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Measles virus (MV) Edmonston derivative strains are attractive vector platforms in vaccine development and oncolytic virotherapy. Helicobacter pylori heat shock protein A (HspA) is a bacterial heat shock chaperone with essential function as a Ni-ion scavenging protein. We generated and characterized the immunogenicity of an attenuated MV strain encoding the HspA transgene (MV-HspA). MV-HspA showed faster replication within 48 h of infection with >10-fold higher titers and faster accumulation of the MV proteins. It also demonstrated a superior tumor-killing effect in vitro against a variety of human solid tumor cell lines, including sarcoma, ovarian and breast cancer. Two intraperitoneal (i.p.) doses of 106 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) MV-HspA significantly improved survival in an ovarian cancer xenograft model: 63.5 days versus 27 days for the control group. The HspA transgene induced a humoral immune response in measles-permissive Ifnarko-CD46Ge transgenic mice. Eight of nine animals developed a long-term anti-HspA antibody response with titers of 1:400 to 1:12,800 without any negative impact on development of protective anti-MV immune memory. MV-HspA triggered an immunogenic cytopathic effect as measured by an HMGB1 assay. The absence of significant elevation of PD-L1 expression indicated that vector-encoded HspA could act as an immunomodulator on the immune check point axis. These data demonstrate that MV-HspA is a potent oncolytic agent and vaccine candidate for clinical translation in cancer treatment and immunoprophylaxis against H. pylori.

Clinical immunotherapy approaches are lacking efficacy in the treatment of glioblastoma (GBM). In this study, we sought to reverse local and systemic GBM-induced immunosuppression using the Helicobacter pylori neutrophil-activating protein (NAP), a potent TLR2 agonist, as an immunostimulatory transgene expressed in an oncolytic measles virus (MV) platform, retargeted to allow viral entry through the urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR). While single-agent murine anti-PD1 treatment or repeat in situ immunization with MV-s-NAP-uPA provided modest survival benefit in MV-resistant syngeneic GBM models, the combination treatment led to synergy with a cure rate of 80% in mice bearing intracranial GL261 tumors and 72% in mice with CT-2A tumors. Combination NAP-immunovirotherapy induced massive influx of lymphoid cells in mouse brain, with CD8(+) T cell predominance; therapeutic efficacy was CD8(+) T cell dependent. Inhibition of the IFN response pathway using the JAK1/JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib decreased PD-L1 expression on myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the brain and further potentiated the therapeutic effect of MV-s-NAP-uPA and anti-PD1. Our findings support the notion that MV strains armed with bacterial immunostimulatory antigens represent an effective strategy to overcome the limited efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitor–based therapies in GBM, creating a promising translational strategy for this lethal brain tumor.

Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are engineered and/or evolved to propagate selectively in cancerous tissues. They have a dual mechanism of action; direct killing of infected cancer cells cross-primes anticancer immunity to boost the killing of uninfected cancer cells. The goal of the field is to develop OVs that are easily manufactured, efficiently delivered to disseminated sites of cancer growth, undergo rapid intratumoral spread, selectively kill tumor cells, cause no collateral damage and pose no risk of transmission in the population. Here we discuss the many virus engineering strategies that are being pursued to optimize delivery, intratumoral spread and safety of OVs derived from different virus families. With continued progress, OVs have the potential to transform the paradigm of cancer care.

The infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV; Rhabdoviridae, Novirhabdovirus) infects teleost fish, such as salmon and trout, and is responsible for significant losses in the aquaculture industry and in wild fish populations. Although IHNV enters the host through the skin at the base of the fins, the viral adhesion and entry mechanisms are not fully understood. In recent years, evidence has accumulated in support of the key roles played by protein-carbohydrate interactions between host lectins secreted to the extracellular space and virion envelope glycoproteins in modulating viral adhesion and infectivity. In this study, we assessed in vitro the potential role(s) of zebrafish (Danio rerio) proto type galectin-1 (Drgal1-L2) and a chimera galectin-3 (Drgal3-L1) in IHNV adhesion to epithelial cells. Our results suggest that the extracellular Drgal1-L2 and Drgal3-L1 interact directly and in a carbohydrate-dependent manner with the IHNV glycosylated envelope and glycans on the epithelial cell surface, significantly reducing viral adhesion.

