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In almost all eubacteria, the AUA codon is translated by tRNA

To date, numerous modified nucleosides in tRNA as well as tRNA modification enzymes have been identified not only in thermophiles but also in mesophiles. Because most modified nucleosides in tRNA from thermophiles are common to those in tRNA from mesophiles, they are considered to work essentially in steps of protein synthesis at high temperatures. At high temperatures, the structure of unmodified tRNA will be disrupted. Therefore, thermophiles must possess strategies to stabilize tRNA structures. To this end, several thermophile-specific modified nucleosides in tRNA have been identified. Other factors such as RNA-binding proteins and polyamines contribute to the stability of tRNA at high temperatures. Thermus thermophilus, which is an extreme-thermophilic eubacterium, can adapt its protein synthesis system in response to temperature changes via the network of modified nucleosides in tRNA and tRNA modification enzymes. Notably, tRNA modification enzymes from thermophiles are very stable. Therefore, they have been utilized for biochemical and structural studies. In the future, thermostable tRNA modification enzymes may be useful as biotechnology tools and may be utilized for medical science.

We investigated tRNA methyltransferase activities in crude cell extracts from the thermoacidophilic archaeon Thermoplasma acidophilum. We analyzed the modified nucleosides in native initiator and elongator tRNAMet, predicted the candidate genes for the tRNA methyltransferases on the basis of the tRNAMet and tRNALeu sequences, and characterized Trm5, Trm1 and Trm56 by purifying recombinant proteins. We found that the Ta0997, Ta0931, and Ta0836 genes of T. acidophilum encode Trm1, Trm56 and Trm5, respectively. Initiator tRNAMet from T. acidophilum strain HO-62 contained G+, m1I, and m22G, which were not reported previously in this tRNA, and the m2G26 and m22G26 were formed by Trm1. In the case of elongator tRNAMet, our analysis showed that the previously unidentified G modification at position 26 was a mixture of m2G and m22G, and that they were also generated by Trm1. Furthermore, purified Trm1 and Trm56 could methylate the precursor of elongator tRNAMet, which has an intron at the canonical position. However, the speed of methyl-transfer by Trm56 to the precursor RNA was considerably slower than that to the mature transcript, which suggests that Trm56 acts mainly on the transcript after the intron has been removed. Moreover, cellular arrangements of the tRNA methyltransferases in T. acidophilum are discussed.

TrmB is a eubacterial tRNA methyltransferase which catalyzes the formation of N7-methylguanosine at position 46 (m7G46) in tRNA consuming S-adenosyl-L-methionine (AdoMet) as the methyl group donor during the reaction. Previously, we purified TrmB from Aquifex aeolicus, a hyper-thermophilic eubacterium, and clarified the recognition sites in tRNA. Furthermore, we reported that an additional C-terminal region of A. aeolicus TrmB is required for protein stability at high temperatures. In the current study, we devised a new purification method to remove contaminating RNA completely. The purified enzyme is mainly in a monomeric form. We prepared 17 mutant A. aeolicus TrmB proteins and performed kinetic studies. Our analyses reveal that Glu47, Tyr95, Arg108, Thr165 and Tyr167 residues are important for AdoMet binding and that Asp74, Asp97, and Thr132 are important for the methyltransfer reaction. Furthermore, substitution of Asp133 by alanine caused complete loss of enzymatic activity. Based on the results of our current studies and previous bioinformatic, biochemical and structural studies by others, a reaction mechanism for TrmB is proposed.

