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Maine de Biran (1766–1824) was one of the most influential philosophers in France during the nineteenth century, being the principal inspiration for French spiritualism and French reflexive philosophy. He was also a significant Freemason. This article offers a translation of Biran's two surviving Freemasonry Speeches , delivered c. 1810, and an introduction to Biran's Freemasonry from the perspective of his philosophical work. The introduction gives a timeline of Biran's Freemasonry and an overview of the text of the Speeches. It then considers some principal themes in francophone Freemasonic culture of the Restoration, especially the practice of ritualized introspection, before moving onto compare, briefly, the content of the Speeches to the main philosophical essay by Biran with which the Speeches is contemporaneous. Based on this evidence, the introduction makes suggestions regarding the role played by Freemasonry in the development of French spiritualism, and indicates trajectories for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work is focused on the representation of Sir Frederick S. Rogers (1847-1908) in the museum collection of Cherkas Global University. The materials for this study included the items of material culture (a sword and badges) of the Masonic Order of the Knights Templar which are in Cherkas Global University's collection. Methodologically, use was made of the biographical method, to create a general biographical sketch of the life of F.S. Rogers, and of the historical reconstruction method, to produce a detailed portraiture of the outfit of an officer of Monroe Commandery No. 12 as of 1900. The study's findings revealed that one of the items of material culture left behind by F.S. Rogers (1847-1908) is the sword (individual No. 007/KT005) currently housed in the museum collection of Cherkas Global University. This sword was manufactured circa the 1880s in his city of residence - Rochester, New York. The study established that the sword's owner was a member of Monroe Commandery No. 12, Knights Templar, stationed at Rochester, New York, and was a Knight at the time of the sword's manufacture. In 1899, F.S. Rogers was elected to the post of Eminent Commander of Monroe Commandery No. 12. He was appointed to the post of Past Eminent Commander in 1900. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Freemasons created a hidden and closed business elite in Finland, whose banking industry's financial interlocks occurred mainly during the 1960s and the 2000s. Financial interlocks were robust decision-making and negotiation power positions in the Finnish economy. These board positions in the banking, finance, and insurance industries created a negotiation and influence status for board members regarding capital access, investments, and significant financial decision-making. A prosopographic database, a new database of 33 Freemasons belonging to the institutional business elite of Finland, was created to study what types of business elite careers Freemasons had and what kinds of financial interlocks they had. As a result, local financial interlocks, profession-oriented financial interlocks, C.E.O.'s financial interlocks, board professional financial interlocks, and prominent elite financial interlocks were identified as sources of financial and investment-related decision-making power among Freemason business elite members. Thus, the Freemason business elite was not just one unified and homogenous institutional elite. It contained multiple layers of elites in the Finnish business elite, ranging from local and provincial elite to large corporation celebrities who hold domestic and global power in some industries through public limited corporation C.E.O.s and board positions. The new twenty-first-century generation business elite did not possess this heritage anymore – Freemasonry lost its status in the institutional business elite – by becoming a historical feature of some of the earlier business elite generation social clubbing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the events of the Masonic history of pre-revolutionary France. The author focuses on the formation of national structures of French Freemasonry. The participation of the ruling dynasty in the process of transformation of the “English” lodges into the structures of the Grand Orient of France is noted. The efforts of Masonic leaders on the eve of the French revolution are characterized.

This article aims to reconstruct the origins of the Carboneria order in the Kingdom of Naples, identifying them in the context of Europe-wide republican conspiracy. In this way the substantial political-ideological continuity after 1815 between Freemasonry and the Carboneria emerges into view. To better understand this phenomenon from the inside, this essay examines the individual experience of a significant, though now almost unknown, figure in the Neapolitan carbonaro world of the early nineteenth century and the document trail that he produced, now held in French and Neapolitan archives. Giuseppe Basile de Luna, maternal uncle of Carlo Pisacane, was at once a carbonaro, Bourbon secret service spy, and secret informer for Austria and France. The pages that follow will attempt to show how the Carboneria was born in Naples from the complex political, sociological and ideological processes through which southern Italian republicans, after their defeat in 1799, turned their attention to the masses in order to lure them away from Sanfedism in support of the nationalist cause.

