experiments 3 and 4 were conducted using an offline method (questionnaire with the forced-choice task). The online method provides insight into the course of automatic, unconscious language processing and the difficulties encountered during this process (Kaiser, 2013). The eye-tracking method is based on the assumption that there is a direct link between what the eyes fixate on and what the brain processes (Staub and Rayner, 2007). It allows us to study the time course of the effects of structural and semantic factors and the interaction of these factors before the final interpretation of the sentence. Offline methods provide insights into the speaker’s behaviour, which is the result of language processing. They allow us to study final preferences or the choice of antecedent. The same experimental stimuli were used in Experiments 1 and 3 and Experiments 2 and 4. Such an experimental design allowed us to compare eye-tracking data with questionnaire data and to draw more valid conclusions about pronoun ambiguity resolution. All relevant factors were controlled, i.e. the direction (subject- vs. object-biased) and the strength of verb bias (strong vs. weak semantic bias), the type of antecedent (proper noun), the conjunction (without causal meaning), the content of the subordinate clause (which was consistent with the implicit causality bias), the length and frequency of the regions of interest in the sentences (which were the same for all experimental stimuli). A pilot study was conducted to determine the direction and strength of verb biases (see Košutar and Matić Škorić, 2022). 86 participants completed a questionnaire containing a sentence continuation task with implicit causality verbs and other verbs. After completing the questionnaire, they selected the antecedent to which they referred in the sentence. Based on the data obtained in the pilot study, a pre-selection of verbs was made for the main study. Verb biases were calculated using the formula from E. C. Ferstl, A. Garnham and C. Manouilidou (2011). Only implicit causality verbs with a strong semantic bias (n = 20) and neutral verbs with a low semantic bias (n = 12) were included in the study. In Experiments 1 and 3, the target stimuli consisted of temporal sentences with the conjunction after. The main clauses contained implicit causality verbs (subject-biased or object- biased) and proper nouns as verb arguments. The content of the subordinate clause was consistent with the implicit causality bias in the main clause. Two factors were manipulated, and each of them had two levels (2 x 2 design) – implicit causality verb (subject- vs. object- biased) and 3rd person pronoun (present vs. absent). In Experiments 2 and 4, the target stimuli were the same sentences as in Experiments 1 and 3 but additionally contained structurally equivalent sentences with neutral verbs. Two factors were manipulated, and each of them had two levels (2 x 2 design) – verb bias (implicit causality verb vs. neutral verb) and 3rd person pronoun (present vs. absent). The experimental stimuli also contained filler sentences. Participants were adult native speakers of Croatian, who had no history of language or neurological deficits. 95 participants took part in Experiments 1 and 2 (eye-tracking) and 126 participants in Experiments 3 and 4 (questionnaire). None of them participated in the pilot study. Only participants without ocular disorders participated in the eye-tracking study. Participants were evenly distributed in terms of gender and had similar levels of education. Experiments 1 and 2 were conducted first (eye-tracking), while Experiments 3 and 4 (questionnaire) took place one month later. Eye movements were recorded with the SMI Hi- Speed View 500 in the Laboratory for Psycholinguistic Research (POLIN) at the Faculty of Education and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Zagreb. Participants read the sentences on the screen and processing time was measured during reading. The questionnaire data were collected online using the SurveyMonkey platform. Participants were asked to read the sentences and select an antecedent. The eye-tracking data were analysed using the SMI BeGaze programme. First-pass reading time (the sum of all fixations in the region before the regressive or progressive saccade), total reading time (the sum of all fixations in the region, including re-reading the region), and the number of regressions (returns to the region already read) were measured. The first pass captures the early stages of processing, while the total reading time and regressions reflect the late stages of processing. A longer duration of fixations and a greater number of regressions to a region of interest indicate higher processing costs. Measures were calculated in the predefined regions of interest – the main clause with an implicit causality or neutral verb (1), the conjunction (2), the verb in the subordinate clause (3), and the verb complements in the subordinate clause (4). The questionnaire data were coded as 1 (subject antecedent) and 0 (object antecedent). The percentage of selecting the subject antecedent was calculated. Data were analysed using repeated measures ANOVA in SPSS version 25.0. Results: In Experiment 1 (Influence of verb bias and pronoun bias on pronoun ambiguity resolution during language processing), eye-tracking measures revealed a significant interaction between implicit causality verb bias and pronoun bias, in accordance with the assumed direction of these biases (H1 confirmed). Speakers predict an antecedent (subject or object) based on the implicit causality bias already at the beginning of the sentence. In the further processing of the sentence, their predictions are modulated by the pronoun bias (3rd person pronoun absent or present). When the pronoun bias is consistent with the verb bias, sentence processing is facilitated. In the sentences with subject-biased implicit causality verbs, processing time was significantly faster when the 3rd person pronoun was omitted. In the sentences with object-biased implicit causality verbs, processing time was significantly faster when the 3rd person pronoun was present. In experiment 2 (Influence of verb bias on pronoun ambiguity resolution during language processing), eye-tracking measures revealed an early effect of implicit causality bias (H2.1 confirmed). The effect of verb bias was found in the earlier stages of processing in the part of the subordinate clause containing the 3rd person pronoun and the verb, or only the verb if the 3rd person pronoun is omitted. Once the meaning of the implicit causality verb is available, the speaker’s attention directs to the antecedent (subject or object), which is the likely cause of the event or state in the subordinate clause. The effect of implicit causality bias was also found in later stages of sentence processing (H2.2 confirmed). Sentences with implicit causality verbs were processed significantly faster than sentences with neutral verbs in both the early and late stages of sentence processing. In Experiment 3 (Influence of verb bias and pronoun bias on the final choice of antecedent), the results showed a significant interaction between implicit causality bias and pronoun bias in the final choice of antecedent in accordance with the assumed direction of these biases (H3 confirmed). In sentences with subject-biased implicit causality verbs, the percentage of choosing the subject antecedent was significantly lower when the 3rd person pronoun was present. In sentences with object-biased implicit causality verbs, the percentage of choosing the subject antecedent was significantly higher when the 3rd person pronoun was omitted. When the verb bias and the pronoun bias did not coincide (i.e., they referred to the antecedents with different grammatical roles), speakers hesitated and relied significantly more on the verb bias (H4 confirmed). In Experiment 4 (Influence of pronoun bias on the final choice of antecedent), the results showed a significant effect of pronoun bias on the final choice of antecedent in the sentences without implicit causality verbs. In Croatian, the pronoun bias shows a complementary distribution depending on whether the pronoun is omitted in the sentence (H5 confirmed). When the 3rd person pronoun is omitted, speakers choose the subject antecedent more often. When the 3rd person pronoun is present, they more often choose the object antecedent. Conclusion: Despite numerous studies on language comprehension, including language processing as an unconscious process, it is not fully understood how speakers deal with certain parts of complex syntax. One of the insufficiently studied linguistic phenomena is the ambiguity resolution of the 3rd person anaphoric pronoun. This is the first experimental study to observe pronoun ambiguity resolution in terms of structural and semantic factors during sentence processing and in the final choice of antecedent in the less represented pro-drop languages, namely Croatian. The results showed that both structural and semantic factors influence the pronoun ambiguity resolution during sentence processing and in the final choice of antecedent. Implicit causality verbs contribute to the salience of the antecedent from the earliest stages of language processing to the final sentence interpretation. Based on verb bias, speakers can predict the antecedent very early during sentence processing. The verb bias also affects the later stages of sentence processing and influences the final choice of antecedent. However, structural features of the sentence are also important. Speakers are sensitive to pronoun bias, i.e. whether the 3rd person pronoun is omitted or not. When the pronoun is omitted, the preferred antecedent is the subject. When the pronoun is present, the preferred antecedent is the object. The results on the interaction of structural and semantic factors show that the structural and semantic levels of the sentence are closely related and that any change at the structural level leads to changes at the semantic level. These findings confirm the assumptions of functional linguistic approaches, in which syntactic phenomena are interpreted in terms of structural-semantic interaction. This is also the first study to give an insight into implicit causality verbs and their effects on sentence processing in Croatian. The results on the interaction between implicit causality bias and pronoun bias obtained by eye-tracking confirm that sentence processing is an incremental and predictive process in which speakers draw on all available information. The structural and semantic factors that make the antecedent salient influence speaker’s predictions during sentence processing, and more predictable linguistic structures are more mentally accessible and easier to process. This study focused on the Croatian language and showed that pronoun ambiguity resolution is not universal, but is determined by language-specific features and cross-linguistic differences. Thus, this study contributes to the understanding of pronoun ambiguity resolution in the context of Croatian, but also in the international context, as it provides a broader understanding of this phenomenon from a typological perspective. There is a certain overlap in pronoun ambiguity resolution preferences with other pro-drop languages, but also inconsistencies in the strength of pronoun bias. These findings point to the need to consider cross-linguistic differences and their impact on pronoun ambiguity resolution to improve existing theoretical approaches and future research. Finally, the combination of online and offline methods has provided a more comprehensive insight into pronoun ambiguity resolution. Although the results on the interaction between structural and semantic factors obtained with online and offline methods overlap, the offline method has revealed that verb bias plays a greater role in the final choice of antecedent. This shows the importance of combining different methods to better understand the complexity of linguistic phenomena.

An explorative and narrative review of the literature on language evolution with an emphasis on the psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics of lexical semantics and syntax. Based on my thesis for an M. A. degree in Linguistics.