Thermus thermophilus is an extremely thermophilic eubacterium that produces various polyamines. Aminopropylagmatine ureohydrolase (SpeB) and SAM decarboxylase-like protein 1 (SpeD1) are involved in the biosynthesis of spermidine from arginine. Because long and branched polyamines in T. thermophilus are synthesized from spermidine, the speB and speD1 gene-deleted strains (ΔspeB and ΔspeD1, respectively) cannot synthesize long and branched polyamines. Although neither strain grew at high temperatures (75°C) in minimal medium, both strains survived at 80°C when they were cultured at 70°C until the mid-log phase and then shifted to 80°C. We therefore prepared the ΔspeB and ΔspeD1 cells using this culture method. Microscopic analysis showed that both strains can survive for 10 h after the temperature shift. Although the modification levels of 2'-O-methylguanosine at position 18, N

Thermus thermophilus is an extremely thermophilic eubacterium that produces various polyamines. Aminopropylagmatine ureohydrolase (SpeB) and SAM decarboxylase-like protein 1 (SpeD1) are involved in the biosynthesis of spermidine from arginine. Because long and branched polyamines in T. thermophilus are synthesized from spermidine, the speB and speD1 gene-deleted strains (ΔspeB and ΔspeD1, respectively) cannot synthesize long and branched polyamines. Although neither strain grew at high temperatures (\textgreater75°C) in minimal medium, both strains survived at 80°C when they were cultured at 70°C until the mid-log phase and then shifted to 80°C. We therefore prepared the ΔspeB and ΔspeD1 cells using this culture method. Microscopic analysis showed that both strains can survive for 10 h after the temperature shift. Although the modification levels of 2'-O-methylguanosine at position 18, N(7) -methylguanosine at position 46, 5-methyluridine at position 54 and N(1) -methyladenosine at position 58 in the class I tRNA from both strains were normal, amounts of tRNA(Tyr) , tRNA(His) , rRNAs and 70S ribosomes were decreased after the temperature shift. Furthermore, in vivo protein synthesis in both strains was completely lost 10 h after the temperature shift. Thus, long and branched polyamines are required for at least the maintenance of 70S ribosome and some tRNA species at high temperatures.

Thermoplasma acidophilum is a thermo-acidophilic archaeon. We purified tRNALeu (UAG) from T. acidophilum using a solid-phase DNA probe method and determined the RNA sequence after determining via nucleoside analysis and m7G-specific aniline cleavage because it has been reported that T. acidophilum tRNA contains m7G, which is generally not found in archaeal tRNAs. RNA sequencing and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry revealed that the m7G modification exists at a novel position 49. Furthermore, we found several distinct modifications, which have not previously been found in archaeal tRNA, such as 4-thiouridine9, archaeosine13 and 5-carbamoylmethyuridine34. The related tRNA modification enzymes and their genes are discussed.

Stress response mechanisms that modulate the dynamics of tRNA degradation and accumulation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus have been studied in yeast, the rat hepatoma and human cells. In the current study, we investigated tRNA degradation and accumulation in HeLa cells under various forms of stress. We found that initiator tRNA(Met) (tRNA(iMet)) was specifically degraded under heat stress. Two exonucleases, Xrn1 and Xrn2, are involved in the degradation of tRNA(iMet) in the cytoplasm and the nucleus, respectively. In addition to degradation, we observed accumulation of tRNA(iMet) in the nucleus. We also found that the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), which regulates tRNA trafficking in yeast, is partially phosphorylated at Ser2448 in the presence of rapamycin and/or during heat stress. Our results suggest phosphorylation of mTOR may correlate with accumulation of tRNA(iMet) in heat-treated HeLa cells.

