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Universities and other research institutions are increasingly providing additional training in research integrity to improve the quality and reliability of research. Various training courses have been developed, with diverse learning goals and content. Despite the importance of training that focuses on moral character and professional virtues, there remains a lack of training that adopts a virtue ethics approach. To address this, we, a European Commission-funded consortium, have designed a train-the-trainer programme for research integrity. The programme is based on (1) virtue ethics, (2) the ethos of science, (3) learning by doing and (4) learner-centred teaching. The blended learning programme combines e-learning modules with participatory group sessions. Trainers are taught how to guide researchers through a series of structured exercises for fostering reflection on scientific virtues, and how to promote understanding and application of the European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity. Trainers are provided with adaptable tools and resources that can be used and combined in different ways. The programme implementation began in Spring 2020 and 470 trainers have participated to date. When trainers were asked to grade – between 0 (very bad) and 10 (excellent) – the e-learning modules and the participatory exercises, 60% scored a grade 8 or higher (median = 8, IQR = 2) for the e-learning modules, whereas 80% scored a grade 8 or higher (median = 9, IQR = 1) for the participatory exercises. A majority felt that the training helped them as a trainer to learn about ways to organise and teach a research integrity course (82%) and would recommend the interactive exercises to others (92%). Trainers have educated over 3300 researchers in Europe using our virtue-based approach. The VIRT2UE train-the-trainer programme fosters research integrity by providing trainers with exercises and tools which enable them to stimulate the development of good researchers across Europe.

Universities and other research institutions are increasingly providing additional training in research integrity (RI) in an attempt to improve the quality and reliability of research. Various training courses have been developed, with diverse learning goals and content. Despite the importance of training that focuses on moral character and professional virtues, there remains a lack of training taking a virtue ethics approach to teaching research integrity. To address this, we, a European Commission funded consortium, have designed a train-the-trainer (TtT) programme for research integrity. The programme is guided by the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of 1) virtue ethics, 2) ethos of science, 3) learning by doing, and 4) learner-centred teaching. The programme follows a blended learning approach, combining online modules with group sessions using participatory exercises. Trainers are taught how to guide researchers through a series of structured exercises for fostering reflection on scientific virtues, and how to promote understanding of the European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity and its application in practice. Trainers experience the programme as participants and learn how to deliver the content themselves. Trainers are provided with adaptable tools and resources that can be used and combined in different ways in their own teaching. The programme implementation began in Spring 2020 and 470 trainers have participated in the programme to date. When trainers who had participated in the programme were asked to grade – between 0 (very bad) and 10 (excellent) – the online modules and the participatory exercises, 60% scored a grade 8 or higher (median = 8, IQR = 2) for the e-learning modules, whereas 80% scored a grade 8 or higher (median = 9, IQR = 1) for the participatory exercises. A majority felt that the training helped them as a trainer to learn about ways to organize and teach a research integrity course (82%) and would recommend the interactive exercises to others (92%). At the moment, trainers have educated over 3300 researchers in Europe using core elements of our virtue-based approach. The VIRT2UE TtT programme fosters research integrity by providing trainers with exercises and tools which enable them to stimulate the development of good researchers across Europe.

It is unclear whether deviations in brain and behavioral development, which may underpin elevated substance use during adolescence, are predispositions for or consequences of substance use initiation. Here, we examine behavioral and neuroimaging indices at early and mid-adolescence in drug-naive youths to identify possible predisposing factors for substance use initiation and its possible consequences.Among 304 drug-naive adolescents at baseline (age 14 years) from the IMAGEN dataset, 83 stayed drug-naive, 133 used alcohol on 1 to 9 occasions, 42 on 10 to 19 occasions, 27 on 20 to 39 occasions, and 19 on40 occasions at follow-up (age 16 years). Baseline measures included brain activation during the Monetary Incentive Delay task. Data at both baseline and follow-up included measures of trait impulsivity and delay discounting.From baseline to follow-up, impulsivity decreased in the 0 and 1- to 9-occasions groups (p .004), did not change in the 10- to 19-occasions and 20- to 29-occasions groups (p.294), and uncharacteristically increased in the40-occasions group (p = .046). Furthermore, blunted medial orbitofrontal cortex activation during reward outcome at baseline significantly predicted higher alcohol use frequency at follow-up, above and beyond behavioral and clinical variables (p = .008).These results suggest that the transition from no use to frequent drinking in early to mid-adolescence may disrupt normative developmental changes in behavioral control. In addition, blunted activity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex during reward outcome may underscore a predisposition toward the development of more severe alcohol use in adolescents. This distinction is clinically important, as it informs early intervention efforts in preventing the onset of substance use disorder in adolescents.