Dosadašnja istraživanja pokazala su razlike u političkoj retorici i diskursu muškaraca i žena. Različite retoričke i diskursne strategije odražavaju razlike u percepciji muškaraca i žena na položaju moći. Ovaj se rad fokusira na politički diskurs u dijaloškoj retoričkoj vrsti intervju i to u hrvatskom i britanskom kontekstu. U radu se analiziraju retorička obilježja i diskursne strategije političkoga govora, ali i diskursne strategije koje koriste voditelji intervjua. Navedeno je obrađeno kvalitativnom i kvantitativnom komparativnom analizom sa svrhom da se ustanove trendovi i preferencije u korištenju retoričkih obilježja i diskursnih strategija u odnosu na rod i nacionalnost političara. Prvi je cilj rada bio ispitati retorička i diskursna obilježja u političkoj retorici. Ispitivano je korištenje argumentacijskih pogrešaka, humora kao retoričkoga sredstva manipulacije i diskursnih obilježja nesigurnosti i subjektivnosti (modali subjektivnosti, modali ublažavanja i pojačivači). Pretpostavilo se da će varijabla roda i nacionalnosti utjecati na količinu i vrstu argumentacijskih pogrešaka, humora i diskursnih obilježja nesigurnosti i subjektivnosti. Drugi je cilj bio ispitati diskursne strategije koje voditelji intervjua koriste u razgovoru s visokopozicioniranim političarima. Fokus je bio na diskursnoj strategiji prekidanja i preklapanja te na diskursnoj strategiji razvijanja teme. Pretpostavilo se da će broj prekidanja i preklapanja političara kao i izbor osobnih tema koje se razvijaju tijekom intervjua ovisiti o varijabli roda i nacionalnosti. Kvantitativna analiza provedena je u odnosu na svih pet ispitivanih retoričkih i diskursnih obilježja. Statistički značajna razlika pokazana je kod ispitivanja humora kao retoričkog sredstva manipulacije i kod diskursne strategije prekidanja i preklapanja. Kvantitativnom analizom pokazano je da muškarci značajno više koriste humor od svojih kolegica te da voditelji intervjua značajno više prekidaju i preklapaju političare nego političarke na visokom položaju moći. Kvalitativnom analizom ustanovljene su razlike s obzirom na izbor argumentacijskih pogrešaka i diskursnu strategiju razvijanja teme u odnosu rod i nacionalnost političara. Kod ostalih ispitivanih obilježja nisu ustanovljene razlike u odnosu na rod i nacionalnost govornika, ali su definirane glavne funkcije humora, najčešće korišteni modali subjektivnosti, ublažavanja i pojačivači u retorici visokopozicioniranih političara te glavne funkcije diskursne strategije prekidanja i preklapanja u političkim intervjuima. Recent researches have shown differences in male and female political rhetoric and discourse. Differences in rhetorical and discourse strategies reflect the differences in the perception of male and female politicians at the positions of power. Since the ancient times, politics has been mainly men’s area. Women entered the political scene in the 20th century. Political rhetoric is also considered dominantly men’s area as the greatest rhetoricians such as Aristotle, Quintilian and Cicero were all men. This means that, once they entered political arena, women had to adjust to a dominantly men’s field. This paper focuses on the political discourse in a dialogue rhetoric form of an interview in Croatian and British context. The paper analyses rhetorical features and discourse strategies used by politicians and interviewers. The above defined was quantitatively and qualitatively analysed in order to establish main trends and preferences in the usage of rhetorical features and discourse strategies in relation to the politicians’ gender and nationality. Numerous researches in the field of both rhetoric and discourse analysis have shown differences in the discourse of men and women. Lakoff (1975) was among pioneers to define and systematize so-called female language features (tag questions, hedges, intensifiers, euphemisms, lack of humour etc.) adding that the female language is indirect and subjective which automatically puts women in a subordinate social position. Analysing the differences between male and female discourse, Deborah Tannen (1994) concludes that women choose topics more easily, they discuss them more thoroughly and they are more likely to talk about personal topics. She defines female speech as more subjective, tactful and indirect then male. Ross and Baxter (2017) also conclude that media focus more on personal and private topics when talking to women. Discourse strategies of interruptions and overlaps were analysed by Zimmerman and West (1975) who concluded that women are more frequently interrupted than men. Shaw (2002) confirms the above mentioned in her doctoral thesis by emphasizing that men interrupt women more frequently, they are more assertive in their arguments and they tend to use humour more often, especially irony. Numerous Croatian researches have also proved the differences in the arguments used by women and men (Kišiček, 2008; RunjićStoilova and Tomelić-Ćurlin, 2016; Runjić-Stoilova and Varošanec-Škarić, 2017). All the researches indicate different argumentation strategies in male and female rhetoric which means choice of different arguments and fallacies. As per above listed researches, men and women use different linguistic, rhetorical and discourse strategies. Female rhetoric is defined as more subjective, insecure and indirect. It is characterized by solidarity and cooperation. On the other hand, male rhetoric is more objective, rational and direct. This paper questions these conclusions by focusing on the comparative analysis of male and female rhetoric in Croatia and Great Britain. The first goal of this paper was to research rhetorical and discourse features in political rhetoric. Choice of arguments and fallacies, humour as manipulation strategy and discourse features of insecurity and subjectivity were analysed. It was assumed that the parameter of gender and nationality shall impact the amount and type of used fallacies, humour, and insecurity and subjectivity features. Female politicians were expected to use the fallacies based on emotions while male politicians were expected to base their fallacies and arguments on reason and logics. Male politicians were also expected to use more humour in their discourse while the female discourse was expected to be more insecure and subjective. Second goal was to research the discourse strategies used by the interviewers in political interviews. The focus was put on the discourse strategy of interruption and overlap as well as on the discourse strategy of topic development. It was assumed that the number of interruptions and overlaps, and the choice of personal topics being developed throughout the interview shall depend on the parameter of gender and nationality. Interruptions, overlaps and personal topics were expected to be found in the interviews with female politicians. The material included television interviews with eight politicians at approximately similar position of power (presidents and prime ministers). Croatian politicians whose rhetoric was analysed are as follows: former president Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, former prime minister Jadranka Kosor, current prime minister Andrej Plenković and former prime minister and current president Zoran Milanović. British politicians included in this analysis are: former prime minister Margaret Thatcher, former prime minister Theresa May, former prime minister Tony Blair and former prime minister David Cameron. The interviews were chosen in accordance with the material suitability and availability. Total material amounts to 981 minutes of television political interviews, or when transcribed, to approximately 669 standard pages. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis was implemented for all five parts of the research. Quantitative analysis included descriptive statistics and statistical t-tests to find out whether there are any statistically relevant differences in relation to the speakers’ gender or nationality. Qualitative analysis used the existing theoretical frameworks (Škarić, 2007 and Tindale, 2011 for fallacies, Attardo, 1994 for roles of humour, Škarić, 2007 and Lakoff, 1975 for insecurity and subjectivity features, Murata (1994) and Kennedy and Cambden (1983) for interruption and overlap functions). The results show that there is a statistically relevant difference at the part focusing on humour as a rhetorical manipulation strategy and on the discourse strategy of interruptions and overlaps. Quantitative analysis showed that male politicians use humour as a manipulation strategy statistically more frequently than their female colleagues. Apart from the mentioned, it also proved that the interviewers interrupt and overlap male politicians more than the female ones. Finally, male interviewers tend to ask more personal questions than the female interviewers. The results of qualitative analysis indicate the differences considering fallacies and discourse strategy of topic development in relation to the politicians’ gender and nationality. Differences in relation to gender and nationality were not found in the other analysed rhetoric and discourse features. However, the results showed main functions of the humour, most frequently used discourse features of insecurity and subjectivity, and main functions of interruptions and overlaps in political interviews. The results of the research can contribute to the development of rhetorical education of both politicians and journalists. They can also give an insight into cultural and socially conditioned differences in speech. Finally, the results of this research present a good starting point for further research in the field of high political rhetoric, for systematization of the main features of the discourse used by leading politicians, as well as for defining the differences in relation to the politicians’ gender and nationality.

Ovim se istraživanjem na sustavan način nastoji pružiti uvid u proces jezične socijalizacije u ranoj dobi, usvojene jezične ideologije, a zatim i jezične prakse studentica iz Splitsko-dalmatinske i Varaždinske županije koje su se našle u novoj jezičnoj sredini. Unatoč velikoj dijalektalnoj raznolikosti, standardni hrvatski varijetet temelji se uglavnom na štokavskom narječju dok su elementi hrvatskih dijalekata kajkavskog i čakavskog narječja tek neznatno zastupljeni. Razlika između dijalekta i standardnog varijeteta nije samo jezična, već mnogo više od toga društvena, povijesna i kulturna. Cilj je ovog rada steći perspektivu o jezičnim ideologijama oblikovanih obrazovanjem i odrastanjem te spoznati kako su te dvije domene utjecale na današnje jezično upravljanje studentica u neformalnim situacijama u novoj jezičnoj sredini. Kvalitativnom metodom polustrukturiranog intervjua stekao se uvid u roditeljsku ideologiju sugovornica, kao i u neke vidove obrazovne jezične politike koji su uvelike pridonijeli definiranju njihovih jezičnih stavova. Rezultati su pokazali znatne razlike u jezičnim stavovima i jezičnom ponašanju između studentica iz Varaždinske i Splitsko-dalmatinske županije. Roditeljsko ponašanje i jezične ideologije formulirane tijekom školovanja izvan kućne domene dovele su do toga da se sugovornice iz Varaždinske županije osjećaju inferiorno, glupo i posramljeno dok govore kajkavskim narječjem u novoj jezičnoj okolini. Negativni stavovi prema vlastitom govoru doveli su do toga da sugovornice iz Varaždinske županije vrlo rijetko govore kajkavskim narječjem u novoj jezičnoj okolini, za razliku od sugovornica iz Splitsko-dalmatinske županije koje svoje narječje pak rabe učestalo. This research systematically seeks to provide an overview of language socialization, language ideology, and language management of students from the Split-Dalmatia and Varaždin Counties who moved to a new linguistic environment. Despite a great dialectal diversity of the Croatian language, its standard variety is based mainly on the Štokavian dialect while elements from Kajkavian and Čakavian dialects are only marginally present. The difference between a dialect and a standard language is not merely linguistic, but more than that social, historical, and cultural. This paper aims to find out students' language ideologies created in the course of education and growing up. Moreover, the goal is to understand how these two domains have influenced today's language management of students in informal situations in a new linguistic environment. The use of qualitative method and semi-structured interviews provided an insight into parental language ideologies and some aspects of language in education policy, which greatly contributed in defining language attitudes of the interlocutors. The results showed significant linguistic differences between students from Varaždin County and Split-Dalmatia County. Parental behavior and imposed school ideologies outside the home domain have made Kajkavian interlocutors feel inferior, stupid, and ashamed while speaking their dialect. Negative attitudes towards their own dialect make the interlocutors from Varaždin County speak the Kajkavian dialect very rarely in a new linguistic environment, unlike the interlocutors from Split-Dalmatia County who use their dialect frequently.

Igra zajedno s govorom dio je svakodnevice svakog djeteta. Kroz igru se razvija govor. Da bi se govor razvio, potreban je trud i rad s djetetom. Na primjer, kroz ponavljanje izgovorenih glasova i opisivanje. Usko vezan pojam uz govor je i komunikacija koja treba biti zadovoljena kako bi se govornici sporazumjeli ili shvatili određenu poruku. Činjenica da je igra najčešći i najspontaniji oblik kretanja kod djece govori kako se kroz nju djeca na spontan način izražavaju, pokazuju interese i emocije. Dokazalo se da je igra poticajna za razvoj govornog izražavanja, kreativnosti, mašte te ukupni djetetov razvoj, socijalni, emocionalni, motorički i kognitivni razvoj. Kroz osmišljene nove igre djeca su potaknuta na razvoj govornog izražavanja ali i drugih polja. Nove igre osmislila je autorica rada potaknuta već postojećim igrama. Play, together with speech is a part of a child’s everyday life. Through play, speech is being developed. For the speech to create properly, work and effort with a child are necessary. For example, they are repeating articulated sounds and descriptions. A term specifically linked with speech is communication which needs to fulfill certain conditions for the speakers to understand each other or recognize a non-verbal message. The fact that play is the most common and spontaneous way of children's movement shows that through play children manifest their interests and emotions and spontaneously express them. It is proven that play stimulates and enables the development of speech, creativity and imagination. As well as the social, emotional, motoric, cognitive and overall development of the child. Through new games and play, the development of speech and other fields with children is greatly promoted and fostered. The new games have been designed by the author through being inspired by already existing games and building on their concepts.

U ovome se radu opisuje politička korektnost u engleskom, portugalskom i indonezijskom jeziku. U uvodu je objašnjeno zašto su odabrani baš ti jezici te zbog čega se izraz politička korektnost ne može jednoznačno odrediti. Nakon uvoda slijedi opis pristupa političkoj korektnosti u svakome od tri navedena jezika, navode se razlozi podrške, ali i protivljenja političkoj korektnosti, te utjecaj političke korektnosti na društva koja govore tim jezicima. Poseban se naglasak stavlja na utjecaj procesa dekolonizacije na razvoj političke korektnosti u društvima koja su prošla kroz taj proces. Na kraju rada iznosi se zaključak s osvrtom na sličnosti i razlike u političkoj korektnosti u navedenim jezicima i državama u kojima se oni govore. This paper examines political correctness in English, Portuguese and Indonesian. The introduction explains why these languages were chosen, and why the term political correctness cannot be unambiguously defined. The introduction is followed by a description of the approach to the political correctness in each of the three languages. The reasons for support, but also the reasons for opposition to the political correctness are discussed, as well as the impact of the political correctness on the societies that speak these languages. Special emphasis is placed on the impact of the process of decolonization on the emergence of the political correctness phenomenon in the societies that have gone through that process. At the end of the paper, a conclusion is presented with reference to the similarities and differences in political correctness in the three languages and the countries in which they are spoken.