We sought proof of principle that tumor-targeting ligands can be displayed on the surface of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) by engineering its glycoprotein. Here, we successfully rescued VSVs displaying tumor vasculature-targeting ligands. By using a rational approach, we investigated various feasible insertion sites on the G protein of VSV (VSV-G) for display of tumor vasculature-targeting ligands, cyclic RGD (cRGD) and echistatin. We found seven sites on VSV-G that tolerated insertion of the 9-residue cRGD peptide, two of which could tolerate insertion of the 49-amino acid echistatin domain. All of the ligand-displaying viruses replicated as well as the parental virus. In vitro studies demonstrated that the VSV-echistatin viruses specifically bound to targeted integrins. Since the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) was recently identified as a major receptor for VSV, we investigated the entry of ligand-displaying viruses after masking LDLR. The experiment showed that the modified viruses can enter the cell independently of LDLR, whereas entry of unmodified virus is significantly blocked by a specific monoclonal antibody against LDLR. Both parental and ligand-displaying viruses displayed equal oncolytic efficacies in a syngeneic mouse myeloma model. We further demonstrated that single-chain antibody fragments against tumor-specific antigens can be inserted at the N terminus of the G protein and that corresponding replication-competent VSVs can be rescued efficiently. Overall, we demonstrated that functional tumor-targeting ligands can be displayed on replication-competent VSVs without perturbing viral growth and oncolytic efficacy. This study provides a rational foundation for the future development of fully retargeted oncolytic VSVs.

Mumps virus belongs to the family of Paramyxoviridae and has the potential to be an oncolytic agent. Mumps virus Urabe strain had been tested in the clinical setting as a treatment for human cancer four decades ago in Japan. These clinical studies demonstrated that mumps virus could be a promising cancer therapeutic agent that showed significant antitumor activity against various types of cancers. Since oncolytic virotherapy was not in the limelight until the beginning of the 21(st) century, the interest to pursue mumps virus for cancer treatment slowly faded away. Recent success stories of oncolytic clinical trials prompted us to resurrect the mumps virus and to explore its potential for cancer treatment. We have obtained the Urabe strain of mumps virus from Osaka University, Japan, which was used in the earlier human clinical trials. In this report we describe the development of a reverse genetics system from a major isolate of this Urabe strain mumps virus stock, and the construction and characterization of several recombinant mumps viruses with additional transgenes. We present initial data demonstrating these recombinant mumps viruses have oncolytic activity against tumor cell lines in vitro and some efficacy in preliminary pilot animal tumor models.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) and infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) are members of the genus Novirhabdovirus within the Rhabdoviridae family, which can cause severe hemorrhagic disease in fresh- and saltwater fish worldwide. These viruses carry an additional nonvirion (NV) gene, which codes for the nonstructural NV protein that has been implicated to play a role in viral pathogenesis. To determine the precise biological function of this NV gene and its gene product, we generated NV-deficient and NV knockout recombinant VHSVs, using reverse genetics. Comparisons of the replication kinetics and markers for virus-induced apoptosis indicated that the NV-deficient and NV knockout mutant viruses induce apoptosis earlier in cell culture than the wild-type recombinant VHSV. These results suggest that the NV protein has an antiapoptotic function at the early stage of virus infection. Furthermore, we created a chimeric VHSV, in which the NV gene of VHSV was replaced by the IHNV NV gene, which was capable of suppressing apoptosis in cell culture. These results show that the NV protein of other members of Novirhabdovirus can restore the NV protein function. In this study, we also investigated the kinetics of VHSV replication during a single round of viral replication and examined the mechanism of VHSV-induced apoptosis. Our results show that VHSV infection induced caspases 3, 8 and 9 in cell culture.