Objective Irritable mood, a common and impairing symptom in psychopathology, has been proposed to underlie the developmental link between oppositional problems in youth and depression in adulthood. We examined the neural correlates of adolescent irritability in IMAGEN, a sample of 2,024 14-year-old adolescents from 5 European countries. Method The Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA) was used to assess attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, major depressive disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. Three items from the DAWBA, selected as close matches to the Affective Reactivity Index, were used to assess irritability. Structural magnetic resonance imaging was examined using whole-brain voxel-based morphometry analysis, and functional magnetic resonance imaging was examined during a stop signal task of inhibitory control. Imaging data were included in structural equation models to examine the direct and indirect associations between irritable mood and comorbid DSM diagnoses. Results Whole-brain voxelwise analysis showed that adolescent irritable mood was associated with less gray matter volume and less neural activation underlying inhibitory control in frontal and temporal cortical areas (cluster-correction at p Conclusion This study identifies adolescent irritability as an independent construct and points to a neurobiological correlate to irritability that is an important contributing feature to many psychopathological disorders.

The Normative Practice of Health and Disease. „Health“ and „disease“ are frequently used terms with a high relevance for our everyday lives. Their spectrum of meaning is very extensive, but also ambivalent, because they are not adequately captured by a purely medical-scientific approach. The forms of knowledge associated with „disease“ and „health“ are rather diverse and allow different ways of looking at them side by side in a justified manner. Against this background, the relationship between scientific and life world approaches to these phenomena is of central importance, because this results in very different claims to an interpretative sovereignty of „health“ and „disease“. For these states not merely have an associated dimension, but an essentially practical-normative one, so that they cannot simply be reduced to a biological function or dysfunction. This becomes especially clear when the assignment of dysfunctional conditions to the concept of disease results in immediate options for action that are not simply limited to a chapter expansion of medical textbooks, but may lead to fundamental personal and social changes. For this side of „disease“ and „health“ reflects not only medical developments, but also normative attitudes in science and society. These in turn are also decisive for the communicative structure in the doctorpatient relationship.

Research ethics committees (RECs) are well established to review health-related research projects. Nowadays, ethical assessments by RECs are requested not only for research projects in this field, but also beyond. However, standards and procedures for RECs outside the health-related research fields are still unclear or vague. Therefore, the question arises if and to what extent guidance documents and guidelines for RECs from the health-related field could be helpful to review research projects in other fields. In this report this question was analysed with a special focus on ethical reviews of research projects in the field emerging technologies.

Geleitet durch das Beispiel der Ethikkommissionen in der Medizin weitet sich die ethische Evaluation von Forschungsprojekten in Europa zunehmend auf andere Disziplinen wie Psychologie, Sozialwissenschaften oder Ingenieurswissenschaften aus, vor allem wenn unmittelbar menschliche Probanden involviert oder personenbezogene Daten erhoben werden. Die Verfahren zur ethischen Bewertung sind in den meisten europaischen Landern jedoch nicht einheitlich geregelt. Mit der neuen EU-Verordnung No 536/2014, die voraussichtlich im Jahr 2020 in Kraft tritt, wird fur klinische Versuche eine Vereinheitlichung der Arbeit der medizinischen Forschungsethikkommissionen beabsichtigt. Klare Fristen und die Nutzung eines zentralen elektronischen EU-Portals werden vorgegeben, auch um aus wirtschaftlichen Grunden die Genehmigungsverfahren zu beschleunigen. Den Mitgliedstaaten werden Freiraume hinsichtlich des Umfangs der ethischen Prufung gelassen, was aber einer Vereinheitlichung entgegenlauft und dazu fuhren konnte, dass einige Staaten ein Prufmodell wahlen, das die Bewertung von Methodik und Risiko einer Studie ausschliest und dadurch weniger zum Schutz der teilnehmenden Menschen beitragt. Die europaischen Ethikkommissionen arbeiten seit 2005 im European Network of Research Ethics Committees (EUREC) zusammen. Fur den Austausch uber die Auswirkungen und die Implementierung der neuen EU-Verordnung sowie uber den Aufbau des EU-Portals bietet EUREC ein Forum fur eine qualifizierte Debatte. In dieser Umbruchphase ist noch schwierig einzuschatzen, in welche Richtung sich die Ethikkommissionen entwickeln werden. Professionelles Management kann sich positiv auf die Qualitat der Ethikprufung auswirken. Die Marginalisierungstendenz, die der EU-Verordnung inharent ist, lauft jedoch der zunehmenden Evaluierung nichtmedizinischer Forschungsvorhaben und einem angemessenen Probandenschutz entgegen.