By approaching the phenomenon of verbal prefixation in Croatian through the verb dati ‘to give’ and its 18 derivationally related forms, such as prodati ‘to sell’ and dodati ‘to add’, this thesis outlines the impact prefixation can have on the verb’s valency frames. By utilizing the NooJ application to create a formal grammar which can detect and tag derivationally related verb forms, and with the help of a model / chunker for Croatian, our research aims to start the process of automatization of valency frames prediction and thus to speed up the analysis of prefixed verbs and their valency frames. Our analysis is focused specifically on those verbs which are not currently present in the Croatian valency lexicon CROVALLEX, and as a result, we provide the valency frame descriptions for 10 missing verbs from the dati derivational family. Furthermore, this thesis provides a template for the automatized creation of connections between derived and base verb forms. Pristupivši procesu glagolske prefiksacije u hrvatskom jeziku bazirajući se na primjeru glagola dati i njegovih 18 derivacijski povezanih oblika, poput prodati i dodati, ovaj rad prikazuje utjecaj prefiksacije na promjene u valencijskim okvirima derivacijski povezanih glagola. Cilj je ovog rada započeti proces automatizacije izrade valencijskih okvira pa smo tako izradili model formalne gramatike putem aplikacije NooJ koja može pronaći i označiti derivacijski povezane glagole. Uz pomoć modela razdjelnika za imenske fraze i prijedložno-padežne izraze, naš pristup ubrzava proces analize prefigiranih glagola i pripadajućih okvira. Naša se analiza primarno fokusira na one glagole koji trenutno nisu prisutni u CROVALLEX-u, valencijskom leksikonu glagola hrvatskoga jezika, a koji su dio derivacijske mreže glagola dati, te smo stoga opisali valencijske okvire 10 prefigiranih glagola koji nedostaju. Također, kao rezultat ovog rada nastao je i mogući predložak za automatsku izradu poveznica među deriviranim i osnovnim oblicima glagola.

Čestice nisu jednako i sustavno kategorizirane u svim tradicionalnim gramatikama hrvatskog jezika jer za tu kategoriju ne postoji jedinstvena precizna definicija kojom bi se svi autori mogli voditi bez prostora za različite interpretacije. Budući da se status nekog leksema kao čestice uglavnom utvrđuje prema njegovoj značenjskoj funkciji u rečenici, a priroda jezične produkcije podrazumijeva i visoku razinu jezične kreativnosti te je broj rečeničnih konstrukcija i kombinacija pojedinih leksema u njima nemjerljiv, u tradicionalnim se gramatikama u kategoriju čestica u pravilu uključuje i niz drugih vrsta riječi, kao što su prilozi, ovisno o njihovoj funkciji u pojedinom kontekstu. To je osobito slučaj kad se uzme u obzir semantička dimenzija svakog iskaza, bilo u pogledu namjeravanog značenja, bilo u pogledu značenjskih odnosa među leksemima. Međutim, takva kategorizacija čestica nije praktična ni produktivna kad je riječ o računalnoj obradi jezika, u ovom slučaju konkretno označavanju vrsta riječi u korpusima hrvatskog jezika, jer se u takvoj vrsti obrade uglavnom gube semantičke i pragmatičke nijanse jezične upotrebe te je fokus na oblicima leksema i njihovim sintaktičkim ulogama. U ovom se radu popis hrvatskih čestica nastoji ograničiti na što manji mogući broj nepromjenjivih riječi koje se neupitno mogu smatrati česticama neovisno o kontekstu. Takav se pristup čini najproduktivnijim rješenjem za potrebe računalne obrade jezika zbog njegove jednostavnosti i činjenice da se preostali leksemi koji se tradicionalno dvojno kategoriziraju kao čestice, iako prvenstveno pripadaju drugoj vrsti riječi, na taj način i dalje mogu bez poteškoća kategorizirati u skladu sa svojim primarnim kategorijama bez uplitanja semantičkih kriterija koji računalu nisu dostupni na istoj razini kao čovjeku. Pritom se izbjegava i problem relativnosti semantičkih tumačenja u vrsti obrade za koju su prije svega potrebna jasna razgraničenja i preciznost. Particles are not equally and systematically categorized in traditional Croatian grammars, as there is no single precise definition for this category that all authors could use as a guide with no room for different interpretations. Since the status of a lexeme as a particle is mainly determined by its semantic function in a sentence, and since language production by its nature contains a high level of linguistic creativity, as well as considering the fact that the number of sentence constructions and combinations of individual lexemes within them is immeasurable, traditional grammars as a rule include a number of other types of speech, such as adverbs, in the category of articles depending on their function in a particular context. This is especially the case when considering the semantic aspect of each utterance, either in terms of intended meaning or in terms of semantic relations between lexemes. However, such categorization of particles is neither practical nor productive when it comes to computer processing, in this case specifically part-of-speech tagging for Croatian language corpora, because in this kind of processing the semantic and pragmatic nuances of language use are mostly lost and the focus is on the forms and syntactic roles of lexemes. The aim of this paper is to limit the list of Croatian particles to the smallest possible number of invariable words that can undoubtedly be considered particles regardless of context. Such an approach seems to be the most productive solution for part-of-speech tagging due to its simplicity and the fact that the remaining lexemes that are traditionally doubly categorized as particles, despite primarily belonging to another part of speech, can still be easily categorized according to their primary categories without the interference of semantic criteria that are not available to computers at the same level as to humans. At the same time, this approach avoids the issue of varying semantic interpretations in a type of language processing that primarily requires clear distinctions and precision.

Consistent terminology can positively influence communication, information transfer, and proper understanding. In multilingual written communication processes, challenges are augmented due to translation variants. The main aim of this study was to implement the Herfindahl-Hirshman Index (HHI) for the assessment of translated terminology in parallel corpora for the evaluation of translated terminology. This research was conducted on three types of legal domain subcorpora, dating from different periods: the Croatian-English parallel corpus (1991–2009), Latin-English and Latin-Croatian versions of the Code of Canon Law (1983), and English and Croatian versions of the EU legislation (2013). After the terminology extraction process, validation of term candidates was performed, followed by an evaluation. Terminology consistency was measured using the HHI—a commonly accepted measurement of market concentration. Results show that the HHI can be used for measuring terminology consistency to improve information transfer and message understanding. In translation settings, the process shows the need for quality management solutions.

Lo scopo della tesi è quello di analizzare vari proverbi e modi di dire che sono attivamente usati nella regione della Campania, l'analisi è svolta sul piano fonologico, morfologico, e lessicale. La tesi parte con la sintesi delle differenze fra i termini dialetto, lingua, varietà, mentre poi continua con il contesto storico-culturale della regione. In seguito sono elencati e spiegati fenomeni linguistici che sono tratti tipici dei dialetti campani: la metafonesi napoletana, il rafforzamento sintattico, il genere neutro, variazione delle consonanti nella pronuncia, finale indistinta e altri, e si arriva alla parte centrale in cui sono spiegati i termini dei proverbi e modi di dire, il loro uso nei dialetti campani e infine anche l'analisi. L'analisi è svolta sugli esempi di proverbi e modi di dire scelti a seconda dei motivi principali, e oltre ai cambiamenti linguistici ed etimologia del lessico, offre anche le spiegazioni del contesto in cui sono usati. Infine nella parte finale della tesi si conclude che i dialetti campani sono ancora frequentemente usati e il contesto in cui si usano oggi, come anche quanto sia importante il contesto politico-storico-culturale per i cambiamenti linguistici. The purpose of the thesis is to analyze various proverbs and idioms that are actively used in the Campania region, the analysis is carried out on a phonological, morphological, and lexical level. The thesis starts with the synthesis of the differences between the terms dialect, language, variety, and then continues with the historical-cultural context of the region. The thesis continues with the caractertistics that are typical traits of Campania dialects are listed and explained - Napolitan metaphonesis, syntactic reinforcement, neutral gender, variation of consonants in pronunciation, indistinct ending and others. The central part of the thesis explains the terms of proverbs and idioms, their use in Campania dialects, followed by the analysis. The analysis is carried out on the examples of proverbs and idioms chosen according to the main motives, in addition to offering a linguistic and lexical analysis, it also defines the context in which proverbs are used in everyday life. in the final part of the thesis it is concluded that the Campania dialects are still frequently used and the context in which they are used today, as well as how important the political-historical-cultural context is for linguistic changes.