The conserved U54 in tRNA is often modified to 5-methyluridine (m(5)U) and forms a reverse Hoogsteen base pair with A58 that stabilizes the L-shaped tRNA structure. In Gram-positive and some Gram-negative eubacteria, m(5)U54 is produced by folate/FAD-dependent tRNA (m(5)U54) methyltransferase (TrmFO). TrmFO utilizes N(5),N(10)-methylenetetrahydrofolate (CH(2)THF) as a methyl donor. We previously reported an in vitro TrmFO assay system, in which unstable [(14)C]CH(2)THF was supplied from [(14)C]serine and tetrahydrofolate by serine hydroxymethyltransferase. In the current study, we have improved the TrmFO assay system by optimization of enzyme and substrate concentrations and introduction of a filter assay system. Using this assay, we have focused on the tRNA recognition mechanism of TrmFO. 42 tRNA mutant variants were prepared, and experiments with truncated tRNA and microhelix RNAs revealed that the minimum requirement of TrmFO exists in the T-arm structure. The positive determinants for TrmFO were found to be the U54U55C56 sequence and G53-C61 base pair. The gel mobility shift assay and fluorescence quenching showed that the affinity of TrmFO for tRNA in the initial binding process is weak. The inhibition experiments showed that the methylated tRNA is released before the structural change process. Furthermore, we found that A38 prevents incorrect methylation of U32 in the anticodon loop. Moreover, the m(1)A58 modification clearly accelerates the TrmFO reaction, suggesting a synergistic effect of the m(5)U54, m(1)A58, and s(2)U54 modifications on m(5)s(2)U54 formation in Thermus thermophilus cells. The docking model of TrmFO and the T-arm showed that the G53-C61 base pair is not able to directly contact the enzyme.

International audience; TrmFO is a N(5) , N(10) -methylenetetrahydrofolate (CH2 THF)-/FAD-dependent tRNA methyltransferase, which synthesizes 5-methyluridine at position 54 (m(5) U54) in tRNA. Thermus thermophilus is an extreme-thermophilic eubacterium, which grows in a wide range of temperatures (50-83 °C). In T. thermophilus, modified nucleosides in tRNA and modification enzymes form a network, in which one modification regulates the degrees of other modifications and controls the flexibility of tRNA. To clarify the role of m(5) U54 and TrmFO in the network, we constructed the trmFO gene disruptant (∆trmFO) strain of T. thermophilus. Although this strain did not show any growth retardation at 70 °C, it showed a slow-growth phenotype at 50 °C. Nucleoside analysis showed increase in 2'-O-methylguanosine at position 18 and decrease in N(1) -methyladenosine at position 58 in the tRNA mixture from the ∆trmFO strain at 50 °C. These in vivo results were reproduced by in vitro experiments with purified enzymes. Thus, we concluded that the m(5) U54 modification have effects on the other modifications in tRNA through the network at 50 °C. (35) S incorporations into proteins showed that the protein synthesis activity of ∆trmFO strain was inferior to the wild-type strain at 50 °C, suggesting that the growth delay at 50 °C was caused by the inferior protein synthesis activity.

Thermus thermophilus is a living organism that utilizes changes in the structural rigidity (flexibility) of the tRNA via multiple nucleoside modifications for the adaptation of protein synthesis process depending on environmental changes. Thermus thermophilus grows at a wide range of temperatures (50~83 °C) and can synthesize proteins in response to changes in the temperature. Three distinct modified nucleosides (Gm18, m5s2U54, and m1A58) are found in T. thermophilus tRNA, and the combination of these modifications increased the melting temperature of tRNA by nearly 10 °C. The extents of these modifications were relatively low in tRNA from cells that were cultured at 50 °C but increased with the rise in temperature, indicating that the regulation of protein synthesis was temperature dependent. Several common modifications (e.g., m7G46 and Ψ55) exist in T. thermophilus tRNA in addition to Gm18, m5s2U54, and m1A58. These nucleosides and tRNA modification enzymes form a network, and this network regulates protein synthesis by controlling tRNA flexibility under a wide range of temperatures. In this chapter, we describe the regulation of protein synthesis through the network between modified nucleotides in tRNA and tRNA modification enzymes in T. thermophilus and that the studies on eubacterial tRNA modification enzymes contribute to the medical science.

