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Crop cultivars in commercial use have often been selected because they show high levels of resistance to pathogens. However, widespread cultivation of these crops for many years in the environments favorable to a pathogen requires durable forms of resistance to maintain “healthy crops”. Breeding of new varieties tolerant/resistant to biotic stresses by incorporating genetic components related to durable resistance, developing new breeding methods and new active molecules, and improving the Integrated Pest Management strategies have been of great value, but their effectiveness is being challenged by the newly emerging diseases and the rapid change of pathogens due to climatic changes. Genome editing has provided new tools and methods to characterize defense-related genes in crops and improve crop resilience to disease pathogens providing improved food security and future sustainable agricultural systems. In this review, we discuss the principal traits, tools and impacts of utilizing genome editing techniques for achieving of durable resilience and a “healthy plants” concept.

Insects are the most diverse group in the animal kingdom, accounting for about two-thirds of all animals. Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) is the most commonly used marker gene for animal species delineation. However, the accuracy of this approach crucially depends on the degree of overlap between the intra- and interspecific variations. Recently, we have identified a new species, Heterogynis serbica sp. n. (Lepidoptera: Zygaenoidea, Heterogynidae) found on the Mt. Kopaonik, Republic of Serbia, Balkan Peninsula. This was done by integrating taxonomic approach using morpho-anatomical characteristics by comparative scanning electron microscopy (SEM), linear wing morphometry and COI-based DNA barcoding [1]. In this study, we have used a set of bioinformatics tools available online, to determine the differences in secondary and tertiary structure of the COI proteins from H. serbica sp. n. and H. zikici. We also compared the amino acid distribution and COI motif profiles between the two species. Our results provide strong evidence that protein structure of COI can help with COI-based DNA barcoding for taxon-specific purposes of species identification and delimitation studies. Millions of COI DNA sequences deposited in the public domain (which are still growing) carry huge potential for a comprehensive assessment of genetic variation in COI among insects by using here described analysis.

The Heterogynidae are a small family of moths consisting of a single genus Heterogynis and sixteen described species distributed in the Mediterranean region. A species new to science, Heterogynis serbica sp. nov., is described from the locality of Srebrenac, Mt. Kopaonik, Republic of Serbia, Balkan Peninsula, by applying an integrative taxonomic approach using morpho-anatomical characteristics, wing morphometics and DNA barcoding. Male genitalia, scanning electron micrographs of adult male head anatomy, abdominal tergites/sternites, cocoons and habitats of the closely related species H. serbica sp. nov. and H. zikici are discussed and illustrated. Photographs of adult males and females, cocoons, plants in which the cocoons were found and habitats are shown. Importantly, marked differences in genital structure and other morphological characters were noted. These differences were confirmed with forewing morphometrics and COI-based DNA barcoding results. Additionally, DNA barcodes for H. serbica sp. nov. and H. zikici were compared against previously available data for the genus to evaluate the phylogenetic relationships. We conclude that deep, previously unknown and unexpected intrageneric morphological diversity exists in the genus Heterogynis.

U okviru ove doktorske disertacije vršeno je istraživanje zajednica makrogljiva u okviru 5 šumskih staništa na Vidliču, Kopaoniku i Tari. Ispitivan je mikodiverzitet sa morfološkog, funkcionalnog i genetskog stanovišta. U istraživanju morološkog i funkcionalnog diverziteta, korišćene su različite klasične metode čiji rezultati su omogućili procenu stanja posmatranih mikocenoza, kao i samih šumskih staništa. Za analizu sastava vrsta u okviru mikocenoza, kao i procenu uticaja abiotičkih faktora na brojnost i sastav vrsta u okviru različitih funkcionalnih grupa, korišćeno je nekoliko statističkih metoda (PCA, PLS, CA i CCA). Osam vrsta, koje su pripadale najrasprostranjenijim i najzastupljenijim vrstama su odabrane za molekularne analize, koje su podrazumevale sekvenciranje ITS regiona rDNK, analizu njihovih polimorfizama kao i filogenetske analize u okviru vrste/roda. U cilju procene zagađenja staništa, u plodnim telima makrogljiva i njihovom supstratu je određen sadržaj metala (atomskom apsorpcionom spektrofotometrijom) i radionuklida (gamaspektrometrijom). Dobijeni rezultati ukazuju na to da diverzitet makrogljiva oslikava stanje samog staništa i da dugoročnim monitoringom mogu ukazati na promene u njemu., Within the framework of this doctoral dissertation, monitoring of macrofungal communities, within 5 forest habitats on Vidlič, Kopaonik and Tara, was done. Mycodiversity was investigated from the morphological, functional and genetic point of view. Various classical methods used, enabled the assessment of the condition of macrofungal communities, as well as the observed forest habitats. Several statistical methods (PCA, PLS, CA and CCA) were used to analyze the composition of species within the mycocenosis, as well as the assessment of the effects of abiotic factors on the species richness and species composition within different functional groups.Some of the most represented species have been selected for molecular analyzes, which includedsequencing of the ITS region, the analysis of polymorphisms, as well as phylogenetic analyzes within the species/genus. In order to assess the pollution of habitats, the content of metals (atomic absorption spectrophotometry) and radionuclides (gamma spectrometry) was determined in the sporocarps of macrofungi and their substrate. The obtained results indicate that diversity of macrofungi reflects the state of the habitat itself and that long-term monitoring can indicate changes in it.