U temelju je ovoga rada pitanje načela leksičke izgradnje. To se pitanje istražuje na primjeru prefiksacije, a pristupa mu se supostavljanjem francuskoga i hrvatskog, dvaju jezika različitih grana indoeuropske porodice i različite morfološke složenosti. Za analizu u radu odabrani su leksemi tvoreni pomoću četiriju prefikasa, sur- i sous- (sou-) te nad- (nat-) i pod- (pot-). Pored prefigiranih tvorenica, dodatno se promatraju i prijedlozi sur, sous, nad i pod od kojih su navedena četiri prefiksa nastala. Osnovna je pretpostavka rada da razlike između navedenih dvaju jezika utječu na različitu izgradnju promatranog dijela leksika. Dodatne su pretpostavke da su promatrane leksičko-značenjske strukture produktivne u oba jezika, da su i prefiksi i prijedlozi polisemne jedinice te da dio prefiksalnih značenja, ali i prefigiranih leksema stoji u odnosu značenjske suprotnosti. Građa za analizu prikupljena je iz dvaju usporedivih velikih mrežnih korpusa, frWaCa za francuski i hrWaCa za hrvatski. Korpusnom pretragom koja je ručno pročišćena dobivena su 1142 leksema, od čega 752 imenice, 264 glagola i 126 pridjeva. Riječ je o leksemima tvorenima pripajanjem jednoga od četiriju navedenih prefikasa na bazu koja pripada istoj leksičkoj kategoriji kao i tvorenica budući da se promatra samo čista prefiksacija. Kao teorijsko-metodološki okvir za analizu je građe odabran model morfosemantičkih obrazaca koji počiva na temeljnim strukturalističkim postavkama, ali uključuje i neke osnovne elemente kogntitivne lingvistike, u prvome redu onu o kontinuumu leksika i gramatike. U okviru modela MS obrazaca svaka se motivirana riječ promatra kao konstrukcija, čime se omogućuje ujednačen pristup dvama promatranim jezičnim elementima u ovome radu – prefiksima i prijedlozima – budući da se i prijedlozi promatraju kao dio konstrukcija koje tvore. Analizom su potvrđene sve pretpostavke. Točnije, promatrani su prefiksi produktivni i tvore najveći broj imenica u oba jezika. Prefiksi i prijedlozi grade raslojenu polisemnu strukturu koja se ogranizira oko prototipnoga prostornog značenja koja služe kao polazište za brojna značenjska proširenja, ponajprije na temelju metafore, ali i pojmovne bliskosti. Velik dio tvorenica stoji u odnosu hiponimije prema vlastitoj osnovi, a uz to i između dijela prefiksalnih i prijedložnih značenja kao i parova prefigiranih tvorenica postoji odnos značenjske suprotnosti. Najveće su promjene kao rezultat prefiksacije primijećene kod glagola. Kod dijela glagola dolazi do metaforizacije cijele tvorenice, što se puno rjeđe primjećuje kod imenica i pridjeva. Prefiksacija kod brojnih glagola dovodi do promjena u značenjsko-sintaktičkim obilježjima tvoreći velik broj glagola slabe tranzitivnosti koji najčešće nemaju obilježje zahvaćenosti objekta, iako neki nemaju ni obilježje agentivnosti. Ukupno gledajući, analiza je pokazala da se pomoću promatranih prefikasa tvore brojni leksemi kojima se ne obogaćuje samo leksik francuskoga i hrvatskog jezika, već i grade složeni unutarleksički odnosi (polisemija), a posredno i oni međuleksički (hiponimija i antonimija). Prefiksacija ima složenije učinke na hrvatski jezik, što je u skladu s početnom glavnom pretpostavkom. Ovim se radom daje prinos istraživanju prefiksacije općenito, posebno imenske i pridjevske koja je u literaturi slabije zastupljena, ali i omogućuje nov uvid u načela izgradnje leksičko-značenjskih struktura. This thesis focuses on principles of lexical construal. In order to do so, it explores a particular word-formation process, simple prefixation (e.g. Polinsky 2008:267; Körtvelyessy and Genči 2017:26; Babić 2002:375), defined as the attachment of a prefix to a base. The study presented in this thesis is conducted from a contrastive standpoint by looking into French and Croatian, languages from two branches of the Indoeuropean family which also differ with respect to morphological complexity, with Croatian being morphologically richer than French. The analysis includes lexemes formed with the following four prefixes: sur- and sous- (sou-) (French) and nad- (nat-) and pod- (pot-) (Croatian). In addition to prefixed lexemes, prepositions sur, sous, nad i pod, from which the aforementioned prefixes stemmed, are also studied. The main hypothesis is that general differences between the French and Croatian language entail a different construal of the observed part of the lexicon. Additional hypotheses are that the observed lexical-semantic structures are productive in both languages, that both prefixes and prepositions are polysemous language units and that a part of prefixal meanings, as well as of the meanigs of prefixed lexemes, represent antonyms. The methodological approach in this thesis is a corpus-based one (Biber 2010:162-163), where conclusions are drawn on the basis of an analysis of observed language phenomena and in accordance with a set of theoretical settings. Data for the analysis were retrieved from two comparable large web corpora, frWaC (Baroni et al. 2009) for French and hrWaC (Ljubešić and Erjavec 2011) for Croatian. These two corpora slightly differ in size, but were composed following the same principles. Corpus search was conducted via CQL orders of the following type: the [word="sur.*"] containing [tag="N.*"]. In this particular order, all words belonging to the noun class (N.*) are retireved. Subsequently, the results were manually checked. The corpus search resulted in 1142 lexemes, 752 nouns, 264 verbs and 126 adjectives. The theoretical and methodological framework for the analysis presented in this thesis is the model of morphosemantic patterns (Raffaelli and Kerovec 2008, 2017, Raffaelli 2012, 2013, 2015b, 2017, Filko and Raffaelli 2017, Raffaelli 2018) which is based on the main structuralist tentes. The model also includes some major Cognitive Linguistic features, such as the notion of grammar-lexicon continuum (Langacker 1987), as well as Conceptual Metaphor Theory (e.g. Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Within the model of morphosemantic patterns, every motivated word is considered to be doubly motivated, both formally and semantically, thus emphasizing the semantic approach to word-formation. In addition to that, motivated words are perceived as constructions. This fact enabled us to have a unified approach to both prefixed lexemes and prepositions, the latter also being considered part of constructions they are used in. The analysis has demonstrated that nouns are the most numerous lexical category in which prefixes develop the richest polysemy. Prefixal meanings are mostly more abstract and based on orientational metaphors. A great majority of prefixed nouns are hyponyms of their bases (e.g. sous-vêtement ‘underwear’ is a type of vêtement ‘clothing item’) and they are also endocentric. Verbs are the lexical category that exhibits the most significant changes as a result of prefixation. Some prefixed verbs, especially in Croatian, undergo metaphorization as a whole, which is rarely the case in nouns and adjectives. Such metaphorized verbs are usually not hyponyms of their bases. In a number of verbs, prefixation leads to changes in the semanticsyntactic features. In this thesis, we have observed two such features: argument structure and transitivity, as the most relevant ones. In accordance with Hopper and Thompson (1980), we consider transitivity to be a gradable category in which two elements are especially important for the verbs analysed in this thesis: agentivity and affectedness of object. In both analyzed languages, prefixation usually results in the formation of verbs with weaker transitivity, i.e. lacking one of these two elements (or both), usually affectedness of object (e.g. nadtrčati 'lit. over-run someone; run better than someone', formed from trčati 'run'). A great majority of Croatian prefixed verbs are perfective with respect to verbal aspect. Verbs are the lexical category on which prefixation exercises the most profound influence. They are also the category in which the greatest differences between French and Croatian arise. More precisely, metaphor and semantic-syntactic changes are more present in Croatian verbs, while there is less hyponymy than in French verbs. Adjectives are the least numerous lexical category in the analyzed corpora, and therefore exhibit the least developed polysemy. Their meanings are very similar to those found in prefixed nouns, and are predominantly abstract (e.g. suractif 'very active'). A majority of adjectives formed with the prefixes sur-, sous- and pod- are hyponyms of their bases, while those formed with the prefix nad- are an exception. The latter ones are mostly exocentric and do not represent hyponyms of their bases (e.g. nadljudski 'superhuman' is not human, but 'above human'). When it comes to prepositions, they usually appear in constructions containing a verb (e.g. profesor bdije nad svojim razredom 'lit. the professor stays awake over his class; the professor takes care of his class') or a noun (e.g. sous la protection de l'ONU 'under UN protection'). Some prepositional constructions such as the mentioned bdjeti nad 'watch over' are cases of strong rection between a verb and a preposition and should be studied in more detail in further research. Anaylsis has demonstrated that prepositions too, like prefixes, are highly polysemous language elements. The number of their meanings is similar to those found in prefixes forming nouns, which is higher than both those of prefixes forming adjectives and verbs due to the larger number of nouns in the corpus. Still more important than the number of prepositional meanings is the fact that they differ significantly from the prefixal meanings, thus confirming one of our main initial hypotheses. More precisely, we have demonstrated that the different constructions in which prefixes and prepositions are used have very different effects on their semantic behaviour, leading to new prefixal meanings developing in prefixed lexemes under the influence of the bases. In sum, the analysis has confirmed all the three hypotheses. First, the observed prefixes are productive, with the largest number of noun derivatives and the least number of adjectives in both languages. Second, prefixes and prepositions have a rich polysemous structure organized around a prototype, i.e. the spatial meaning serving as a basis for a number of meaning extensions. These extensions are based on orientational metaphors in a majority of cases, and on conceptual contiguity. Third, antonymy appears between a part of prefixal meanings, as well as between some pairs of prefixed lexemes, mostly nouns. A large part of prefixed lexemes are hyponyms of their bases. These findings demonstrate that prefixation affects not only the intralexical level, leading to polysemy, but also the interlexical level, resulting in antonymy and hyponymy. Our analysis has shown that the observed prefixes form numerous lexemes that not only enrich the lexicon of the French and Croatian language respectively, but they also build complex intralexical (polysemy) and interlexical relations (hyponymy and antonymy). Prefixation has been shown to have more complex effects on Croatian, which is in line with our main hypothesis. This thesis makes a contribution to the exploration of prefixation in general, especially noun and adjective prefixation, which is less present in the literature than verb prefixation. The thesis also offers a new insight into the principles of the construction of lexicalsemantic structures, which remain one of the less explored topics of word-formation.

U radu se predstavlja preliminarno istraživanje četiriju fonoloških obilježja s varijacijama u suvremenom zagrebačkom govoru: gubitka obezvučivanja zvučnih opstruenata na kraju riječi, pomaka udara na drugi slog jedninskih oblika imenica srednjeg roda poput ime i prezime, pomaka udara sa zadnjega na prvi slog osnove pridjeva sa sufiksima -sk- ili -n- te gubljenja međuvokalnih konsonanata. Obilježja se istražuju u okviru varijacijske sociolingvistike s ciljem da se ispita rasprostranjenost pojedinih varijanata među govornicima te prepoznaju eventualne naznake jezične promjene u tijeku. Istraživanje se temelji na govornoj građi prikupljenoj intervjuima, koja je analizirana s obzirom na dob, spol i socioekonomski status ispitanikā. Rezultati upućuju na to da je obezvučivanje krajnjih opstruenata prilično dobro zastupljeno među zrelijim Zagrepčanima, a slabo među mlađima, što navodi na zaključak da se odvija promjena kojom se ovaj proces gubi. Jedninski oblici imenica poput ime i prezime s udarom pomaknutim na drugi slog ispostavili su se varijantom koja se javlja sporadično među mladima te ne pokazuje naznake promjene u tijeku. U pogledu pomaka udara sa zadnjega na prvi slog osnove pridjevā sa sufiksima -sk- ili -n-, pokazalo se da je u nekih pridjeva to već završena promjena, da neki pridjevi s odgovarajućom strukturom još nisu zahvaćeni njime, a da u nekih postoji varijacija. Zapaženi obrasci upućuju na mogućnost da je opisani pomak udara promjena koja se odvija u pridjevā s varijacijom. Naposljetku, gubljenje međuvokalnih konsonanata zabilježeno je vrlo sporadično te ne pokazuje naznake glasovne promjene u tijeku., The paper presents a preliminary investigation of four phonological features with variations in the contemporary Zagreb dialect: loss of the devoicing of word-final obstruents, stress shift to the stem-final syllable of singular forms of neuter nouns such as ime and prezime, stress shift from the stem-final to the first syllable of adjectives with suffixes -sk- or -n- and elision of intervocalic consonants. The features are studied within a variationist sociolinguistic framework with the aim of investigating the prevalence of variants among speakers and identifying conceivable indications of an ongoing language change. The investigation is based on spoken material collected with the help of interviews, which has been analysed with respect to the participants’ age, gender, and socioeconomic status. The results indicate that the devoicing of word-final obstruents is rather well-represented among more mature speakers and poorly among the younger ones, pointing towards an ongoing loss of this feature. Singular forms of nouns such as ime and prezime with stress shifted to the stem-final syllable turned out to be a variant occurring sporadically in younger speakers, showing no indications of an ongoing change. Regarding the stress shift from the stem-final to the first syllable of adjectives with the suffixes -sk- or -n-, it has been revealed that is already a completed change in some adjectives, and that some adjectives with the relevant structure have not yet been affected by the shift, while others exhibit variation. The observed patterns indicate that the described shift may be an ongoing change affecting the adjectives with variation. Finally, the intervocalic consonant elision was noted very sporadically, and it shows no indications of an ongoing sound change.

The first two decades of the 21st century have been marked by the rule of technology - the Internet, smart devices, and social networks have become an inevitable part of human life and it can be said that people of today experience their reality through an additional dimension - the virtual one. The digital world has given people insight into the multitude of information and content, and thus the opportunity to express their opinions, views, and criticisms. Thus, among other things, discussions about languages and all aspects of language took place on the Internet. One of them is the attitude towards the beauty of the language - the German language is often the target of criticism and ridicule by users around the world who express their disapproval of this language in the form of comments and funny videos. This paper aimed to find out where the negative phonaesthetic attitudes towards certain languages originate from, i.e. what makes them unattractive to the listener's ear, using the example of the German language for obvious reasons. The main question is, therefore, whether there are external factors that cause individuals to have a negative attitude towards a certain language, or whether it is simply a matter of some languages being inherently auditory "unattractive". For this, it was necessary to comment on relevant content from the popular social networks Instagram and Reddit, and a survey was conducted among individuals who were offered, based on several videos, to assess which language they liked or disliked. Research has shown that - when certain factors are "reversed" and German is presented in a slightly more positive light than is normally the case on the Internet, this language ranks high, alongside other popular European languages. Prva dva desetljeća 21. stoljeća obilježena su snažnim razvojem tehnologije - od Interneta i pametnih uređaja do društvenih mreža koje su postale neizbježan dio ljudskog života, pa se može reći da se danas realnost doživljava i kroz dodatnu dimenziju – onu virtualnu. Digitalni svijet je omogućio uvid u mnoštvo informacija i sadržaja, a s time je omogućeno i izražavanje mišljenja, stavova i kritika. Pored svega, rasprave o stranim jezicima i svim njihovim aspektima odvijaju se na internetu. Jedna od njih je i rasprava o ljepoti jezika. Njemački jezik je često tema takvih kritika i ismijavanja od strane korisnika koji izražavaju svoje nezadovoljvstvo ovim jezikom kroz različite komentare i smiješne video uradke. Cilj ovog završnog rada je pronaći izvor negativnih stavova prema određenom jeziku, npr. što ih čini neprivlačnim uhu, koristeći se primjerom njemačkog jezika iz očitih razloga. Glavno pitanje kojim se rad bavi je, jesu li vanjski faktori uzrokovali da pojedinci imaju negativan stav prema određenom jeziku ili su neki jezici sami po sebi neprivlačni za slušanje. Za potrebe ovoga rada bilo je važno komentirati važne sadržaje sa popularnih društvenih mreža; Instagrama i Reddita. Provedeno je i istraživanje među ispitinacima kojima je bilo ponuđeno da na osnovu nekoliko videa procjene koji im se strani jezik sviđa, odnosno ne sviđa. Istraživanje je pokazalo da obrtanjem određenih faktora i prezentiranjem njemačkog jezika u pozitivnijem tonu nego što je to inače slučaj na internetu, ovaj jezik zapravo visoko rangira, i to rame uz rame drugim popularnim europskim jezicima.

