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Éminent naturaliste du XIXe siècle, Charles Darwin publie en 1859 ce qui s’avérera être un des textes les plus fondamentaux des sciences de la vie : On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (ou OS). Cet ouvrage pose les assises conceptuelles de sa théorie de l’évolution (TE). Or, malgré la grande portée de l’oeuvre, ses traductions en français restent largement inexplorées, en traductologie comme en histoire des sciences. Les quelques travaux antérieurs sur le sujet se sont concentrés sur les traductions de Clémence Royer, à qui l’on reproche d’avoir radicalisé la TE darwinienne en transformant la prudence de Darwin en certitude. Présentement, c’est pourtant la traduction d’Edmond Barbier (1876), et non celles de Royer, qui fait autorité ; trois autres traducteurs, deux contemporains de Darwin et un moderne, se sont également attaqués à l’OS. Nous nous proposons donc de comparer ces différentes traductions, avec leur texte original, mais également entre elles, sur la base de marqueurs de modalité épistémique précis qui atténuent le degré de certitude d’un énoncé et qui sont très caractéristiques du style particulièrement précautionneux de Darwin. Nous voulons ainsi déterminer comment ces autres traducteurs ont rendu la modalité du texte anglais et montrons que la version la plus moderne est la plus proche de l’original. Enfin, de manière inattendue, la traduction de Royer, depuis longtemps décriée par la critique, se rapproche plus des traductions de Moulinié et de Barbier qu’on ne l’anticipait., In 1859, prominent British naturalist Charles Darwin publishes On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (or OS). In this book, Darwin introduces his theory of evolution (TE), which has been shrouded in controversy since its inception. Yet, despite the book’s profound impact on the world at large, its French translations have rarely been studied. The few existing studies have focussed on translations by Clémence Royer, a controversial translator infamous for having coopted Darwin’s writings to serve a more radical agenda. But the fact remains that the canonical French translation of the OS is the one by Edmond Barbier, not Royer; three translators, two contemporary to Darwin and one modern, have also translated the book. Therefore, we aim to compare and contrast these various French translations with their original text and amongst each other on the basis of hedges, epistemic modality markers that attenuate the degree of certainty associated with a statement. We wish to determine how each translator has expressed epistemic modality in his/her text and show that the modern translation is closest to the original. Unexpectedly, Royer’s translation, long decried by critics, is closer to Moulinié’s and Barbier’s translations than previously anticipated.

MCMV-infected cells are recognized by multiple MHC class I–restricted Ly49-activating receptors in genetically distinct mouse strains., Recognition of mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV)–infected cells by activating NK cell receptors was first described in the context of Ly49H, which confers resistance to C57BL/6 mice. We investigated the ability of other activating Ly49 receptors to recognize MCMV-infected cells in mice from various H-2 backgrounds. We observed that Ly49P1 from NOD/Ltj mice, Ly49L from BALB mice, and Ly49D2 from PWK/Pas mice respond to MCMV-infected cells in the context of H-2Dk and the viral protein m04/gp34. Recognition was also seen in the H-2d and/or H-2f contexts, depending on the Ly49 receptor examined, but never in H-2b. Furthermore, BALB.K (H-2k) mice showed reduced viral loads compared with their H-2d or H-2b congenic partners, a reduction which was dependent on interferon γ secretion by Ly49L+ NK cells early after infection. Adoptive transfer of Ly49L+, but not Ly49L−, NK cells significantly increased resistance against MCMV infection in neonate BALB.K mice. These results suggest that multiple activating Ly49 receptors participate in H-2–dependent recognition of MCMV infection, providing a common mechanism of NK cell–mediated resistance against viral infection.

Clinical and experimental data indicate that a subset of innate lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, plays a crucial role in the response against herpesviruses, especially cytomegaloviruses (CMV). Indeed, in mice, NK cells, due to the expression of germline encoded Ly49 receptors, possess multiple mechanisms to recognize CMV infection. Classically, this results in NK cell activation and the destruction of the infected cells. More recently, however, this unique host-pathogen interaction has permitted the discovery of novel aspects of NK cell biology, implicating them in the regulation of adaptive immune responses as well as in the development of immunological memory. Here, we will concisely review the newly acquired evidence pertaining to NK cell Ly49-dependent recognition of MCMV-infected cell and the ensuing NK cell regulatory responses.