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This research delves into the Masonic secrets embedded within Dan Brown's novel "The Lost Symbol," particularly as they relate to Washington D.C.'s enigmatic history. The study centers on Freemasonry symbols depicted in the novel and seeks to uncover their deeper meanings by analyzing real-life counterparts. The primary aim is to disclose the second-order meanings of these symbols, thereby unraveling the myths associated with Freemasonry, especially the so- called "lost symbol." Employing Roland Barthes' semiology perspective, this research reveals how Masonic symbols, as described by Brown, are interwoven with Washington's iconic monuments. The analysis focuses on symbols such as the House of the Temple, the Apotheosis of Washington, the Pyramid, the Circumpunct, and various Masonic working tools. By interpreting these symbols through both their first-order (denotative) and second-order (connotative) meanings, the study aims to reveal the myth behind the lost symbol. The findings indicate that the Masonic secrets are indeed hidden within the Washington Monument and the Capitol Building, specifically in the House of the Temple, where Masonic rituals are conducted, and the Capitol Rotunda, which is rich with concealed Masonic lore. The ultimate Masonic secret, as portrayed in the novel, is the "Lost Word," symbolized by the phrase "Laus Deo" (Praise God), inscribed atop the Capitol. According to Masonic beliefs, this symbol holds the power to unlock profound secrets, guiding them towards their ultimate objective: the establishment of a New World Order. Through the lens of second-order meaning, the myth of the lost word is interpreted as a celestial symbol, representing the promise of new beginnings and the transition from night to morning, as envisioned by the Masonic forefathers who designed the U.S. Capitol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1766 at the Lodge of Kilwinning, Alexander Gillies, a young Scottish minister, delivered a discourse that not only manifested the influence of Adam Smith's moral theory but articulated how Christianity and freemasonry proposed distinct but complementary responses to the problem of self-love. This article, part intellectual history and part biography, examines Gillies's discourse, taking into account details of Gillies's life and establishing that he was in fact a student of Smith's at the University of Glasgow. The article then considers Smith's influence, as evident in Gillies's discourse, and reveals how a Calvinist notion of self-love resonated into the late eighteenth century. In the discourse, Gillies invoked subjects redolent of Smith's moral theory: the force of social interaction, the power of sympathy and the negative influence of self-love (a theme also manifest in some sermons of Smith's colleague, William Leechman). Like Smith, Gillies also worried about partiality and faction. Gillies forwarded the institution of freemasonry as a means—complementary to Christianity—of counteracting the tendency to partiality, born of self-love. In a later satirical composition, published in 1774 in the Edinburgh Magazine and Review, Gillies extended another critique of the power of self-love. Forged in part from his relation to Smith, Gillies's concern with self-love and his fresh stance on freemasonry yield a distinct perspective on eighteenth-century Scottish culture and ideas and offer insight into the complex relations of university, kirk and masonic lodge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Data on the educational and Freemasonry activities of Doctor Joannis Baptistae Lalangue have been relatively modestly represented in the scientific literature until now. Based on recent research, we have come to the realizations that give us a new context for the life and work of Lalangue, especially from the aspect of his social activity. All of the above had very significant repercussions on his entire public health work and especially on his journalistic and publishing work. John the Baptist Lalangue was a successful physician. During his medical studies in Vienna, he was recognized by Baron van Swieten, the first name in medicine of the Habsburg Monarchy. Recent knowledge speaks of his very notable Enlightenment and Freemasonry work, which largely determined his life and work. Lalangue has created a truly impressive literary work, which is closely related to his active Enlightenment and public Masonry engagement. The mentioned progressive Enlightenment engagement is also responsible for the fact that thanks to Lalangue, we already had printed medical original professional literature in the Croatian language in the second half of the 18th century. This directly changed the conditions in society, primarily in the field of public health, for the better, not only in Croatia but also throughout the Habsburg Monarchy.