Računalna je lingvistika grana lingvistike koja se od ostalih lingvističkih grana i metodologija razlikuje upotrebom računala, koja se mogu koristiti za opis jezičnih jedinica na raznim razinama jezika (Tadić, 2003). Forenzička lingvistika predstavlja primjenu lingvistike u domeni prava i pravnih pitanja, gdje se lingvistička znanja i vještine koriste za analizu pravnih tekstova, pravnog govora, ali i za pružanje dokaza istražiteljima (Coulthard i sur., 2017). Cilj istraživanja je ispitati mogućnosti povezivanja metoda računalne i forenzičke lingvistike te proučiti kako se one mogu koristiti za utvrđivanje autorstva tekstova koje je napisao Antun Gustav Matoš, kao i provjeriti koje metode i analize pružaju najindikativnije rezultate. U sklopu istraživanja analizirano je 26 tekstova pet autora, Antuna Gustava Matoša, Milana Begovića, Jure Turića, Josipa Kozarca i Joze Ivakića. Provedena je analiza stilometrijskih značajki teksta svih pet autora korištenjem analize varijance i Jaccardovog koeficijenta sličnosti pomoću korpusa i korpusnih alata. Rezultati istraživanja pokazali su da najlošije rezultate za utvrđivanje autorstva pružaju stilometrijske mjere dužine riječi i rečenica u tekstu, dok omjer različnica i pojavnica, koji pruža podatke o leksičkoj obogaćenosti teksta, ima veću uspješnost. Najveću uspješnost ostvarilo je mjerenje Jaccardovog koeficijenta sličnosti lema i n-grama u poznatim i provjeravanim tekstovima. Computational linguistics is a branch of linguistics differentiated from other linguistic branches and methodologies by the use of computers, used for description of linguistic units on all levels of language (Tadić, 2003). Forensic linguistics denotes the application of linguistics when it comes to the law and legal matters, where linguistic knowledge and skills are used for analysis of written legal texts, legal language, as well as to provide evidence to investigators (Coulthard et al., 2017). The aim of this research was to examine the possibilities of combining the methods of computational and forensic linguistics, how they can be used for authorship attribution of texts written by Antun Gustav Matoš, as well as to explore which methods and analyses provide most indicative results. 26 texts from five authors, Antun Gustav Matoš, Milan Begović, Jure Turić, Josip Kozarac and Joza Ivakić were included in this research. An analysis of stylometric properties of the texts by all five authors was conducted using analysis of variance and Jaccard similarity index by using corpora and corpus tools. The results of the research showed that the worst results for authorship attribution were obtained using word and sentence length, followed by a more successful type-token ratio, which provided data on the lexical richness of the texts. The most successful was the Jaccard similarity index of the lemmas and n-grams used in known and questioned text samples.

Recent discoveries of semantic compositionality in Japanese tits have enlivened the discussions on the presence of this phenomenon in wild animal communication. Data on semantic compositionality in wild apes are lacking, even though language experiments with captive apes have demonstrated they are capable of semantic compositionality. In this paper, I revisit the study by Boesch (Hum. Evol. 6:81–89, 1991) who investigated drumming sequences by an alpha male in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) community in the Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire. A reanalysis of the data reveals that the alpha male produced semantically compositional combined messages of travel direction change and resting period initiation. Unlike the Japanese tits, the elements of the compositional expression were not simply juxtaposed but displayed structural reduction, while one of the two elements in the expression coded the meanings of both elements. These processes show relative resemblance to blending and fusion in human languages. Also unlike the tits, the elements of the compositional expression did not have a fixed order, although there was a fixed distribution of drumming events across the trees used for drumming. Because the elements of the expression appear to carry verb-like meanings, the compositional expression also resembles simple verb-verb constructions and short paratactic combinations of two clauses found across languages. In conclusion, the reanalysis suggests that semantic compositionality and phenomena resembling paratactic combinations of two clauses might have been present in the communication of the last common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans, not necessarily in the vocal modality.

ACCEPTED ABSTRACT: Introduction: Studies consistently report that patients with schizophrenia exhibit qualitative abnormalities on language production tasks. These abnormalities are possibly associated with the severity of psychotic symptoms. Despite this, some studies have conflictingly suggested that patients with schizophrenia exhibit similar word frequency (WF) effects on lexical tasks compared to healthy subjects. Given that previous studies calculated WFs from language corpora, we aimed to investigate the relationship between WF and psychotic symptoms using a novel, simple method for calculating WF. Methods: Thirty-six patients with schizophrenia were included in the study. The severity of positive symptoms was measured using the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS). One semantic and one letter fluency task were administered with the patients instructed to produce as many animal anmes and words beginning with the letter p in 60 s, respectively. Every response in the output was assigned (1) a corpus-based WF, extracted from the German-language lexical database dlexDB, and (2) a within-sample WF. The within-sample WF was calculated as the raw number of participants who produced the word. Spearman���s correlations were computed between the WF variables and symptoms. Results: Corpus-based WF exhibited skewed, kurtic, and/or non-normal distribution. Contrastingly, within-sample WF displayed normal, non-skewed, and non-kurtic distribution. There were no significant correlations between corpus-based WF and symptoms on both tasks. Conversely, within-sample WF on semantic fluency was significantly negatively and weakly correlated with the global SAPS score, as well as subscales measuring delusions and bizarre behavior. Further, within-sample WF on letter fluency was significantly positively and weakly correlated with the subscale measuring bizarre behavior of the SAPS scale. Conclusion: The differences in the data distribution patterns between corpus-based WF and within-sample WF indicate that different methodological frameworks may have better use of one or the other variable type. Further, significant correlations with positive symptoms were observed only for within-sample WF. It can be concluded that within-sample WF may be more appropriate for analyzing verbal fluency output in psychiatric research compared to corpus-based WF., Pre-recorded presentation video: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5619891 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Preprint: https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/7tndz, {"references": ["Allen, H.A., Liddle, P.F., Frith, C.D., 1993. Negative features, retrieval processes and verbal fluency in schizophrenia. Br. J. 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Ovaj se rad bavi analizom i opisom povijesne i suvremene antroponimije potkalničkoga Prigorja na temelju korpusa prikupljenog dugogodišnjim arhivskim i terenskim istraživanjem. U uvodnom se dijelu daje osvrt na zemljopisni, društvenopovijesni, demografski i jezični kontekst istraživana područja, a u narednim se poglavljima donosi popis i analiza utvrđenih osobnih imena, osobnih i obiteljskih nadimaka te prezimena istraživana prostora. Sama osobna imena istraživana su tijekom devet vremenskih odsječaka u trajanju od po pet godina, počevši od 1802. godine, a završivši 2014. godine. U nedostatku prethodnih antroponimijskih istraživanja na širokom području potkalničkoga Prigorja, ograničili smo se za potrebe ovog rada na istraživanje osobnoimenskog repertoara grada Križevaca u više od dva stoljeća, tijekom kojih je sveukupno potvrđeno 3020 osobnih imena (1579 muških i 1441 ženskih), a koja su nam potvrdila tradicionalnost i konzervativnost samoga grada. Osobni nadimci posebna su onimijska baština koja na području potkalničkoga Prigorja dosad također nije bila istraživana. Ograničivši se na 13 naselja diljem potkalničkoga Prigorja, terenskim smo istraživanjem utvrdili 288 pravih osobnih nadimaka, 245 muških i 43 ženska, koji se još uvijek koriste u usmenoj odnosno neslužbenoj komunikaciji, a čija nam je motivacija vjerno oslikala izvanjezičnu stvarnost istraživana prostora. Do istog smo zaključka došli istraživanjem obiteljskih nadimaka, specifične antroponimijske kategorije, još uvijek uvelike prisutne na prostoru potkalničkoga Prigorja. Ograničivši se na 12 naselja diljem potkalničkoga Prigorja, terenskim smo istraživanjem utvrdili 173 prava obiteljska nadimka, čije su nam potvrđene motivacijske skupine ponudile važne sociolingvističke obavijesti o nositeljima pojedinih obiteljskih nadimaka, ali i o njihovim nadjevateljima te postojećim međuljudskim odnosima. Sve dosad navedene antroponimijske kategorije obilato su posvjedočene u osnovi prezimena. Primijenivši kriterij kontinuiranog javljanja svakog pojedinog prezimena od minimalno 100 godina, iscrpnim smo arhivskim istraživanjem sveukupno potvrdili 1360 prezimena s višestoljetnim kontinuitetom javljanja na području potkalničkoga Prigorja od kraja 14. stoljeća do danas. Potvrđena smo prezimena naveli i obradili u iscrpnom Rječniku prezimena potkalničkoga Prigorja priloženom na kraju ovoga rada. Svekoliku smo prikupljenu antroponimijsku građu u ovome radu analizirali i opisali s obzirom na njezinu etimologiju, etiologiju, tvorbu i motivaciju. This thesis deals with the analysis and description of the historical and contemporary anthroponymy of the Kalnik area of the Prigorje region on the basis of both archival and field research carried out throughout a longer period of time. Since there has not been any extensive onomastic reasearch in the very area to date, our goal was to determine the influence of linguistic and extralinguistic changes in the reaserched onomastic categories. The introduction of this thesis provides the geographical, sociohistorical, demographical and linguistic context of the researched area, whereas the subsequent chapters provide a list and analysis of confirmed first names, personal and family nicknames, as well as family names of the reaserched area. First names were researched during nine time periods with a duration of five years, beginning from 1802 and ending in 2014. Because of a wide researched area, we limited our research on the anthroponymic repertoire of the city of Križevci, in which 3020 first names (1579 male and 1441 female names) were confirmed. In the 19th century, during five analysed time periods, 1519 first names were confirmed, out of which 814 male and 705 female names, which were mostly simple based on their structure (91.64%). Concerning the provenance of the first names, we established that almost all names were either Christian names or translated Christian names and that national names occur very rarely and sporadically, only in the second half of the 19th century. By comparison, in the 20th and 21st century, during the last four time periods, 1501 first names have been confirmed, out of which 765 were male and 736 female names. Concerning their structure, they turned out to be mostly compound first names in the 1946- 1950 time period (55.69%), whereas in the 2010-2014 time period they turned out to be predominantly single (97.02%). Concerning their provenance, in the 1946-1950 time period 48.39% of male and 57.58% of female national names were confirmed, whereas in the last time period male national names amount to 4.05%, and female national names to only 1.27%. Personal nicknames are a special anthroponymic category which has not been researched in the Kalnik area. Having limited our field research on 13 places throughout the area, we confirmed 288 real personal nicknames, 245 male and 43 female nicknames, of mostly simple structure (95.14%), which are still mostly used in oral and informal communication. The motivation behind the nicknames has faithfully shown us the extralinguistic reality of the researched area. The most frequent motivational group of nicknames is the one of unknown motivation (23.96%), while the other confirmed groups are nicknames motivated by a first name (12,15%), a physical characteristic of the owner (12.15%), another characteristic of the owner (11,81%), a specific word used by the owner (8.33%), an animal (6.94%), a family name (6.60%), an occupation (6.25%), an ethnonym or toponym (4.51%), a family or social role (2.78%), a professional designation (1.38%), food (1.04%), a name for a plant (1.04%), a subject (0.69%), and another nickname (0.35%). The high frequency of nicknames of unknown motivation shows us the importance of future research of this anthroponymic category because, due to the passage of time, it is difficult to determine the real motivation of every nickname. We came to the same conclusion during our research of family nicknames, another specific anthroponymic category, still quite present in the Kalnik area. Having limited our field research on 12 places throughout the wide researched area, we managed to confirm 173 real family nicknames, whose designated motivational groups provided us with important sociolinguistic pieces of information. Concerning their structure, the majority of family nicknames turned out to be simple (N = 129), whereas concerning their motivation, the majority of family nicknames were of unknown motivation (N = 33). Other motivational groups were the following: a first name (N = 27), an occupation (N = 27), a family name (N = 25), a personal nickname (N = 22), a certain characteristic (N = 13), an ethnonym (N = 10), a toponym (N = 6), a certain subject (N = 6), and an animal (N = 4). All these mentioned different anthroponymic categories (first names, personal and family nicknames) can be confirmed profusely in the last anthroponymic category researched and analysed in this thesis – family names. Having employed the criterion of their minimum continuity of 100 years in the researched area, we have managed to confirm 1360 family names with centuries old continuity, since the 14th century to this very day. With this criterion we also managed to reduce a significant number of over 3000 family names with mostly no continuity, as well as to confirm those last names which had left their trace in the researched area. Of course, not all family names confirmed by this criterion are necessarily connected to the researched area, but are only detected in it. Out of 1360 confirmed family names, we succeeded in determining 189 family names which occur exclusively or mostly in the researched area, 100 family names which do not occur in contemporary anthroponymy of the area, and 97 family names which could also become extinguished in near future. Concerning their structure, the majority of all family names occur without a suffix (N = 681). All the confirmed family names were analysed according to their structure and motivation and listed in our Lexicon of family names at the end of this very thesis.