Recent breakthroughs in psychiatric genetics have identified genetic risk factors of yet unknown clinical value. A main ethical principal in the context of psychiatric research as well as future clinical genetic testing is the respect for a person's autonomy to decide whether to undergo genetic testing, and whom to grant access to genetic data. However, experience within the psychiatric genetic research setting has indicated controversies surrounding attitudes toward this ethical principal. This study aimed to explore attitudes concerning the right of individuals to self-determine testing and disclosure of results, and to determine whether these attitudes are context-dependent, that is, not directly related to the test result but rather to specific circumstances. N = 160 individuals with major depression or bipolar disorder and n = 29 relatives of individuals with either illness completed an online-questionnaire assessing attitudes toward genetic testing, genetic research, disclosure of results, incidental findings, and access to psychiatric genetic test results. Generally, the right of the person's autonomy was considered very important, but attitudes varied. For example, half of those who considered that children should have the right to refuse psychiatric genetic testing even against their parents' will, also state that they should be tested upon their parents' wishes. Also, the majority of respondents considered the physician entitled to disregard their stated wishes concerning the disclosure of incidental findings in case of good treatment options. Thus, researchers and clinicians must be aware that attitudes toward psychiatric genetic testing are often mutable and should discuss these prior to testing. peerReviewed

Der Umgang mit pradiktiven genetischen Testungen gerade im Bereich psychischer Erkrankungen bedarf eines sensiblen Umgangs. Insbesondere Direct-to-consumer-Angebote uber das Internet konnen eine angemessene Interpretationsleistung von Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeiten nicht leisten. Stattdessen sollte ein Arzt-Patienten-Verhaltnis durch hermeneutische und nichttechnizistische Hilfestellung fur Klarheit sowohl hinsichtlich der Notwendigkeit einer Testung als auch im Blick auf die Deutung des Testergebnisses sorgen.

International audience; Objective: Cannabis consumption during adolescence has been reported as a risk factor for psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) and schizophrenia. However, brain developmental processes associated with cannabis-related PLEs are still poorly described.Method: A total of 706 adolescents from the general population who were recruited by the IMAGEN consortium had structural magnetic resonance imaging scans at both 14 and 19 years of age. We used deformation-based morphometry to map voxelwise brain changes between the two time points, using the pairwise algorithm in SPM12b. We used an a priori region-of-interest approach focusing on the hippocampus/parahippocampus to perform voxelwise linear regressions. Lifetime cannabis consumption was assessed using the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and other Drugs (ESPAD), and PLEs were assessed with the Comprehensive Assessment Psychotic-like experiences (CAPE) tool. We first tested whether hippocampus/parahippocampus development was associated with PLEs. Then we formulated and tested an a priori simple mediation model in which uncus development mediates the association between lifetime cannabis consumption and PLEs.Results: We found that PLEs were associated with reduced expansion within a specific region of the right hippocampus/parahippocampus formation, the uncus (p = .002 at the cluster level, p = .018 at the peak level). The partial simple mediation model revealed a significant total effect from lifetime cannabis consumption to PLEs (b = 0.069, 95% CI = 0.04−0.1, p =2 × 10−16), as well as a small yet significant, indirect effect of right uncus development (0.004; 95% CI = 0.0004−0.01, p = .026).Conclusion: We show here that the uncus development is involved in the cerebral basis of PLEs in a population-based sample of healthy adolescents

This report describes the outcome of task 4.3, Current coverage of ethical guidelines by professional organisations, ethics advisory groups, and research ethics committees for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (AI&R). For this task, the SIENNA partners searched for documents which could give normative guidance (excluding legislation) for stakeholders in AI&R. Three kinds of documents were searched in different EU countries and internationally: professional ethics codes documents from professional groups and ethics advisory groups, and guidance documents on how to write research ethics protocols in different EU countries andinternationally. Furthermore, representatives of research ethics committees have been asked for the following information in an online survey: − to what extent are they aware of AI&R developments and ethical issues associated with them? − how do they currently approach these issues and do they have plans to more explicitly featurethem?