Ciljevi istraživanje ove doktorske disertacije bili su određivanje makroskopskih i mikroskopskih karakteristika plodonosnih tela analiziranih vrsta roda Marasmius, Gymnopus i Mycetinis i njhove varijabilnosti između populacija, određivanje uticaja klimatskih faktora na varijabilnost morfoloških karaktera, određivanje brojnosti i rasprostranjenja jedinki na odabranim lokalitetima u okviru Nacionalnih parkova Srbije i Crne Gore (Kopaonik, Stara planina, Biogradska gora) koristeći ISSR metodu, kao i određivanje osnovnih populaciono-genetičkih parametara i analiza filogenetskih odnosa u okviru roda Marasmius. Kod vrste M. alliaceus utvrđeno je da se na osnovu morfoloških karaktera populacija sa Stare planine delimično izdvaja, dok je kod populacije Biogradska gora uočena najveća heterogenost u ispitivanim karakterima. Kod vrste G. androsaceus uočeno je da nema jasnog izdvajanja populacija, odnosno ispitivane populacije su pokazale heterogenost u ispitivanim morfološkim karakterima. Uočena je statistički značajna (p < 0.05) korelacija između morfoloških karaktera i faktora sredine kod obe analizirane vrste M. alliaceus i G. androsaceus. Određivanjem broja i veličine geneta ISSR metodom u populacijama vrsta M. alliaceus, M. rotula i G. androsaceus utvrđeno je da ove vrste formiraju relativno male genete (od nekoliko desetina centimetara do 15m) koji se nalaze u relativnoj blizini jedni od drugih (nekoliko metara). Određivanjem parametara molekularnog diverziteta (AMOVA, Fst) kod populacija vrsta M. alliaceus i G. androsaceus utvrđeno je da su populacije obe ispitivane vrste značajno genetički diferencirane (Fst vrednosti veće od 0.25) odnosno da postoji mali protok gena između njih.Filogenetska analiza ITS + LSU i ITS + LSU + EF-1ɑ sekvenci u ovom radu, podržava trenutno prihvaćeno grupisanje Evropskih vrsta roda Marasmius u sekcije na osnovu makro- i, The goals of this doctoral thesis were to determine the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the fruit bodies of the genus Marasmius, Gymnopus and Mycetinis and their variability among populations, determining the influence of climatic factors on the morphological variability of fruit bodies,determining the number and distribution of individuals at selected sites within the National Parks of Serbia and Montenegro (Kopaonik, Stara Planina, Biogradska Gora) using the ISSR method, as well as determining basic population -genetic parameters and analysis of phylogenetic relations within the genus Marasmius.For the species M. alliaceus, it has been determined that the population of Stara planina is partially isolated, while the population of Biogradska gora has the highest heterogeneity in the investigated morphological characters. For the species G.androsaceus it was noticed that there was no clear segregation of populations, thus the investigated populations showed heterogeneity in the examined morphological characters. A statistically significant (p<0.05) correlation between morphological and environmental factors in both analyzed species M. alliaceus and G. androsaceus was observed. Determination of the number and size of the genets by ISSR method in populations of species M. alliaceus, M. rotula and G.androsaceus, showed that these species form relatively small genes (from few centimeters to 15 meters) located in relative proximity to each other (several meters ). By determining molecular diversity parameters (AMOVA, Fst) in populations of species M. alliaceus and G. androsaceus it has been found that the populations of both investigated species are significantly genetically differentiated (Fst values greater than 0.25), ie there is a small flow of gene between them. The phylogenetic analysis of ITS + LSU and