U razgovoru govornici često izvode pokrete ruku koji su sinkronizirani s njihovim govorom, a običan promatrač vrlo lako zamjećuje kako je barem dio tih pokreta povezan sa značenjem govora koji prate. Ti se pokreti tradicionalno nazivaju koverbalnim gestama, a o njihovoj su se ulozi u govornoj komunikaciji razvile brojne znanstvene diskusije. Pitanje koje je potaknulo velik interes i raspravu u okviru gestovnih istraživanja jest zašto gestikuliramo prilikom govora, a iz ponuđenih odgovora proizašlo je nekoliko pristupa koji objašnjavaju funkciju i upotrebu koverbalnih gestâ. Prema mišljenjima pobornika kognitivnog pristupa koverbalne geste olakšavaju leksički pristup mentalnom leksikonu tijekom govorne produkcije pa se vežu isključivo uz govornika. Njihov je utjecaj na prijenos semantičkih informacija minimalan i nedovoljan za poboljšanje komunikacijske vrijednosti (MorrelSamuels i Krauss, 1992). Prema komunikacijskom pristupu, koverbalne su geste namijenjene slušatelju jer olakšavaju razumijevanje jezične poruke, omogućuju dodatan izvor informacija za lakše dekodiranje ciljanog sadržaja i prenose informaciju na sličan način kao što se to realizira govorom (Kelly, Ӧzyürek i Maris, 2010a). Konačno, prema dvojnom pristupu koverbalne geste imaju i komunikacijsku i kognitivnu ulogu, ovisno o vrsti informacije koju prenose (Alibali, Heath i Myers, 2001). Kako bismo empirijski ispitali ulogu koverbalnih ikoničkih gestâ u jezičnoj recepciji, proveli smo dva eksperimenta vodeći se paradigmom usmjeravanja. Balansiranjem dvaju modaliteta ciljnog podražaja (auditivnog i audio-vizualnog) i jezika podražaja (hrvatskog i engleskog), ispitanici su trebali što brže i točnije odrediti je li radnja koju su vidjeli u usmjerivaču podudarna sa zvučnim zapisom koji su čuli u sklopu ciljnog podražaja. Pritom su koverbalne ikoničke geste samo u jednom dijelu zadataka bile podudarne s verbalnim dijelom ciljnog podražaja. Rezultati našeg istraživanja pokazali su kako vrsta modaliteta utječe na brzinu i točnost razumijevanja jezične poruke. Konkretnije, ispitanici su brže procesirali visokopredočive konkretne glagole kada su oni emitirani auditivno nego audio-vizualno, kako u materinskom tako i u prvom stranom jeziku. Utvrđeno je kako prisustvo podudarnih koverbalnih ikoničkih gestâ nije pridonijelo bržoj recepciji informacije. Rezultati istraživanja pokazali su da je nepodudarnost koverbalnih ikoničkih gestâ usporila jezičnu recepciju kada se informacija emitirala multimodalno. Može se stoga zaključiti da dobiveni rezultati idu u prilog tezi o dvojnoj ulozi koverbalnih ikoničkih gestâ. When communicating, speakers often produce hand movements which are synchronised with their speech. A layperson observing such communication would easily notice how at least a part of these movements is related to the meaning of speech they accompany. These movements are usually defined as co-speech gestures, one of the most common types of gestures which occurs spontaneously in multimodal utterances. Such spontaneous gestures carry the meaning which is related to speech at the semantic, pragmatic and discourse level (Kita, van Gijn and van der Hulst, 1998). In the psycholinguistics literature, co-speech gestures are typically defined in terms of their complex and integral relationship with language. David McNeill, a pioneering researcher in gesture studies, argues that “[...] gesture is not a behavioral fossil, not an ‘attachment’ to language or an ‘enhancement’, but is an indispensable part of our ongoing current system of language and was selected with speech in the evolution of this system.” (McNeill, 2005: 233). Why co-speech gestures occur and which role they have in spoken languages are some of the questions that have stimulated the academic interest in gesture studies and have encouraged numerous scientific discussions which resulted in several different approaches and theories explaining gestural function and use. The cognitive approach assumes that co-speech gestures facilitate lexical access to the mental lexicon during language production, which is why they benefit only the speaker. Their influence on the reception of semantic information is minimal and insufficient to improve communicative value (Morrel-Samuels and Krauss, 1992). The advocates of a communicative approach, on the other hand, argue that co-speech gestures benefit the listener since they facilitate language reception, thus providing an additional source of information for easier decoding and conveying the message in a speech-like way (Kelly, Ӧzyürek and Maris, 2010a). Finally, the postulates of the dual approach suggest that gestures have both a cognitive and a communicative function, depending on the type of information they convey (Alibali, Heath and Myers, 2001). To empirically test the role of co-speech iconic gestures in language reception, we conducted two experiments using the priming paradigm. Both experiments were designed and conducted in controlled experimental conditions by using the E-Prime 3.0. software package. In the first experiment, we analysed the effect of modality of the stimulus (audio and audiovisual) and language of the stimulus (Croatian and English) on reaction time and response accuracy. Each task started with a fixation cross (+) being shown for the duration of 500 ms, after which the prime and target stimuli were presented sequentially. The participants were first presented with an action prime (a video clip of real, everyday actions) in the duration of 2000 ms followed by an audio-visual speech-gesture target in the duration of 2000 ms. Our aim was to compare the reaction time of correctly recognized stimuli shown with a congruent co-speech iconic gesture in the native language and the first foreign language and without a congruent gesture. Consequently, the target stimuli were shown in two languages (Croatian and English) and in two conditions: a) the audio-visual condition, in which the actor produced the sentence describing the action shown in the prime and at the same time performed the semantically congruent co-speech gesture; and b) the audio condition, in which the participant was exposed only to an auditory recording semantically congruent with the action shown in the prime. By pressing the YES or NO button on their keyboards, the participants were supposed to answer whether the spoken utterance presented in the target stimulus describes the action presented in the prime. The results of the first experiment show that language of the stimulus has no effect on language reception of high imageability concrete words as no significant difference was noted in reaction times and accuracy between the two languages. This result is explained by the fact that the participants were highly proficient foreign language speakers, which negated the facilitatory effect of gestural modality. On the other hand, we established a statistically significant effect of type of modality on reaction time as faster reaction times were recorded for stimuli in the audio only condition in both languages. This conclusion is in line with the results reported by Krauss, Morrel-Samuels and Solasante (1991), McNeil, Alibali and Evans (2000) and Kelly, Ӧzyürek and Maris (2010a). Several factors are suggested as possible reasons why faster processing was noted with audio stimuli – conditional semantic redundancy of gesture type in question, low complexity of the task, and the effect of common ground. In the second experiment, we analysed the speed and accuracy of language reception in the case of bimodal stimuli by using the same priming paradigm. The participants were first presented with an action prime (a video clip of real, everyday actions) followed by an audiovisual speech-gesture target. The target stimuli were shown in two experimental conditions: a) speech + a semantically congruent co-speech iconic gesture, and b) speech + a semantically incongruent co-speech iconic gesture. By pressing the YES or NO button on their keyboards, the participants were supposed to answer if the spoken utterance presented in the target stimulus describes the real action presented in the prime stimulus. The results of the second experiment indicate that incongruent co-speech iconic gestures had a negative effect on the reaction time and accuracy rate of multimodal language processing. Slower reaction time and a higher proportion of incorrect answers were recorded when the semantic congruence between verbal and gestural modality was compromised and the same negative effect was recorded in both the native and the foreign language. We believe that such results speak in favour of McNeill's claim that verbal and gestural modality are integrated and form a complete image of the person's mental process (McNeill, 1992). Finally, the results yielded by this doctoral dissertation provide empirical support for the hypothesis that co-speech iconic gestures have a dual function in communication. Their dynamic nature, demonstrated in this research and in many scientific papers presented in this dissertation, provides strong support for Hosttetter's meta-analysis findings that the role of gestures is neither strictly communicative nor cognitive, but that it rather depends on a wide range of factors which determine their function (Hostetter, 2011). It may be concluded that a more detailed understanding of the gesture role in communication and further investigation of their speech-related properties might increase the potential of their use and implementation in many domains of linguistic research.

Afaziju definira oštećenje govorno-jezičnih područja u mozgu pa tako različita oštećenja tih područja predstavljaju različite tipove afazija, a time i različit pristup rehabilitaciji pacijenta. Nakon stručne evaluacije pacijenta slijedi adekvatna govorno-jezična terapija. O terapijskom pristupu ovise brojni čimbenici poput vrste, mjesta i jačine oštećenja, dobi, spola, premorbidnog i postmorbidnog stanja pacijenta, njegova fizičkog, psihičkog i kognitivnog stanja, kao i rezultata evaluacije pacijenta te brzine njegova oporavka. Metodologija rehabilitacije temelji se na individualnom pristupu gdje se terapija potpuno prilagođava pacijentu i njegovim potrebama. Osim govorno-jezične terapije, postoje i druge metode rehabilitacije poput transkranijalne magnetske stimulacije ili terapije lijekovima. Aphasia is an impairment of speech and language and it's different types are determined by different types of brain damages and therefore require different rehabilitation approaches. After professional evaluation of a patient, appropriate speech and language therapy is needed. The therapeutic approach depends on such factors as the type, location and severity of the lesion, age, sex, premorbid and postmorbid state of the patient, his or her physical, psychological and cognitive state, evaluation results and speed of recovery. Methodology of rehabilitation is founded on an individualized approach, which is designed to meet the needs of the patient. Besides speech and language therapy, there are other approaches such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and pharmacological therapy.