Cytomegaloviruses (CMV) are ubiquitous, opportunistic DNA viruses that have mastered the art of immune evasion through their ability to mimic host proteins or to inhibit antiviral responses. The study of the host response against CMV infection has illuminated many facets of the complex interaction between host and pathogen. Here, we review evidence derived from the animal models and human studies that supports the central role played by innate immune receptors in the recognition of virus infection and their participation in the many layers of defense.

Dans son plus recent livre, Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators, Tymoczko prone une reconceptualisation de la traduction visant a integrer une plus grande diversite de points vue quant a sa theorisation et a sa pratique ; ceci menerait, selon elle, a l'affranchissement des traducteurs et favoriserait leur pouvoir d'agir. Dans la premiere partie du livre, l'auteure aborde la traduction en tant que concept theorique, qu'elle cherche a redefinir et a elargir. Le premier chapitre se veut un survol historique des fondements theoriques et epistemologiques de la traductologie. Elle oriente d'ailleurs sa presentation par rapport au positivisme. Tymoczko fait valoir que la Deuxieme Guerre mondiale a engendre un changement de paradigme epistemologique. Elle explique que, pour des raisons strategiques, les puissances belligerantes se sont particulierement interessees aux differentes langues et cultures, notamment dans le but de decoder les messages ennemis et d'utiliser efficacement la propagande. Ces recherches ont mis a jour l'absence de realites objectives facilement observables, particulierement en ce qui a trait aux lettres et aux sciences sociales, minant ainsi la credibilite du courant positiviste. Apres la fin de la guerre, les etudes en traductologie se sont donc poursuivies selon une orientation decidement postpositiviste, ayant toutes en commun la reconnaissance et la valorisation de la multiplicite des perspectives. L'auteure souligne notamment les contributions des approches linguistiques et fonctionnelles, ainsi que celles des Etudes descriptives (Descriptive Translation Studies), notamment le tournant culturel (cultural turn) le tournant du pouvoir (power turn) et le tournant international (international turn). Elle passe egalement en revue la traduction postcoloniale, la traduction feministe, la traduction poststructuraliste et la deconstruction. Selon Tymoczko, une perspective postpositiviste doit s'accompagner d'une redefinition du concept meme de traduction. En effet, elle fait valoir que la traduction a traditionnellement ete envisagee comme le transfert fidele d'un sens preexistant au texte, mais que cette conception se base largement sur l'experience de la traduction biblique ; ainsi, elle est le fruit d'une histoire et d'une ideologie proprement occidentale. Pourtant, la traduction a ete conceptualisee et pratiquee de multiples facons differentes de par le monde et a travers les âges, comme le demontre Tymoczko avec de nombreux exemples issus d'Afrique, d'Inde, de Chine, du monde arabe et des iles d'Asie du Sud-Est. Pour cette raison, l'auteure affirme que la traduction est un concept interculturel, intertemporel et interlinguistique. En effet, on ne peut identifier de traits semantiques minima permettant de decrire toutes les traductions tout en excluant toutes les non-traductions. Tymoczko adopte donc la definition enoncee par Gideon Toury : on nomme " traduction " tout texte considere...

The ability of numerous activating Ly49 receptors to recognize mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infected cells of various H2 background was examined. Reporter cells expressing either Ly49P1 from NOD/Ltj mice, Ly49L from BALB mice or Ly49D2 from PWK/Pas mice were activated upon co-culture with MCMV infected cells provided the presence of an appropriate H2 molecule and the m04/gp34 viral peptide. Such recognition was most frequent in the H2k background, yet also occurred in the H2d and H2f contexts. To demonstrate whether Ly49 activating receptors confer MCMV resistance, H2 congenic BALB mice were infected with MCMV. Neither BALB.By (H2b) nor BALB/c (H2d) mice were able to control MCMV spread in target organs contrary to BALB.K (H2k) mice, which demonstrated delayed NK cell-mediated virus control. In BALB mice, the antibodies YE1/48 and 12A8 delineate a Ly49L+ NK cell population (YE1/48INT12A8-). BALB.K resilience to the infection correlated with the expansion of the specific Ly49L+ NK cell fraction in the spleen and secretion of IFNγ 6 days after MCMV infection. Adoptive transfer of Ly49L+ but not Ly49L- NK cells provided partial protection from death in neonate BALB.K mice following MCMV infection. Thus, we have uncovered three activating Ly49 receptors partaking in the recognition of MCMV infection by NK cells through an H2- and m04-dependent mechanism, which we find to be more common than the direct recognition of m157.