The delivery of foreign epitopes by a replicating nonpathogenic avian infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) was explored. The aim of the study was to identify regions in the IBDV genome that are amenable to the introduction of a sequence encoding a foreign peptide. By using a cDNA-based reverse genetics system, insertions or substitutions of sequences encoding epitope tags (FLAG, c-Myc, or hepatitis C virus epitopes) were engineered in the open reading frames of a nonstructural protein (VP5) and the capsid protein (VP2). Attempts were also made to generate recombinant IBDV that displayed foreign epitopes in the exposed loops (P BC and P HI ) of the VP2 trimer. We successfully recovered recombinant IBDVs expressing c-Myc and two different virus-neutralizing epitopes of human hepatitis C virus (HCV) envelope glycoprotein E in the VP5 region. Western blot analyses with anti-c-Myc and anti-HCV antibodies provided positive identification of both the c-Myc and HCV epitopes that were fused to the N terminus of VP5. Genetic analysis showed that the recombinants carrying the c-Myc/HCV epitopes maintained the foreign gene sequences and were stable after several passages in Vero and 293T cells. This is the first report describing efficient expression of foreign peptides from a replication-competent IBDV and demonstrates the potential of this virus as a vector.

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) causes highly contagious respiratory or urogenital tract diseases in chickens. The Maryland 27(Md27) strain was first isolated in 1976 from diseased chicken flocks in the Delmarva Peninsula region. To understand the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationship of existing strains with Md27, the complete nucleotide sequence of the 3'end coding region (∼7.2 kb) of Md27 was determined and compared with other IBV strains and coronaviruses. It has the same S-3-M-5-N-3' gene order, as is the case of other IBV strains. The spike gene of Md27 exhibits 97% identity with the SE17 strain. There are deletions at the spike gene, non-coding region between M and 5 genes, and at the 3' untranslated region (UTR), which is different from Ark-like strains. Phylogenetic analysis and sequence alignments demonstrate that Md27 is a chimera containing different gene segments that are most closely related to the SE17, Conn and JMK strains. This current study provides evidence for genomic mutations and intergenic recombination that have taken place in the evolution of IBV strain Md27.

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is the causal agent of infectious bronchitis, which still remains one of the most important poultry diseases worldwide because of numerous serotypes and variants. A virulent strain of IBV, isolated from Arkansas (Ark), was propagated in embryonated eggs (Ark DPI 11). Following 101 serial passages in embryonated eggs, an attenuated strain of IBV was established (Ark DPI 101) that does not induce histopathological lesions in the tracheae of infected chicks. To identify sequence changes responsible for the attenuation of IBV, complete genome sequences of both virulent and attenuated Ark DPI viruses were obtained. Comparison of the genome sequences of the virulent and attenuated Ark DPI viruses reveals that these viruses are similar and differ only by 21 nucleotides, resulting in 17 amino acids changes. Most of those substitutions are located in the replicase 1a and spike genes. No differences were observed in gene 3, M or 5a, and only one nucleotide substitution each was present in 5b, N and 3′UTR. By comparing the deduced amino acid sequences of virulent and attenuated viruses, we identified sequence changes responsible for the adaptation and attenuation of the IBV-Ark DPI strain.

VSV has shown promise as a systemic oncolytic therapy in many preclinical tumor models. However, its stability in blood circulation is largely compromised due to complement-dependent serum neutralization. In this work we have assessed the effect of producer cell type on serum neutralization of VSV. We show that VSV produced from HeLa cells is resistance to neutralization with non-immune human serum as compared to VSV produced from other cell lines tested (Vero, 3T3, 293, and BHK cell lines). We show that this resistance is associated with decay-accelerating factor (DAF or CD55) expression in HeLa cells as the other cell lines tested did not express detectable levels of CD55. Furthermore, using a recombinant VSV expressing full length human CD55, we show that CD55 expressing VSV is more resistant to neutralization with non-immune human serum as compared to the parental VSV that doesn't express CD55. Currently, we are characterizing Vero cell lines that stably express human CD55 and the VSV produced from these cell lines. We are also generating suspension 293 cell lines stably expressing human CD55 that we plan to use for large scale VSV production.