Tema ovog rada je pragmatička i semiotička analiza jezika o pandemiji bolesti COVID-19 u masovnim medijima. Analiza se temelji na semiotičkoj teoriji M. A. K. Hallidayja, Roberta Hodgea i Gunthera Kressa i Teuna van Dijka, a provodi se na odabranim člancima s hrvatskih internetskih portala, objavljenih tijekom 2020. godine. Radi se o portalima tabloidskog i ozbiljnijeg karaktera, te se uspoređuje očekivana razlika u jeziku takvih publikacija. Članci se dijele u tri tematske skupine na one usmjerene na ideologiju, one koji pripadaju diskursu straha i one koji pripadaju diskursu konstruiranja krivca. Na temelju takvih značenjskih razlika izvode se i zaključci o leksiku, sintaksi i strukturi samih tekstova, te se potvrđuje razlika u jeziku tabloida i ozbiljnijih novina. The subject of this paper is a pragmatic and semiotic analysis of the language about the COVID-19 pandemic in the mass media. The analysis is based on the semiotic theory by M. A. K. Halliday, Robert Hodge, Gunther Kress and Teun van Dijk, and it is done on a selection of articles from the Croatian internet newspapers, published during the year 2020. The newspapers are divided in tabloids and more serious websites, and what is compared is the expected difference in the language of these kinds of news. The articles are categorized thematically: ones that belong to the discourse of ideology, ones that belong to the discourse of fear and ones that belong to the discourse of constructing a culprit. Based on these semantic differences conclusions are drawn about the lexis, syntax and the very structure of the texts, with which the expected differences in language between tabloids and serious news are confirmed.

Cilj ovoga rada je prikazati utjecaj efekta tipičnosti pri jezičnoj produkciji i percepciji kod pacijenata u prvoj epizodi i ranoj fazi psihotičnog poremećaja. Prvi dio rada je posvećen teorijskom okviru relevantnom za jezične deficite u psihozama. Teorijski dio započinje kraćim pregledom dosadašnjih istraživanja o psihozama i definicijom prve epizode i ranog tijeka psihotičnog poremećaja. S obzirom na to da je formalni poremećaj mišljenja jedan od simptoma shizofrenije, a još uvijek se ne zna je li to poremećaj jezika ili poremećaj mišljenja, nezaobilazan je fenomen u radu koji istražuje jezične deficite u psihozama. Efekt tipičnosti je ključan faktor kategorizacije koja je temeljni proces koji nam omogućava organizaciju semantičkih kategorija, odnosno poimanje i razumijevanje izvanjezičnog svijeta. Prema tome,efekt tipičnosti je neizostavan parametar pri jezičnoj obradi, a samim time i pri bilo kakvom psiholingvističkom istraživanju. U ovom radu provedeno je istraživanje leksičko-semantičke tipičnosti za leksičko-semantičke kategorije „domaće životinje“ i „alati“ te su ispitane jezična percepcija i jezična produkcija. The aim of this paper is to show the influence of the typicality effect on language production and perception in patients in the first episode and early course of psychotic disorder. The first part of the paper is dedicated to the theoretical framework relevant to language deficits in psychosis. The theoretical part begins with a brief overview of previous research on psychosisand the definition of the first episode and the early course of a psychotic disorder. Given that formal thought disorder is one of the main symptoms of schizophrenia, and still it is not clear whether it is a language disorder or a thought disorder, it is an unavoidable phenomenon in a paper that investigates language deficits in psychosis. The effect of typicality is a key factor of categorization, which is a fundamental process that allows us to organize semantic categories, ie understanding and comprehending the extralinguistic world. Therefore, the effect of typicality is an indispensable parameter in language processing, and thus in any psycholinguistic research. The paper conducted a study of lexical-semantic typicality for the lexical-semantic categories "domestic animals" and "tools" and linguistic perception and production were examined.

Od doba antičke Grčke i Rima, pa sve do danas - retorika se mijenjala i razvijala, ali njezina svrha ostala je gotovo uvijek ista – uvjeriti sugovornika. Iako govorništvo nije dio obveznog obrazovanja, govorničke vještine bitne su u svim područjima javnog djelovanja. I dok je nekada bila dio razonode, danas je argumentacija, koja je dio retorike, dio naše svakodnevice, iako mnogi toga nisu ni svjesni. Cilj ovoga rada bio je utvrditi je li moguće u analizi medijskog diskursa primijeniti dva argumentacijska modela – Toulminov model argumentacije i pragmadijalektički pristup argumentaciji. U prvom dijelu rada predstavljen je teorijski okvir u kojemu je navedeno nešto više o povijesti retorike, govorničkoj argumentaciji, pogreškama u argumentaciji i teoriji znakova. Detaljno je objašnjen Toulminov model argumentacije, ali i pragmadijalektički pristup argumentaciji. Drugi dio rada na konkretnim primjerima iz medijskog diskursa utvrđuje koliko je te modele moguće primijeniti i upotrijebiti u stvarnoj argumentaciji i raspravi, što je ujedno bio i cilj rada. Pomoću Toulminovog modela argumentacije analizirano je nekoliko primjera i utvrđeno je jesu li oni argumentacijski valjani te koji dio Toulminova modela u stvarnim iznošenjima argumenata najčešće nedostaje. Osim toga, prema načelima pragmadijalektike analizirana je i rasprava, a utvrđeno je koliko je uopće moguće u raspravama pridržavati se tih načela. Analize su pokazale kako oba modela ispunjuju svoju pedagošku svrhu, ali i da kod sudionika rasprave često manjka želja za dijalogom kao i komunikacijske kompetencije. Često se iznose tvrdnje koje nemaju uvjerljive argumente, a kada se ulazi u raspravu – upravo valjani argumenti su ključ "uspjeha". Since ancient times rhetoric has been changing and developing, but its purpose has remained nearly unchanged – to persuade the interlocutor. Although public speaking is not a part of compulsory education, oratory skills are important in all areas of public life. Argumentation, a subdiscipline of rhetoric, which used to be regarded as a pastime, is now a part of everyday life even though many are not aware of it. This paper aims to determine the possibility of using two argumentation models in media discourse analysis - Toulmin's model of argumentation and the pragma-dialectical approach to argumentation. The first chapter presents the theoretical framework which includes a historical overview of rhetoric, oratorical argumentation, errors in argumentation and sign theory. It explains the Toulmin’s model and the pragma-dialectical approach in detail. The second chapter uses real-life examples to investigate the use of these methods in argumentation and debates, which is the main topic of the thesis. Several examples were analysed using the Toulmin argumentation model. They were evaluated for argument validity and it was determined which part of the model was most often missing in real-life argumentation. Additionally, with the principles of pragma-dialectics in mind, the author investigated the extent to which these principles could be followed. The analysis showed that both models fulfil their educational purpose, but most participants in a debate lack the motivation for dialogue as well as communication competencies. They often make claims without the support of valid arguments, a crucial component of a successful debate.

U današnjem društvu mediji su sastavni dio naših života te upravo zbog toga imaju veliki utjecaj na djecu, odnosno na njihov razvoj te odgoj i obrazovanje. Masovni mediji, film i televizija, mogu biti poticajni model djetetu ako se koriste na pozitivan i ispravan način. Kroz film i televiziju dijete usvaja različita znanja o govoru i izražavanju te razvija komunikacijske, intelektualne i logičke sposobnosti, izgrađuje estetsku kulturu, vizualnu i auditivnu percepciju, a pritom također usvaja moralne i emocionalne vrijednosti. Ovaj završni rad istražuje utjecaje televizije i filma na dijete predškolske dobi. U radu se ukratko obrađuju masovni mediji, konkretno film i televizija te različite vrstefilmova. Naglasak je pritom na animiranom filmu koji je prvenstveno namijenjen djeci. Rad donosi i kratki pregled povijesti hrvatskog animiranog filma. Također se govori o konkretnim animiranim sadržajima koje današnja televizija nudi djeci kao i mogućim utjecajima tih sadržaja na ciljanu dobnu skupinu. Detaljnije se obrađuje odnos djeteta i filma te se govori o tome što film i televizija omogućuju djetetu i koju ulogu u tome imaju roditelji i odgojitelji djeteta. Postoje različiti odnosi djeteta i televizije te različito razumijevanje onoga što se prikazuje na televiziji, što ovisi o djetetovoj dobi. Različiti autori navode mnoge pozitivne, ali i negativne utjecaje filma i televizije na djecu predškolske dobi. Jedan od glavnih pozitivnih utjecaja je onaj na djetetov govor i njegovo govorno izražavanje, kao i mogućnost izražavanja kroz glazbenu, likovnu i dramsku umjetnost. In today's society, the media are an integral part of our lives and that is why they have a great impact on children, and their development and upbringing and education. Mass media, film and television, can be a stimulating model for a child if used in a positive and correct way. Through film and television, the child acquires different knowledge of speech and expression and develops different abilities: communication, intellectual, logical, emotional, moral and aesthetic, as well as his visual and auditory perception. This final paper explores the influences of television and film on the preschool child. The paper briefly deals with the mass media, specifically film and television, and various types of films. It also deals with animated film that is primarily intended for children and the history of Croatian animated film are also covered in order to get an insight into the first animated films. It also talks about what today’s television specifically offers children from animated series and how those series can affect children. The relationship between the child and the film is discussed in more detail, where it is discussed what film and television enable the child and what role the child's parents and educators play in all this. There are different relationships between a child and television and a different understanding of what is shown on television depending on the child's age. Various authors cite a lot of positive, but also a lot of negative influences of film and television on preschool children. One of the main positive influences is the one on the child's speech and his speech expression, as well as the possibility of expression through music, fine and dramatic arts.

Djeci sa slušnim ili razvojnim govorno-jezičnim teškoćama te odraslima s narušenim slušnim ili jezičnim sposobnostima uslijed raznih bolesti znatno je ograničena komunikacijska sposobnost što ih čini jedinkama poguranim na margine društva. Slušna i govorno-jezična rehabilitacija jedini su put k njihovoj socijalnoj reintegraciji, a glazba se kroz različite terapijske postupke pokazala prigodnim alatom pri rehabilitaciji slušanja i govora. Cilj je ovog diplomskog rada bio predstaviti različite pristupe u rehabilitaciji slušanja i govora koji se u svojim terapijskim postupcima koriste glazbom ili elementima glazbe. S obzirom na spomenute pristupe rehabilitacije slušanja i govora te po uzoru na glazbene stimulacije verbotonalne metode, ponuđen je prijedlog glazbenih vježbi za poboljšanje slušanja i govora.

U ovom je diplomskom radu provedeno istraživanje i tumačenje simbolike unutar romana Planine Petra Zoranića. Rad također sadrži prikaz autorovih biografskih podataka te najvažnijih obilježja romana. Također je dan pregled razdoblja renesanse kojoj autor tematski i idejno pripada, uz isticanje nekih specifičnosti hrvatske renesansne književnosti. U radu je sadržan i teorijski dio u kojem se objašnjava značenje pojmova simbol i simbolika, što čini podlogu za istraživanje i tumačenje simbolike romana koje je provedeno u glavnom dijelu rada. Prije samog istraživanja i tumačenja izabrane simbolike u romanu predstavljeni su i načini po kojima je Zoranić formirao simboliku, što je odlika vremena u kojem je živio, ali i autorova specifičnost i originalnost. Simbolika se u romanu Planine proteže kroz čitavo djelo, od samog naslova do završnog poglavlja. Ovaj rad sadrži istraživanje i tumačenje simbolike romana po vlastitom izboru. Cilj istraživanja i tumačenja odabranih simbola u Planinama je dokazati da je simbolika romana u cjelini proširena simbolika odnosno alegorija raja, uz prikaz i tumačenje ostalih simbola koji, između ostalih značenja, simbolično označavaju autorov put do raja. Zaključak ovoga rada je da su Planine proširena simbolika odnosno alegorična vizija raja, u onom značenju koje raj predstavlja za Petra Zoranića. In this graduate thesis, research and interpretation of symbolism within the novel Planine (The Mountains) by Petar Zoranić was conducted. The paper also contains a presentation of the author’s biographical data and the most important features of the novel. Also, given is an overview of the Renaissance period to which the author belongs thematically and ideologically, along with a presentation of the specifics of Croatian Renaissance literature. This paper also contains a theoretical part which explains the meaning of the terms symbol and symbolism, which form the basis and foundation for the research and interpretation of the symbolism in the novel, which was conducted in the main part of the paper. Before the research and interpretation of the chosen symbolism in the novel, the ways in which Zoranić formed the symbolism are presented, which is also the author’s specificity and originality. The symbolism in the novel Planine (The Mountains) extends throughout the novel, from the title itself to the final chapter. This paper contains research and interpretation of the symbolism in the novel of one’s choice. The aim of research and interpretation of the selected symbols in the novel is to prove that the symbolism of the novel as a whole is an extended symbolism or allegory of paradise, with the presentation and interpretation of other symbols that, among other meanings, symbolically mark the author’s path to paradise. The conclusion of this paper is that the novel Planine (The Mountains) is an extended symbolism or allegorical vision of paradise, in the sense that paradise represents for Petar Zoranić.