Pseudouridine at position 55 (Ψ55) in eubacterial tRNA is produced by TruB. To clarify the role of the Ψ55 modification, we constructed a truB gene disruptant (ΔtruB) strain of Thermus thermophilus which is an extreme-thermophilic eubacterium. Unexpectedly, the ΔtruB strain exhibited severe growth retardation at 50 °C. We assumed that these phenomena might be caused by lack of RNA chaperone activity of TruB, which was previously hypothetically proposed by others. To confirm this idea, we replaced the truB gene in the genome with mutant genes, which express TruB proteins with very weak or no enzymatic activity. However the growth retardation at 50 °C was not rescued by these mutant proteins. Nucleoside analysis revealed that Gm18, m(5)s(2)U54 and m(1)A58 in tRNA from the ΔtruB strain were abnormally increased. An in vitro assay using purified tRNA modification enzymes demonstrated that the Ψ55 modification has a negative effect on Gm18 formation by TrmH. These experimental results show that the Ψ55 modification is required for low-temperature adaptation to control other modified. (35)S-Met incorporation analysis showed that the protein synthesis activity of the ΔtruB strain was inferior to that of the wild-type strain and that the cold-shock proteins were absence in the ΔtruB cells at 50°C.

Cell-free translation systems are a powerful tool for the production of many kinds of proteins. However the production of proteins made up of hetero subunits is a major problem. In this study, we selected yeast tRNA (m7G46) methyltransferase (Trm8–Trm82 heterodimer) as a model protein. The enzyme catalyzes a methyl-transfer from S-adenosyl- l -methionine to the N7 atom of guanine at position 46 in tRNA. When Trm8 or Trm82 mRNA were used for cell-free translation, Trm8 and Trm82 proteins could be synthesized. Upon mixing the synthesized Trm8 and Trm82 proteins, no active Trm8–Trm82 heterodimer was produced. Active Trm8–Trm82 heterodimer was only synthesized under conditions, in which both Trm8 and Trm82 mRNAs were co-translated. These results strongly suggest that the association of the Trm8 and Trm82 subunits is translationally controlled in living cells. Kinetic parameters of purified Trm8–Trm82 heterodimer were measured and these showed that the protein has comparable activity to other tRNA methyltransferases. The production of the m7G base at position 46 in tRNA was confirmed by two-dimensional thin layer chromatography and aniline cleavage of the methylated tRNA.

Dihydrouridine (D) is formed by tRNA dihydrouridine synthases (Dus). In mesophiles, multiple Dus enzymes bring about D modifications at several positions in tRNA. The extreme-thermophilic eubacterium Thermus thermophilus, in contrast, has only one dus gene in its genome and only two D modifications (D20 and D20a) in tRNA have been identified. Until now, an in vitro assay system for eubacterial Dus has not been reported. In this study, therefore, we constructed an in vitro assay system using purified Dus. Recombinant T. thermophilus Dus lacking bound tRNA was successfully purified. The in vitro assay revealed that no other factors in living cells were required for D formation. A dus gene disruptant (Δdus) strain of T. thermophilus verified that the two D20 and D20a modifications in tRNA were derived from one Dus protein. The Δdus strain did not show growth retardation at any temperature. The assay system showed that Dus modified tRNA(Phe) transcript at 60°C, demonstrating that other modifications in tRNA are not essential for Dus activity. However, a comparison of the formation of D in native tRNA(Phe) purified from the Δdus strain and tRNA(Phe) transcript revealed that other tRNA modifications are required for D formation at high temperatures.