Continued usage of morphological data to describe agronomical important genotypes indicates that those data retain popularity as descriptors of plant species. However, the need is arising for their more detailed description by laboratory-based biochemical and molecular methods. The standardization of those techniques has been achieved by ISTA and UPOV through DUS testing that is the basis of the system of protection of Plant Breeders Rights. Not only by morphological characterization but also by combining morphological, biochemical and molecular aspects in identification and description of agronomical important genotypes, it is possible to reveal their unique genetic profiles e.g. fingerprints. In this review we summarized the techniques that proved to be successfully applied in biochemical and molecular characterization of agronomical important genotypes. Obtaining their unique genetic profiles due to application of those methods, it is now possible to precisely characterize them with most certainty and reproducibility., Stalna upotreba morfoloških podataka u opisu agronomski važnih genotipova ukazuje na činjenicu da su ovi podaci zadržali popularnost deskriptora biljnih vrsta. Međutim javlja se potreba njihovog detaljnijeg opisa, laboratorijski baziranim, biohemijskim i molekularnim metodama. Standardizacijom ovih novih tehnika u svetu, zbog njihovih brojnih mogućnosti u oblasti identifikacije genotipova, gde se ustanovljavaju standardi za njihovu zaštitu, bave se međunarodne organizacije ISTA (International Seed Testing Association) i UPOV (Union pur la Protection des Obtenious Vegetales). Rezultat ovih nastojanja da se standardizuju tehnike za identifikaciju genotipova su DUS (Distinctness, Uniformity, Stability) testovi koji predstavljaju osnovu za deskripciju biljnih vrsta i genotipova u svrhu sistema zaštite intelektualne svojine biljnih oplemenjivača (Protection of Plant Breeders Rights - PBR). Ovakva svojevrsna standardizacija novih metoda polako postaje i naša svakodnevnica. Kombinacijom morfoloških, biohemijskih i molekularnih podataka može se postići sveobuhvatna karakterizacija agronomski značajnih biljnih vrsta i genotipova. Primenom novih tehnika moguće je otkriti njihov jedinstveni genetički profil i dobiti ličnu kartu (fingerprinting) svakog agronomski važnog genotipa. U ovom radu prikazan je pregled tehnika koje su se pokazale uspešne pri primeni biohemijske i molekularne karakterizacije agronomski važnih genotipova. Otkrivanjem njihovog jedinstvenog genetičkog profila, zahvaljujući primeni ovih metoda, sada je moguća njihova precizna karakterizacija sa visokim nivoom reproducibilnosti i pouzdanosti.

As a contribution to DUS testing within the system of protection of plant breeders' rights (PBR), the AFLP molecular system has been used in this study to produce DNA fingerprinting profiles. DNA polymorphism and genetic distance of nine agronomicaly important maize genotypes has been investigated using the AFLP technique. Two specific adapters, two preselective primers and twenty selective primers were utilized for DNA amplification. The selective primers were GC rich, each having a 3-mer selective sequence at 3' termini. Ten double stranded primer combinations were made out of the twenty primers but only five of them turned out to be reliable. Out of 253 amplified DNA fragments, 177 were polymorphic (70%). The CGA/GAG (B) primer combination has proved to be the most polymorphic (44 polymorphic fragments have been recorded) revealing the polymorphism rate of 81.5%. Genotypes g1 and g7 were most distinct (GD=55% and GD=79%, respectively) and genotypes g1. g4 and g8 were closest (GD=55% in all cases). The paper discusses possible uses of AFLP DNA profiling technique to achieve a unique fingerprinting pattern of agronomicaly important maize genotypes., U ovom radu korišćen je AFLP molekularni sistem u cilju ispitivanja mogućnosti njegove primene u karakterizaciji fingerprinting profila devet agronomski značajnih genotipova kukuruza. Za umnožavanje specifičnih DNK fragmenata korišćena su dva specifična adaptera, dva preselektivna prajmera i dvadeset selektivnih prajmera. Od ukupno 10 testiranih prajmer kombinacija, 5 je pokazalo značajnu polimorfnost. Od 253 umnožena fragmenta, 177 su bila polimorfna (70%). Prajmer kombinacija B (CGA/GAG) bila je najpolimorfnija (81,5%) a genotipovi gl(GD=55%) i g7 (79%) pokazali su najveću genetičku udaljenost. Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata zaključili smo daje AFLP molekularni sistem pogodna i pouzdana metoda za određivanje lične karte agronomski značajnih genotipova kukuruza i kao takva primenljiva u zaštiti autorskih prava.