A recurring hypothesis about the agreement phenomena generalized as closest-conjunct agreement takes this pattern to result from reduced clausal conjunction, simply displaying the agreement of the verb with the nonconjoined subject of the clause whose content survives ellipsis (Aoun, Benmamoun & Sportiche 1994, 1999; see also Wilder 1997). Closest-conjunct agreement is the dominant agreement pattern in the South Slavic languages Slovenian and Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian. A natural question is whether closest-conjunct agreement in these varieties may indeed be analyzed as entirely derived from conjunction reduction. In this article, we report on two experiments conducted to test this. The results reject the hypothesis as far as these languages are concerned, thereby upholding the relevance of models developed to account for closest-conjunct agreement within theories of agreement.

(PUBLISHED IN: Frontiers in Psychology) Recently, we have witnessed an explosion of studies and discussions claiming that Neanderthals engaged in a range of “symbolic” behaviors, including personal ornament use (Radovčić et al. 2015), funerary practices (Balzeau et al. 2020), visual arts (Hoffmann et al. 2018), body aesthetics (Roebroeks et al. 2012), etc. In Paleolithic archaeology, it has become mainstream to axiomatically infer from these putative behaviors that Neanderthals engaged in symbol use and that Neanderthals thus possessed some form of language. Rudolf Botha’s bombastic title Neanderthal Language: Demystifying the Linguistic Powers of Our Extinct Cousins provides a detailed and very critical overview of the archaeological hypotheses and speculations about Neanderthal language.

ACCEPTED ABSTRACT: Background Despite verbal fluency (VF) being a common task in psychiatric research, there is very little consensus on the nature of VF deficits in psychiatric populations and their implications for our knowledge about cognitive and specifically linguistic functioning in these populations. Previous studies have found that negative symptoms, including alogia, are associated with poorer overall VF production in patients with schizophrenia (SCH), while studies investigating positive symptoms, including formal thought disorder, have yielded mixed results. Because most studies didn’t analyze additional VF measures such as clustering and lexical characteristics, it remains unclear whether the association between negative and positive symptoms and VF performance in patients with schizophrenia reflects abnormalities in linguistic and/or semantic processing or other aspects of cognition. Furthermore, it is uncertain whether these associations are specific to patients with schizophrenia, while the associations with manic and depressive symptoms are understudied. MethodsWe recruited 58 German-speaking inpatients diagnosed with either schizophrenia (N = 36), bipolar disorder (BD; N = 10), or major depression (DEP; N = 12). All patients were assessed on conventional symptom scales including the SANS/SAPS, HAMD, and YMRS, and were further administered the semantic (SF; animals) and letter (LF; P) fluency tasks (60 s). The following dependent variables were analyzed: correct words, error rate, response latencies, switching rate, cluster size, idiosyncratic word production rate, and word frequency. ResultsBD produced significantly larger clusters and had significantly higher idiosyncratic word production rates on SF compared to both SCH and DEP, while overall word frequency on SF differentiated between all patient groups. Overall negative symptomatology and specifically alogia were negatively associated with overall performance and positively with between-cluster response latencies on SF. Alogia was not significantly associated with other VF variables. Cluster size and overall word frequency on SF were positively associated with depressive and negatively with manic symptoms, idiosyncratic word production rate on SF was positively associated with manic symptoms, while positive symptoms were only negatively associated with the frequency of the firstthree words on SF. DiscussionPrevious evidence for an association between negative and positive symptoms, and VF performance in SCH has been to some extent replicated in a diverse psychiatric sample. Because alogia was not significantly associated with VF variables other than overall productivity and between-cluster response latencies, we found no evidence that alogia is associated with deficient processing within the semantic memory or mental lexicon. Yet, its positive association with between-cluster response latencies possibly suggests that alogia reflects transdiagnostic dysfunctional connectivity between the prefrontal and temporal cortices and, thus, inefficient lexical access. Furthermore, clinical levels of mania were associated with normal cluster sizes, in line with one previous study. Intriguingly, cluster sizes did not differ between SCH and DEP, indicating a similar level of the semantic deficit with possibly different underlying mechanisms. Additionally, manic symptoms were associated with relatively unusual (but appropriate) word production, indicating aberrant saliency of words during lexical access in mania. Further research regarding word frequency is needed to adequately interpret those results. Finally, LF performance was diagnostically and symptomatically unremarkable.

В нашей работе мы позанимаемся заимствованиями французского происхождения в русском языке‚ потому что меня‚ как студентку русского и французского языков‚ вопрос русско-французских языковых контактов особенно интересует. Основной целью исследования является частотность употребления слов‚ заимствованных из французского языка в современном русском языке. Мы определим понятие галлицизма и рассказажем об истории проявления французских заимствований в русском языке. Для исследования мы выбрали тексты разных жанров‚ принадлежащие различным функцональным стилям‚ в которых мы определим частоту употребления галлицизмов. Мы рассмотрим их употребление в трёх стилях: художественном‚ публицистическом и научном. В качестве примеров художественного жанра мы выбрали отрывки из произведений Л.Н.Толстого‚ И.С.Тургенева и А.С. Пушкина; для публицистечского стиля мы‚ проанализируем примеры из современных СМИ‚ а статьи науного стиля и энциклопедические статьи будут материалом для анализа научного стиля. В итоге, на основе выделенных галлицизмов мы придём к выводу в каком стиле (и тематике) включено больше галлицизмов в русской речи. Većina svjetskih jezika ulazi u kontakt s drugim kulturnim, civilizacijskim i jezičnim krugovima. Proces posuđivanja prirodna je i prijeko potrebna pojava u svakom jeziku. Ovaj je rad posvećen ispitivanju francuskih jezičnih posuđenica u ruskom jeziku. Naš je cilj ispitati učestalost galicizama, tj. u kolikoj su mjeri francuske posuđenice prisutne u znanstvenom, publicističkom i književnom stilu ruskoga jezika. Također, istražili smo postoje li za određene posuđenice sinonimi te smo došli do zaključka da za većinu galicizama ne možemo pronaći adekvatne ruske istoznačnice. Na primjer, u specijalnoj terminologiji kulinarstva zbog težnje monosemiji, kao u svakom kulturno obilježenom vokabularu, ne pronalazimo sinonimiju. Zahvaljujući galicizmima, ali i drugim posuđenicama ruski se jezik dodatno leksički obogatio, a velik je broj posuđenica svojom fonološkom, morfološkom i semantičkom prilagodbom postao neizbježan dio suvremenoga ruskog jezičnog sustava.

Ovim radom vrednovan je alat za strojno prevođenje Google Prevoditelj na konkretnom jezičnom paru turski i hrvatski. Analiza polazi od kreiranja korpusa materijala koji se sastoje od originalnih tekstova izvornog jezika, njihova strojnog i konvencionalnog prijevoda kao referentne točke. Odabrani istraživački pristup koristi se kvalitativnom i kvantitativnom analizom pogrešaka koje su prepoznate u izlaznim podacima strojnog prijevoda s ciljem uvida u trenutačno stanje kvalitete prijevoda na manje istaknutim ili korištenim jezicima na globalnoj razini. Strukturne razlike odabranog jezičnog para dodatno su naglašene razlikom u jezičnim stilovima odabranih tekstova koji su dovedeni u korelaciju s količinom i vrstom pogrešaka izlaznih podataka. Uz statistički prikaz prepoznatih pogrešaka provedena je i lingvistička obrada rezultata s ciljem dublje analize samog jezičnog para i pogrešaka koje su specifične za njega. Na samom kraju rad donosi nedostatke predmetne analize i prijedlog za promjenu pristupa u budućim istraživanjima. This thesis evaluates machine translation provided by online tool Google Translate, on a specific language pair Turkish and Croatian. Analysis started off by building a corpus consisted of source language texts as a base and then their machine translation using online tool Google translate and last but not least, conventional translation texts as a reference point. The research part of the thesis is mainly based on qualitative and quantitative analysis of errors identified in machine translation output for gaining insight into current state of translation quality in less prominent languages used on a global scale. The structural differences between chosen languages are further accentuated by the difference in written style of the selected texts that can be put into correlation with the amount and type of output errors. In addition to the statistical presentation of the identified errors, a linguistic processing of the results was performed with the aim of a deeper analysis of the language pair itself and their characteristical errors. At the very end, the thesis brings the shortcomings of the analysis and a potential proposal for changing the approach in future research.

Tema ovog rada su kolokacije, odnosno ustaljene sveze riječi koje se upotrebljavaju u gotovu obliku. Cilj je ovoga rada izvršiti kontrastivnu analizu kolokacija u slovenskome i hrvatskome jeziku na temelju paralelnog korpusa pravnih tekstova dvaju jezika. Uz pregled opisa pojma kolokacija u hrvatskoj i slovenskoj literaturi, objasnit ćemo kolokacije i njihove sastavnice te formalna obilježja kolokacija poput učestalosti supojavljivanja, gramatičke povezanosti i blizine. Kolokacije uspoređujemo s ostalim višerječnim leksičkim svezama kako bismo ih pri odabiru iz paralalenoga korpusa pravnih tekstova jasnije prepoznali i uvrstili u kontrastivnu analizu. Sve odabrane kolokacije iz slovensko-hrvatskoga paralelnog korpusa pravnih tekstova provjeravamo na internetskim korpusima dvaju jezika kako bismo provjerili njihovu učestalost. Pri analizi kolokacija najviše se koncentriramo na imenske i glagolske kolokacije, a na temelju njihove usporedbe navodimo uočene razlike na koje treba obratiti pozornost prilikom prevođenja, budući da se radi o razlici u vrsti riječi, glagolskoj rekciji, podudarnosti te broju sastavnica. The subject of this paper are collocations, that is, established phrases used in speech in their complete form. The aim of this paper is to conduct a contrastive analysis of collocations in Slovene and Croatian language, based on a parallel corpus of legal texts in both languages. In addition to the description of the concept of collocations in Croatian and Slovene literature, we have provided a description of collocations and their constituents, as well as the formal characteristics of collocations, such as the frequency of co-occurrence, grammatical correlation and proximity. We have compared collocations to other multi-word lexical phrases in order to distinguish them clearly when selecting from the parallel corpus of legal texts and include them in the contrastive analysis. All the selected collocations from the Slovene-Croatian parallel corpus of legal texts have been verified in the Internet corpus of each respective language in order to examine their frequency. When analysing collocations, our focus is on noun collocations and verb collocations, and on the basis of their comparison we enlist the observed differences which should be noted when translating, as the differences comprise word class, verb rection and the number of constituents.