This study highlights one of the oldest and most beautiful bridges between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Romanian Lands in the 18th century. The analysis concerns Count Lars of Engeström, freemason, rector of the University of Lund, diplomat, and envoy of the Kingdom of Sweden in Vienna within the Habsburg Empire. In this capacity, he was able to obtain valuable information about the uprising led by Horea, Cloșca and Crișan in Transylvania in 1784. It was a rebellion that shook the reign of Emperor Joseph II. For this reason, its retaliation was commensurate. Thus, recounting a dramatic episode from the pre-modern history of the Romanians, Lars von Engeström left to posterity a beautiful fresco of Transylvania. He spoke about ethnic and confessional diversity, about the Romanian Roma, about the people living here and their problems. There is no definitive information confirming that he actually visited Transylvania. Nevertheless, the famous Swedish diplomat remains the greatest Northern European scholar to write about this 18th century Transylvanian uprising which was unique in its intercontinental resonance and had significant repercussions in the Swedish press of that era.

The present analysis represents a novel approach to the issue of Romanian-Swedish bilateral relations in the second half of the 19th century. This time, the focus is on the dimension of contacts between Romanian and Swedish Freemasonry. This was conducted in the second half of the 19th century by King Oscar II himself. In 1885 he made an official visit to Bucharest with Queen Sofia. On this occasion, he was made an honorary member of the Grand National Lodge of Romania (M.L.N.R.). Far from being merely a protocol award, it held a special significance. This visit underlined the desire of Constantin Moroiu, Grand Master of the Grand National Lodge of Romania, to gain international recognition for this Romanian Masonic powerIt was a very turbulent period in the history of Romanian Freemasonry, marked by a series of interventions by the Grand Orient of Italy in its internal affairs. With the award of this distinction, Romanian Freemasons sought to strengthen their internal unity through external recognition from all Masonic powers. To this end, the help of the Grand Lodge of Sweden was essential. The desire to consolidate the unity of Romanian Freemasonry was a natural reality, given the fact that Romania was proclaimed a Kingdom in 1881 and became a base of stability in this part of the continent.

This work's objective is to debate the origins, development and concept of Freemasonry from the sociability relationship established among its members. At first it is intended to outline the origins of Freemasonry, the myths and truths surrounding the institution and some aspectas of the academic research on the subject. Secoundly, we present the transition between the period of "operative" to "speculative" Freemasonry to, finally, establish the relationship between bourgeois sociability and Freemasonry, in order to demonstrate that the institution has fixed social relations based on articulated social position. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In what turned out to be his last letter to his ailing father, dated April 4, 1787, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart sought to console Leopold (and himself) with musings about the immortality of the soul. While scholarly commentators have regarded it as possible that the letter's text alludes to the son's and father's shared experiences of Freemasonry, they have disagreed about whether sufficient evidence exists to reach such a conclusion firmly. However, the holograph of the letter became publicly available for the first time in November of 2020, and furnishes the opportunity to revisit the matter. Examination of this original document reveals that Mozart drew an esoteric figure of two interlocking triangles next to his signature. The symbolic meanings of this figure and their relationship to the content of letter can be illuminated through consideration of two speeches delivered by Mozart's friend and patron, Count Franz Joseph Anton von Thun-Hohenstein, at the Masonic lodge Zur wahren Eintracht (True Concord) in 1783 and 1784. In these addresses, the count, a member of several secret societies, including the Asiatische Brüder (Order of the Asian Brethren), invoked the same figure of two interlocking triangles as an esoteric, mystical symbol of transcendence and reconciliation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Universitaria de Historia Militar (RUHM) is the property of Centro de Estudios de la Guerra and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article addresses the problematic authorship of The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1723). Traditionally associated with James Anderson, using stylometry, we examine whether and, if so, where John T. Desaguliers, the prime mover of early English institutionalized Freemasonry, contributed to this publication. Our corpus includes writings by Anderson, Desaguliers, and two contemporary Freemasons used as distractors. The transcribed works contain texts from different genres and of varying lengths. In our methodology, we employ a wide range of robust, multivariate, unsupervised, and cross-validated supervised tests, verified through significance testing, which can hopefully contribute to the establishment of standards for historical authorship attribution. Our results suggest, in line with historical evidence, that the legendary history of the Constitutions was most likely primarily authored by Anderson. However, several of the Charges including the first one ' Concerning God and religion', one of the most disputed texts in the history of Freemasonry, are closer to the style of Desaguliers. The General Regulations concerning the organization of the lodges, hitherto attributed to George Payne, played a fundamental role in spreading Freemasonry worldwide. Our analyses show that the stylistic affinity of fifteen of the thirty-nine regulations has a pronounced closeness to Anderson's style, five align more closely with Desaguliers' style. The authorship of the rest remains inconclusive partly due to the insufficient length of texts by Payne. These novel findings are also supported by a close reading of the Constitutions and other contemporary primary sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the formation of conservatism in Mexico during the 19th century, focusing on the figure of Lucas Alamán. The relationship between Mexican liberalism and conservatism is highlighted, without presenting a dichotomous view of Mexican history. The participation of secret societies in the independence process is mentioned, and the conservative vision of Mexican history is analyzed. The importance of Freemasonry and the influence of the United States in the consolidation of liberalism in Mexico are emphasized. Lucas Alamán was an ideologue of Mexican conservatism in the 19th century. [Extracted from the article]