U radu su proučavane taksonomske karakteristike populacija planinskog javora (Acer heldreichii Orph.) u Srbiji i nekim zemljama u okruženju, kao i ekološke karakteristike u kojima se nalaze proučavane populacije. Za područje istraživanja je odabrano osam lokaliteta od kojih je šest u Srbiji, a to su planinski masivi: Rudnik, Goč, Jastrebac, Stara planina, Golija i Javorje. Osim toga, proučavanja su vršena i u prašumi “Perućica” u okviru nacionalnog parka “Sutjeska” u Bosni i Hercegovini i prašumi “Biogradska gora” u okviru istoimenog nacionalnog parka u Crnoj Gori. Proučene ekološke karakteristike staništa su: klimatske, orografske, edafske (geološke i pedološke) i fitocenološke. Na osnovu klimatskih podataka su određene opšte odlike klime u istraživanompodručju i izračunati sledeći parametri: bioklimatska klasifikacija po Lang-u i Kepen-u, hidrični bilans po Torntvajt-u, Kernerov stepen kontinentalnosti, De Martonov indeks suše i pluviometrijska agresivnost klime po metodu Furnijea. Skoro sve populacije se nalaze u uslovima perhumidne klime po Torntvajtovom klimatskom indeksu, a po Kepenu u zoni vlažne umerene klime sa oštrim zimama. Analizom edafskih faktora utvrđeno je prisustvo 10 različitih geoloških podloga; najčešće su prisutne kisele silikatne stene, ali mogu biti i krečnjaci. Ustanovljena su četiri tipa zemljišta, najčešće kisela smeđa, a prisutni su i smeđa zemljišta na krečnjaku, krečnjačko-dolomitne crnice i humusno-silikatna zemljišta. Analizirana zemljišta su pretežno srednje duboka do duboka, relativno dobro obezbeđena hranljivim materijama, a hemijska reakcija se kreće od ekstremno kisele do blago bazične. Planinski javor se na proučenim lokalitetima pojavljuje u dve biljne zajednice, kao edifikator u zajednici planinskog javora i bukve (Aceri heldreichii-Fagetum B. Jov. 1957) i kao diferencijalna vrsta u zajednici bukve, jele i smrče (Piceo-Abietetum Čol. 1965). Za utvrđene zajednice su određeni spektri životnih oblika, ekoloških karateristika i are, Taxonomic characteristics of Greek maple (Acer heldreichii Orph.) in Serbia and some surrounding countries, as well as ecological conditions in which these populations grow were studied in this research. Eight localities were chosen for this research, six of them are in Serbia. They are: Rudnik, Goč, Jastrebac, Stara planina, Golija i Javorje Mts. Apart from them, primeval forest “Perućica”, placed inside “Sutjeska” national park in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and primeval forest “Biogradska gora”, placed inside of the national park of the same name in Montenegro, were also take into research. Researched ecological site characteristics are: climate, orographic conditions, geologic bedrocks, soils and plant communities. Common climate characteristics were established on the basis of meteorological data and following parameters were calculated: bioclimatic classification according to Lang and Keppen, Thornthwaite`s climate indices, climate continentality level, water drainage type and pluviometric climate aggression. Almost all populations are situated in perhumid climate according to Thornthwaite`s climate index, and in moist temperate climate with sharp winters according to Keppen’s classification. Ten different bedrocks are found by edaphic factors analysis; most frequent are acidic siliceous rocks, but limestone occurs also. Four soil types were found, mostly acidic brown soils, but brown soils on limestone, limestonedolomite black soils and rankers occur also. Soils are mostly moderately deep to deep, relatively well provided with nutritional materials, and their reaction varies from extremely acidic to mildly basic. Greek maple in researched localities occurs in two plant communities. It is a dominant species in Greek maple-beech community (Aceri heldreichii-Fagetum B. Jov. 1957) and differential species in beech-fir-spruce community (Piceo-Abietetum Čol. 1965). Spectra of life forms, ecological characteristics and distribution types were constructed on the basis of