TrmI generates N(1)-methyladenosine at position 58 (m(1)A58) in tRNA. The Thermus thermophilus tRNA(Phe) transcript was methylated efficiently by T. thermophilus TrmI, whereas the yeast tRNA(Phe) transcript was poorly methylated. Fourteen chimeric tRNA transcripts derived from these two tRNAs revealed that TrmI recognized the combination of aminoacyl stem, variable region, and T-loop. This was confirmed by 10 deletion tRNA variants: TrmI methylated transcripts containing the aminoacyl stem, variable region, and T-arm. The requirement for the T-stem itself was confirmed by disrupting the T-stem. Disrupting the interaction between T- and D-arms accelerated the methylation, suggesting that this disruption is included in part of the reaction. Experiments with 17 point mutant transcripts elucidated the positive sequence determinants C56, purine 57, A58, and U60. Replacing A58 with inosine and 2-aminopurine completely abrogated methylation, demonstrating that the 6-amino group in A58 is recognized by TrmI. T. thermophilus tRNAGGU(Thr)GGU(Thr) contains C60 instead of U60. The tRNAGGU(Thr) transcript was poorly methylated by TrmI, and replacing C60 with U increased the methylation, consistent with the point mutation experiments. A gel shift assay revealed that tRNAGGU(Thr) had a low affinity for TrmI than tRNA(Phe). Furthermore, analysis of tRNAGGU(Thr) purified from the trmI gene disruptant strain revealed that the other modifications in tRNA accelerated the formation of m(1)A58 by TrmI. Moreover, nucleoside analysis of tRNAGGU(Thr) from the wild-type strain indicated that less than 50% of tRNAGG(Thr) contained m(1)A58. Thus, the results from the in vitro experiments were confirmed by the in vivo methylation patterns.

Transfer RNA (N2,N2-guanine)-dimethyltransferase (Trm1) catalyzes N2,N2-dimethylguanine formation at position 26 (m(2)(2)G26) in tRNA. In the reaction, N2-guanine at position 26 (m(2)G26) is generated as an intermediate. The trm1 genes are found only in archaea and eukaryotes, although it has been reported that Aquifex aeolicus, a hyper-thermophilic eubacterium, has a putative trm1 gene. To confirm whether A. aeolicus Trm1 has tRNA methyltransferase activity, we purified recombinant Trm1 protein. In vitro methyl transfer assay revealed that the protein has a strong tRNA methyltransferase activity. We confirmed that this gene product is expressed in living A. aeolicus cells and that the enzymatic activity exists in cell extract. By preparing 22 tRNA transcripts and testing their methyl group acceptance activities, it was demonstrated that this Trm1 protein has a novel tRNA specificity. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that it catalyzes methyl transfers not only to G26 but also to G27 in substrate tRNA. Furthermore, it was confirmed that native tRNA(Cys) has an m(2)(2)G26m(2)G27 or m(2)(2)G26m(2)(2)G27 sequence, demonstrating that these modifications occur in living cells. Kinetic studies reveal that the m2G26 formation is faster than the m(2)G27 formation and that disruption of the G27-C43 base pair accelerates velocity of the G27 modification. Moreover, we prepared an additional 22 mutant tRNA transcripts and clarified that the recognition sites exist in the T-arm structure. This long distance recognition results in multisite recognition by the enzyme.

Transfer RNA (m(7)G46) methyltransferase catalyzes methyl-transfer from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to N(7) atom of the semi-conserved G46 base in tRNA. Aquifex aeolicus is a hyper thermophilic eubacterium that grows at close to 95 degrees C. A. aeolicus tRNA (m(7)G46) methyltransferase [TrmB] has an elongated C-terminal region as compared with mesophilic counterparts. In this study, the authors focused on the functions of this C-terminal region. Analytic gel filtration chromatography and amino acid sequencing reveled that the start point (Glu202) of the C-terminal region is often cleaved by proteases during purification steps and the C-terminal region tightly binds to another subunit even in the presence of 6M urea. Because the C-terminal region contains abundant basic amino acid residues, the authors assumed that some of these residues might be involved in tRNA binding. To address this idea, the authors prepared eight alanine substitution mutant proteins. However, measurements of initial velocities of these mutant proteins suggested that the basic amino acid residues in the C-terminal region are not involved in tRNA binding. The authors investigated effects of the deletion of the C-terminal region. Deletion mutant protein of the C-terminal region (the core protein) was precipitated by incubation at 85 degrees C, while the wild type protein was soluble at that temperature, demonstrating that the C-terminal region contributes to the protein stability at high temperatures. The core protein had a methyl-transfer activity to yeast tRNA(Phe) transcript. Furthermore, the core protein slowly methylated tRNA transcripts, which did not contain G46 base. Moreover, the modified base was identified as m(7)G by two-dimensional thin layer chromatography. Thus, the deletion of the C-terminal region causes nonspecific methylation of N(7) atom of guanine base(s) in tRNA transcripts.