Guided by the example of ethics committees in medicine, the ethical review system of research projects in Europe is increasingly expanding to other disciplines such as psychology, the social sciences, and engineering, especially when human subjects are directly involved or personal data are collected. However, ethical reviews are not uniformly regulated in most European countries.With the new EU Regulation No. 536/2014, which is expected to come into force in 2020, it is intended to standardize the work of medical research ethics committees for clinical trials. Clear deadlines and the use of a central electronic EU portal are also given in order to accelerate the approval process for economic reasons. Member states are left free in terms of the scope of the ethical review, but this would run counter to unification and could lead some to choose a test model that excludes the evaluation of the methodology and risks of a study and thus contributes less to the protection of the participants.The European Research Ethics Committees have been working together since 2005 within the European Network of Research Ethics Committees (EUREC). For a discussion on the impact and implementation of the new EU Regulation and on the development of the EU portal, EUREC has provided a forum for a qualified debate.In this period of change, it is not clear yet which direction the ethics committees will develop. Professional management can have a positive impact on the quality of the ethics review. However, the marginalization inherent in the EU Regulation is counteracting the increasing evaluation of nonmedical research projects and adequate protection of subjects.

The handling of predictive genetic tests especially in the field of mental diseases requires a sensitive approach. In particular internet-based direct-to-consumer offers cannot provide an appropriate interpretation of the onset probabilistic data. Instead, a doctor-patient relationship should cater for clarity through hermeneutic and non-technicistic assistance with respect to the necessity of a test as well as with a view to the interpretation of the test results.

Background Binge eating and other forms of disordered eating behavior (DEB) are associated with failed inhibitory control. This study investigated the neural correlates of failed inhibitory control as a potential biomarker for DEB. Methods The study used prospective longitudinal data from the European IMAGEN study adolescent cohort. Participants completed baseline assessments (questionnaires and a brain scan [functional magnetic resonance imaging]) at 14 years of age and a follow-up assessment (questionnaires) at 16 years of age. Self-reported binge eating and/or purging were used to indicate presence of DEB. Neural correlates of failed inhibition were assessed using the stop signal task. Participants were categorized as healthy control subjects (reported no DEB at both time points), maintainers (reported DEB at both time points), recoverers (reported DEB at baseline only), and developers (reported DEB at follow-up only). Forty-three individuals per group with complete scanning data were matched on gender, age, puberty, and intelligence (N = 172). Results At baseline, despite similar task performance, incorrectly responding to stop signals (failed inhibitory control) was associated with greater recruitment of the medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex in the developers compared with healthy control subjects and recoverers. Conclusions Greater recruitment of the medial prefrontal and anterior cingulate regions during failed inhibition accords with abnormal evaluation of errors contributing to DEB development. As this precedes symptom onset and is evident despite normal task performance, neural responses during failed inhibition may be a useful biomarker of vulnerability for DEB. This study highlights the potential value of prospective neuroimaging studies for identifying markers of illness before the emergence of behavior changes.

The upcoming Regulation (EU) No 536/2014 on clinical trials on medicinal products for human use (Regulation), which will replace the current Clinical Trial Directive at the end of 2021, has triggered a significant reform of research ethics committee systems in Europe. Changes related to ethics review of clinical trials in the EU were considered to be essential to create a more favourable environment to conduct clinical trials in the EU. The concern is, however, that the role of the research ethics committees will weaken in at least some of the Member States because the new Regulation allows narrowing down the scope of ethics review as compared with the currently valid Clinical Trial Directive. Although the new Regulation may lead to faster approval procedures for clinical trials, which is especially relevant in the context of pandemics, high-quality ethics reviews integrating methodological aspects of a clinical trial should nevertheless be ensured. To maintain high research ethics standards as well as to foster measures to mitigate potential negative consequences of the reform, it is therefore of vital importance to start debating and sharing the reflections about the potential consequences of these transformations and trends as soon as possible.