The leaf cuticular waxes of 3 poplar clones (Populus euramericana-Pannonia (M1), and Populus deltoides PE 19/66 and B229 (Bora)) were characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. Poplar clones grown under identical environmental conditions showed almost identical chemical content of organic compounds within analyzed leaf cuticular wax. The dominant compound was nonacosane, with range from 72,61% ± 0,02 quantified in Pannonia clone to 78,40% ± 0,35 in B229 clone, in total cuticular wax content. Other identified compounds were hexacosane, untriacontane, octacosane, tetradecanal and triacontane; the last, triacontane, was present in very small percentage in wax content, around 1% in all three clones., Površinski voskovi sa lišća od 3 klona topola (Populus euramericana cl. Pannonia (M1) i Populus deltoides cl. PE 19/66 i cl. B229 (Bora)) su analizirani metodom gasnomasene hromatografije. Klonovi topola su uzgajani pod istim uslovima spoljašnje sredine i pokazali gotovo identičan hemijski sastav u okviru analiziranog površinskog voska sa lišća. Dominantno jedinjenje je nonakozan, sa opsegom od 72,61 % ± 0,02 u klonu Pannonia do 78,40 % ± 0,35 u B229 klonu, u odnosu na ukupni hemijski sastav površinskog voska. Druga identifikovana jedinjenja su heksadekan, hentriakontan, oktadekan, tetradekanal i triakontan i poslednji, triakontan je bio prisutan u veoma malom procentu u ukupnom sadržaju površinskog voska, oko 1 % u sva tri klona.

Sve učestalije i intenzivnije promene faktora spoljašnje sredine deluju na biljke kao stres. Suočene sa ovim promenama biljke su razvile mehanizme tolerancije i adaptacije, koji im omogućavaju opstanak. Ovi mehanizmi funkcionišu na morfološkom, fiziološkom, biohemijskom i molekularnom nivou, međusobno su povezani, regulisani i usklađeni u integrisani sistem odgovora na promene u životnoj sredini. Mnogi ključni regulatorni i funkcionalni molekuli koji učestvuju u odgovoru na abiotički stres su identifikovani i time je otvorena mogućnost primene novih strategija u upravljanju stresom. Tema ovog rada su molekularni i biohemijski mehanizmi odgovora drvenastih vrsta biljaka na različite tipove abiotičkog stresa, sa posebnim osvrtom na topole., More frequent and more intense changes in environmental factors act as a stress on the plants. Faced with these changes, plants have developed mechanisms of tolerance and adaptation, which enable them to survive. These mechanisms operate on the morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular level, are interconnected, regulated and coordinated in an integrated system response to changes in the environment. Many key regulatory and functional molecules involved in the response to abiotic stress are identified, thus opening the possibility for implementation of new strategies in the stress management. This paper outlines the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of response of woody plants to different types of abiotic stress, with special emphasis on poplars.

Different genetic markers are used for estimation of breeding material, its characteristics and potential for ultimate aim - heterosis of hybrids. They also point out to the qualitative seed traits at the level of linkage with genes responsible for desirable agronomic traits. This program encompasses testing methodologies for the new seed technology. Genetic analysis of breeding material during certain phases is comprised of isozymic gene expression and degrees of their variability, but it is continued (in order to be evaluated) until determination of presence or absence of some genes existing or introduced for certain traits. Using combination of different molecular methods such as PCR, RAPD and AFLP based on polymorphism of DNA fragments, the definite aim - identification of newly created products of improvement is achieved. Testing of traits of breeding material, its genetic variability and diversity is the first stage in analysis of the maize genome. It is also the condition for determination of presence of certain genes, used for obtaining the ultimate aim - attest of identity of the genotype., Različiti genetski markeri se koriste za tumačenje selekcionog materijala njegovih osobina i osnove za krajnji cilj - heterozis hibrida. Oni su takođe pokazatelji kvaliteta semena na nivou vezanih gena za određena, tražena agronomska svojstva. Ovaj program uključuje nove metodologije za testiranje selekcionog i semenskog materijala. Genetske analize biljaka u fazama oplemenjivanja obuhvataju izoenzimsku ekspresiju gena i stepen njihove varijabilnosti, koja se nastavlja do determinacije prisustva ili odsustva gena, odgovornih za određena svojstva. Primenjuje se kombinacija različitih genetsko-molekularnih metoda, kao što su izoenzimi PCR, RAPD, AFLP, RFLP bazirani na polimorfizmu proteina i sekvenci DNK, čiji je krajnji cilj identifikacija novostvorenih genotipova i njihovo unapređenje. Utvrđivanje osobina selekcionog materijala, njegove genetske varijabilnosti i divergentnosti je prva faza u spoznaji genoma kukuruza. To je takođe uslov za determinaciju prisustva određenih gena, potrebnu za postizanje završne faze, potvrde o identitetu genotipa.