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Copyright of Zeitschrift für Slawistik is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article explores the impact of Freemasonry on Mexican society and politics. It argues that Freemasonry played a significant role in shaping national discourses and promoting secularization in Mexico. The author uses primary and secondary sources to analyze the contributions and influence of Freemasonry on Mexican society. The article discusses the role and evolution of Freemasonry in Mexico throughout history, emphasizing its influence on political movements and the need to study its relationship with nationalism, laicism, and liberalism. It concludes by stating that Freemasonry played a significant role in Mexican history and should be studied as an important agent in shaping the country's political discourse. [Extracted from the article]

This article examines the relationship between French Freemasonry and the Atlantic slave trade and slavery from 1770 to 1848. The author's research reveals the connections between Freemasonry and slave trading ports, as well as the involvement of Freemasons in abolitionist circles. The article emphasizes the importance of understanding the historical context and raises questions about the affiliation between Freemasonry and the slave trade. It also discusses the role of Freemasonry in the abolitionist struggle in France during the 19th century, highlighting the progressive stance of Freemasons in Paris and the gradual inclusion of men of color in lodges. The French Revolution played a significant role in raising awareness within Freemasonry about the importance of liberty. [Extracted from the article]

This article explores the relationship between Portuguese Freemasonry and the slave trade in the Portuguese Empire, particularly in Brazil and Mozambique. It discusses the historical context of Portuguese colonization and the impact of French invasions on the economy. The article also examines the development of Freemasonry in Portugal and its role in organizing political factions during the turbulent period from 1834 to 1850. The author emphasizes the importance of understanding the concept of "esclavagisme" (slavery as a form of production) in analyzing the connections between the actors involved in the slave trade and Freemasonry. The text discusses the involvement of Freemasonry in the Portuguese colonies, specifically in Mozambique. It mentions the connections between Freemasons and slave traders, as well as their influence on colonial authorities. The text also highlights the spread of Freemasonry through French shipowners and captains who frequented the port of Mozambique. The government expressed concern about the propagation of "pernicious doctrines" and the danger of French ideas infiltrating the colony. Additionally, the text mentions the presence of Inconfidentes from Minas Gerais who were deported to Mozambique and the role of students studying in European universities in spreading Freemasonry to Brazil. The text discusses the influence of Freemasonry and secret societies in the context of the slave trade and liberalism in Mozambique. It highlights the connections between the sons of the merchant and slave bourgeoisie who studied abroad and returned to establish networks in Mozambique. Freemasonry was associated with universities, merc [Extracted from the article]

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the history and intricacies of Prince Hall Freemasonry in the United States, with a particular focus on the relationship between race and Freemasonry. It challenges the notion that there is a singular African-American system of Black grand lodges known as Prince Hall lodges, highlighting the existence of multiple Black Masonic grand lodges. The article also addresses the issue of recognition by white grand lodges and the racial discrimination faced by Black Masons. It emphasizes the importance of gaining a deeper understanding of the racial dynamics within American Masonry. Additionally, the article briefly mentions the involvement of Albert Pike, a prominent figure in Freemasonry, who is said to have shared his rituals with Prince Hall Masons. The text concludes by mentioning the auxiliaries and rituals associated with Black Freemasonry. [Extracted from the article]