Yeast tRNA (m(7)G46) methyltransferase contains two protein subunits (Trm8 and Trm82). The enzyme catalyzes a methyl-transfer from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to the N(7) atom of guanine at position 46 in tRNA. We deviced synthesis of active Trm8-Trm82 heterodimer in a wheat germ cell-free translation system. When Trm8 or Trm82 mRNA were used for a synthesis, Trm8 or Trm82 protein could be synthesized. Upon mixing the synthesized Trm8 and Trm82 proteins, no active Trm8-Trm82 heterodimer was produced. Active Trm8-Trm82 heterodimer was only synthesized under conditions, in which both Trm8 and Trm82 mRNAs were co-translated. To address the RNA recognition mechanism of the Trm8-Trm82 complex, we investigated methyl acceptance activities of eight truncated yeast tRNA(Phe) transcripts. In this meeting, we demonstrate that yeast Trm8-Trm82 has stricter recognition requirements for the tRNA molecule as compared to the bacterial enzyme, TrmB.

Transfer RNA (m(7)G46) methyltransferase [TrmB] catalyses the transfer of methyl groups from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to the N(7)-atom of guanine at position 46 in tRNA. TrmB proteins from thermophilic bacteria such as Aquifex aeolicus have a long C-terminal region as compared to those from mesophilic bacteria. Further, N-terminal region observed in TrmB proteins from mesophiles is missing in A. aeolicus TrmB. Therefore, we considered that this distinct C-terminal region in A. aeolicus TrmB might compensate the N-terminal region in mesophile TrmB and function as a part of tRNA binding site. To confirm this idea, we deleted the C-terminal region by introduction of the stop codon at position 202. To our surprise, methyl-transfer assay using yeast tRNA(Phe) transcript clearly showed that the resultant mutant protein (Glu202Stop) had an enzymatic activity. Thus, the core domain of the A. aeolicus TrmB has a methyl-transfer activity.

Background & Objectives: Nademanee et al. described CFAE (complex fractionated atrial electrogram) were mainly found in the interatrial septum, pulmonary veins, roof of left atrium, left posteroseptal mitral annulus and coronary sinus ostium, but rarely in right atrium (RA) in atrial fibrillation (af). We attempted to evaluate the efficacy of focal catheter ablation (CA) of focal CFAE in RA in paroxysmal and persistent af. Methods: Three patients (3 males, mean age 65 years) with drug refractory af (2 paroxysmal, 1 persistent) who underwent mapping of CFAE during af and had focal CFAE in RA were studied. Focal CA of focal CFAE in RA were performed to evaluate whether eliminate CFAE and/or convert to sinus rhythm. Results: In all 3 patients, focal CFAE were found in posterior, lateral, inferoposterior wall in RA, respectively. Focal CA of focal CFAE in RA resulted in termination of af. At the 10–45 months follow-up, all patients were free of arrhythmia and symptoms. Conclusion: Mapping of CFAE represent electrophysiologic substrate of af and focal CA of focal CFAE in RA can successfully eliminate af.

Yeast tRNA (m7G46) methyltransferase contains two protein subunits (Trm8 and Trm82). To address the RNA recognition mechanism of the Trm8–Trm82 complex, we investigated methyl acceptance activities of eight truncated yeast tRNAPhe transcripts. Both the D-stem and T-stem structures were required for efficient methyl-transfer. To clarify the role of the D-stem structure, we tested four mutant transcripts, in which tertiary base pairs were disrupted. The tertiary base pairs were important but not essential for the methyl-transfer to yeast tRNAPhe transcript, suggesting that these base pairs support the induced fit of the G46 base into the catalytic pocket.