This Handbook brings together and describes the SIENNA project’s theoretical and methodological approaches for ethical, legal and human rights analyses, societal acceptance and awareness studies, development of research ethics protocols and professional ethical codes. This Handbook is a reference source for work packages 2 (genomics), 3 (human enhancement) 4 (AI and robotics), and 5 (the consortium’s proposals), and it will help to ensure theoretical coherence and methodological consistency. The Handbook also offers references to guidance (where to go) about other project matters, such as research ethics and data management, internal communication tools and protocols, event organisation, quality assurance, citations and formatting, dissemination and communications approach, exploitation, and project sustainability.&nbsp

An ethical perspective on a field like the application of genetic engineering on animals in farming and food production is much more than mere technology assessments of risks and benefits. Rather ethics must approach the relationship between principles and practical moral challenges as a kind of reflective equilibrium. Against this background, applied ethics is not merely the application of principles to practice but a process in which practical experiences reciprocally influence the content and interpretation of ethical principles. Ethical theory learns from moral practice. Given that the interventions of biotechnology and genetic engineering principally affect the existence of nonhuman animals, ethics not only addresses questions relating to human health or social cooperation but takes a particularly fundamental interest in the ever-changing normative relationship between humans and animals as well as humans and nature. Therefore in this paper the analysis of the ethical challenges posed by biotechnology applied on animals reveals several problem areas that must be considered in developing ethical criteria for the investigation of biogenetic activities. Firstly, the paper will address the basic relationship of humankind and its technologies to nature (Chap. 1) in addition to the development of relevant evaluative criteria in environmental ethics and the ethics of nature (Chap. 2). The latter aid in the normative evaluation of technologies when weighing up which ends and means can be considered justified in relation to the goods a society recognises (Chap. 3). Against the background of biotechnological contributions to food production, the anthropological question as to what role food plays in a current culture and lifestyle—and what kind of change that culture and lifestyle might admit—will be analysed (Chap. 4). Yet the evaluation of biotechnology, to the extent that it is used on animals, covers more than just the well-being of humans and society; transgenic animals also pose a great challenge to animal protection and welfare (Chap. 5). Finally the paper discusses that a society dealing with new technologies must constantly consider what form risk assessment should take and what kind of tolerance for environmental, health, and economic risks that implies (Chap. 6). Processes that advance sustainability, justice, food quality, and animal welfare alike should be placed at the centre of modern agriculture and food production. From an ethical perspective, the gene technological and biotechnological production of animals must be measured according to the extent of its contribution to these complex and highly relevant goals.

Objectives To investigate whether life-sustaining measures in medical emergency situations are less accepted for an anticipated own future of living with dementia, and to test whether a resource-oriented, in contrast to a deficit-oriented video about the same demented person, would increase the acceptance of such life-saving measures. Design Experimental study conducted between September 2012 and February 2013. Setting Community dwelling female volunteers living in the region of Bonn, Germany. Participants 278 women aged 19 to 89 (mean age 53.4 years). Intervention Presentation of a video on dementia care focusing either on the deficits of a demented woman (negative framing), or focusing on the remaining resources (positive framing) of the same patient. Main outcome measures Approval of life-sustaining treatments in five critical medical scenarios under the assumption of having comorbid dementia, before and after the presentation of the brief videos on care. Results At baseline, the acceptance of life-sustaining measures in critical medical situations was significantly lower in subjects anticipating their own future life with dementia. Participants watching the resource-oriented film on living with dementia had significantly higher post-film acceptance rates compared to those watching the deficit-oriented negatively framed film. This effect particularly emerges if brief and efficient life-saving interventions with a high likelihood of physical recovery are available (eg, antibiotic treatment for pneumonia). Conclusions Anticipated decisions regarding life-sustaining measures are negatively influenced by the subjective imagination of living with dementia, which might be shaped by common, unquestioned stereotypes. This bias can be reduced by providing audio-visual information on living with dementia which is not only centred around cognitive and functional losses but also focuses on remaining resources and the apparent quality of life. This is particularly true if the medical threat can be treated efficiently. These findings have implications for the practice of formulating, revising, and supporting advance directives.