The text provides a denunciation made in Mozambique in 1812 regarding the activities of a Freemasonry sect led by José Joaquim de Araújo Aranha. The denouncer claims that there were nightly gatherings of Freemasons at Aranha's house and mentions the enrollment of new members. However, the denunciation was not pursued due to the extinction of the Goa Inquisition in 1812. The text also includes a list of references on the topic of Portuguese Freemasonry and its connections to slavery and antislavery movements. [Extracted from the article]

This article explores the relationship between Spanish Freemasonry and the abolition of slavery. It acknowledges the complexity of this history, as both Freemasonry and slavery have unique geographical contexts. The article discusses the gradual abolition of slavery in Spain's overseas territories and the role of Freemasonry in this process. It also highlights the political and economic factors that influenced the abolition of slavery. The author emphasizes the need for further research on the relationship between Freemasonry and slavery in Spain. [Extracted from the article]

In the Catholic journalism of the Second Republic, Freemasonry was often accused of seeking to destroy the Church and eradicate religious life from society. It was attributed to its connections with Jews and satanic inclinations. Enunciations on the aforementioned issue were therefore an emanation of the “black legend” of freemasonry, which had long been spread in conservative circles, especially Catholic ones. The purpose of this article is to show the image of Freemasonry as an organization fighting against the Church and being the cause of secularization, or de-Christianization of society in the home country and the world, as it was created in the Catholic press of interwar Poland.

Abstract This article aims to shed light on a conception and representation often overlooked in architectural discipline historiography. It focuses not only on forms and objects but also on forces and bodies. For this purpose, a fragmentary genealogy of conflicts between schools, traditions, and architects is proposed. This genealogy will reveal how the technical rationality of the drawings at the École Polytechnique de Paris contrasted with the imagery of the École des Beaux-Arts in the eighteenth century. It will also explore how the dogmas of the Enlightenment were challenged by a Mason­ic architecture, seeking bodies and debauchery, as exemplified by the stories of the Marquis de Sade. Additionally, it will delve into how the abstract modernist diagram led by Le Corbusier was disrupted by the atmospheric energies, membranes, and sensitive bodies conceived by Siegfried Ebeling. Resumen Este artículo busca poner en valor una concepción y representación usualmente ignorada en la historiografía de la disciplina arquitectónica al focalizarse ya no sólo en las formas y en los objetos, sino en las fuerzas y los cuerpos. Para ello, se propone una genealogía fragmentaria de conflictos entre escuelas, tradiciones y arquitectos que revelará cómo en el sigo XVIII la racionalidad técnica de los dibujos de la École Polytechnique de París contrastaba con la imaginería de la École des Beaux-Arts; el modo en que los dogmas de la Ilustración eran desafiados por una arquitectura masónica en busca de cuerpos y libertinaje ejemplificadas por los relatos del Marqués de Sade; o la manera en que el diagrama abstracto modernista liderado por Le Corbusier era perturbado por las energías atmosféricas, membranas y cuerpos sintientes concebidos por Siegfried Ebeling.

The present article examines how freemasonry in the Spanish Antilles has affected national life, explaining the close relationship between politics, history, and freemasonry after the mid-nineteenth century. It explores the characteristics and possible origins of the controversy between the social and introspective masonic philosophies through a case study of political and social action: an unpublished lecture, given in 1928 to his lodge by a Cuban–Puerto Rican freemason. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last decades of the eighteenth century, knowledge about Siberia inspired Catherine II to create the main character of one of her comedies, The Siberian Shaman. Taking Foucault's dispositif -concept as its theoretical premise, the present paper discusses the historical context in which The Siberian Shaman was written, deconstructs the identity of the comedy's main character, and explores the socio-political purposes for which the comedy was written. By utilising the perspective of entangled history of religions and the methodology of historical discourse analysis, this paper shows that the comedy's alleged "shamanic" content and "anti-shamanic" purpose cannot be taken for granted. Rather, the discourse in The Siberian Shaman should be read as Catherine II's own engagement with the themes of unreason and madness within the philosophical, socio-political and religious context of the period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Initiating the Millennium: The Avignon Society and Illuminism in Europe" by Robert Collis and Natalie Bayer is a book that explores the history of a theosophic, alchemical, and millenarian movement known as the Société d'Avignon or Avignon Illuminated. The book covers the period from the founding of the group in Berlin in 1779 to its disappearance in 1807. The authors use new archival sources to provide a comprehensive account of the society's activities and its main figure, Tadeusz Grabianka. The book sheds light on the society's alchemical practices, its connections to Freemasonry and Swedenborgianism, and its transformation into the Société du Nouvel Israël in Russia. Overall, the book offers valuable insights into millenarianism in the late eighteenth century and the fascination with esoteric societies and prophets during that time. [Extracted from the article]