In this consensus paper resulting from a meeting that involved representatives from more than 20 European partners, we recommend the foundation of an expert group (European Steering Committee) to assess the potential benefits and draw-backs of genome editing (off-targets, mosaicisms, etc.), and to design risk matrices and scenarios for a responsible use of this promising technology. In addition, this European steering committee will contribute in promoting an open debate on societal aspects prior to a translation into national and international legislation., peer-reviewed

BackgroundResilience is the capacity of individuals to resist mental disorders despite exposure to stress. Little is known about its neural underpinnings. The putative variation of white-matter microstructure with resilience in adolescence, a critical period for brain maturation and onset of high-prevalence mental disorders, has not been assessed by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Lower fractional anisotropy (FA) though, has been reported in the corpus callosum (CC), the brain's largest white-matter structure, in psychiatric and stress-related conditions. We hypothesized that higher FA in the CC would characterize stress-resilient adolescents.MethodThree groups of adolescents recruited from the community were compared: resilient with low risk of mental disorder despite high exposure to lifetime stress (n = 55), at-risk of mental disorder exposed to the same level of stress (n = 68), and controls (n = 123). Personality was assessed by the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Voxelwise statistics of DTI values in CC were obtained using tract-based spatial statistics. Regional projections were identified by probabilistic tractography.ResultsHigher FA values were detected in the anterior CC of resilient compared to both non-resilient and control adolescents. FA values varied according to resilience capacity. Seed regional changes in anterior CC projected onto anterior cingulate and frontal cortex. Neuroticism and three other NEO-FFI factor scores differentiated non-resilient participants from the other two groups.ConclusionHigh FA was detected in resilient adolescents in an anterior CC region projecting to frontal areas subserving cognitive resources. Psychiatric risk was associated with personality characteristics. Resilience in adolescence may be related to white-matter microstructure.

This chapter demonstrates the relation between business ethics and human flourishing. It argues that a business's contribution to human flourishing needs to be understood in terms of its viable options and what it makes of them as a core part of a modern civil society. Against this general background, the chapter explains the theoretical aspects of the intrinsically entwined relationship between business practice and business ethics. Successful entrepreneurship and business activities are those that can effectively recognize and cultivate this relationship. This emphasizes not only individual and entrepreneurial moral sense and reliability in economic affairs, but also incorporates an approach to business ethics that encompasses a total concept of a “good life” and its striving towards a just, civil society based on mutual responsibility.

Bei dem Argument der schiefen Ebene (slipperyslope-argument; Dammbruchargument) handelt es sich um einen im Alltag und in wissenschaftlichen Diskursen weit verbreiteten Argumentationstyp. Ein Argument der schiefen Ebene kommt meist dann zum Tragen, wenn gegen eine Handlung bzw. Praxis unmittelbar keine moralischen Grunde sprechen. Gegen die Handlung wird dann angefuhrt, dass sie zu einer Ereignisfolge fuhre, an deren Ende ein von allen Diskutierenden als moralisch unerwunscht angesehener Zustand steht. Typisch ist ein gradualistischer Ubergang von einem eher unproblematischen Anfang zu einem prognostizierten schrecklichen Ende, das mit diesem Anfang in Zusammenhang gebracht wird. Wer etwa behauptet, die Abschaffung des Latinums als Studienvoraussetzung sei fur sich genommen akzeptabel, fuhre jedoch mittelfristig zu schlechteren Grammatikkenntnissen und langfristig zur Abschaffung erst samtlicher Sprachvoraussetzungen und dann jeglicher Bildung, bringt eine typische Variante des Arguments der schiefen Ebene vor.

Part 1 Concepts and Values 1. The Necessity for Biodiversity Research: We are Responsible for the Quality of Life of Coming Generations 2. Biodiversity and the "Substitution Problem" 3. Biodiversity: A Methodological Reconstruction of Some Fundamental Misperception 4. Framing Biodiversity: The Case of "Invasive Alien Species" 5. Community-Level Biodiversity: An Inquiry into the Ecological and Cultural Background and Practical Consequences of Opposing Concepts 6.Ethics of Nature and Biodiversity 7. The Values of Biodiversity Part 2 Policies and Justice 8. The Future of Biodiversity and Sustainable Development: Challenges and Opportunities 9. Access and Benefit Sharing as a Challenge for International Law 10. The Legal Protection of Biodiversity in Namibia 11. The Impact of Access and Benefit Sharing Programmes on Indigenous People in Australia 12. Reconstructing the "Biopiracy" Debate from a Justice Perspective Part 3 Challenges and Chances 13. Biodiversity Hotspots: Concepts, Applications and Challenges 14. Whose Biodiversity is it? Challenges in Managing Migratory Species 15. Facing the Biodiversity Challenge: Plant Endemism as an Appropriate Biodiversity Indicator 16. Bionics 17. Nature's Chemical Treasure Trove: Biodiversity and Pharmaceuticals 18. Protection of Biodiversity for the Sake of Science?