Based on a contribution to a panel discussion on Dana Logan's Awkward Rituals , this essay addresses the first chapter of the book, in which Logan discusses the rites of Freemasons in the early American republic. It considers the particular significance of Masonic ritual practice with respect to Logan's arguments about patterns of change in pre- and post-Revolutionary America; and reflects on the general theoretical import of this notion of ritual awkwardness, embodied by the Freemasons, considered as a form of purposive activity. It raises questions about the broader applicability in comparative religious studies of Logan's insights, both for studying history and for thinking about ritual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article discusses the discovery of a key to William Morgan's jail cell in Canandaigua, New York. The key was found in a small wooden box with a glass lid, labeled "MORGAN'S KEY." The box was discovered in St. Patrick's Lodge No. 4 in Johnstown, New York. The key is believed to have locked the door of the debtor's cell where Morgan was held before his release on September 13, 1826. The significance of this key and its connection to Freemasonry and Morgan's disappearance raises many questions and mysteries that require further research. [Extracted from the article]

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Published in 1770, Le cosmopolisme by Joseph Honoré Rémy is the first pamphlet in French to elaborate upon a political philosophy of cosmopolitanism. I first present a biography of Rémy with original elements concerning his membership of the Freemasonic Lodge of the Nine Sisters. This article analyses his pamphlet and argues that his cosmopolitanism is a way of transcending the public and the private. Such transcendence is, I argue, achieved in two ways: first, through the authorial function of writing as a 'cosmopolite' and second, through an understanding of cosmopolitanism as a human fraternity inspiring private and public virtues in republican monarchies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses a topic which has been neglected by academic historians – namely, Freemasonry as a business network. Between 1750 and 1850 431 men, predominantly drawn from the business sector, joined freemasons' lodges in Worcester. Their participation in the economic development of the city in the period is examined through a prosopographical study in which data extracted from locally and centrally held masonic records have been integrated with non-masonic data to create a historic record of their activities. Informal business networks have been the subject of academic research and the extent to which the findings of that research are applicable to the underlying values and organizational structure of Freemasonry is also examined. The article concludes that businessmen who were freemasons actively contributed to the economic development of the city and that membership of Freemasonry had the potential to help them to advance their contribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The name of Count László Bercsényi is best remembered for his military career and his role in uniting the Hungarian emigration in France after the Rákóczi War of Independence. At the peak of his career, he was the only Hungarian to be awarded the title of Marshal of France, which placed him in the highest strategic command company of the French Royal Army. This study describes the Hungarian-born Count's multi-faceted military and political career, and the important role played by the social networks and court circles that supported him, including the exiled Polish King and daughter of Sanislo Leszczyński and the Masonic lodges, in winning this prestigious title. The study also highlights the importance of the French literacy of the Hungarian émigré overlord and his media contacts of the time. It also shows that part of his biography, which was included in the pamphlet proclaiming his title of Marshal, was published in a contemporary political treatise, Antoine-François Aubert's Le politique vertueux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The influence of secret society organisations is not confined to a time in the past. It extends to today's world. Many important events and phenomena in the modern world are linked to the ideologies and works of past secret societies. This study is an attempt to show the relevance of secret societies in the contemporary world. It looks at three organisations, two of which existed in medieval times and one that has survived to the present time, and shows how they have influenced our world. Suicide bombing and similar terrorist acts have roots in the Assassins; cultural protectionism against invading immigrants and the international banking system are argued to have been inspired by the Templars; secularism, awareness about political equality in the former European colonies and the philosophy on which the United States was founded are argued to have roots in the Freemasonry. The paper is an attempt to show that secret societies can be understood in a new light and used in the analysis of certain events and characteristics of the modern world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]