Because of its very low human seroprevalence, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) has promise as a systemic oncolytic agent for human cancer therapy. However, as demonstrated in this report, the VSV infectious titer drops by 4 log units during the first hour of exposure to nonimmune human serum. This neutralization occurs relatively slowly and is mediated by the concerted actions of natural IgM and complement. Maraba virus, whose G protein is about 80% homologous to that of VSV, is relatively resistant to the neutralizing activity of nonimmune human serum. We therefore constructed and rescued a recombinant VSV whose G gene was replaced by the corresponding gene from Maraba virus. Comparison of the parental VSV and VSV with Maraba G substituted revealed nearly identical host range properties and replication kinetics on a panel of tumor cell lines. Moreover, in contrast to the parental VSV, the VSV with Maraba G substituted was resistant to nonimmune human serum. Overall, our data suggest that VSV with Maraba G substituted should be further investigated as a candidate for human systemic oncolytic virotherapy applications. IMPORTANCE Oncolytic virotherapy is a promising approach for the treatment of disseminated cancers, but antibody neutralization of circulating oncolytic virus particles remains a formidable barrier. In this work, we developed a pseudotyped vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) with a glycoprotein of Maraba virus, a closely related but serologically distinct member of the family Rhabdoviridae , which demonstrated greatly diminished susceptibility to both nonimmune and VSV-immune serum neutralization. VSV with Maraba G substituted or lentiviral vectors should therefore be further investigated as candidates for human systemic oncolytic virotherapy and gene therapy applications.

Betanodaviruses are causative agents of viral nervous necrosis (VNN), a devastating disease of cultured marine fish worldwide. Betanodavirus (BTN) genome is composed of two single-stranded, positive-sense RNA molecules. The larger genomic segment, RNA1 (3.1 kb), encodes the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, while the smaller genomic segment, RNA 2 (1.4kb), encodes the coat protein. This structural protein is the host-protective antigen of VNN which assembles to form virus-like particles (VLPs). BTNs are classified into four genotypes, designated red-spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV), barfin flounder nervous necrosis virus (BFNNV), tiger puffer nervous necrosis virus (TPNNV), and striped jack nervous necrosis virus (SJNNV), based on phylogenetic analysis of the coat protein sequences. RGNNV type is quite important as it has a broad host-range, infecting warm-water fish species. At present, there is no commercial vaccine available to prevent VNN in fish. The general goal of this research was to develop oral fish vaccines in yeast and red microalgae (Porphyridium sp.) against the RGNNV genotype. To achieve this, we planned to clone and sequence the coat protein gene of RGNNV, express the coat protein gene of RGNNV in yeast and red microalgae and evaluate the immune response in fish fed with recombinantVLPs antigens produced in yeast and algae. The collaboration between the Israeli group and the US group, having wide experience in red microalgae biochemistry, molecular genetics and large-scale cultivation, and the development of viral vaccines and eukaryotic protein expression systems, respectively, was synergistic to produce a vaccine for fish that would be cost-effective and efficacious against the betanodavirus infection.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), belonging to the genus Novirhabdovirus in the family of Rhabdoviridae, causes a highly contagious disease of fresh and saltwater fish worldwide. Recently, a novel genotype of VHSV, designated IVb, has invaded the Great Lakes in North America, causing large-scale epidemics in wild fish. An efficient reverse genetics system was developed to generate a recombinant VHSV of genotype IVb from cloned cDNA. The recombinant VHSV (rVHSV) was comparable to the parental wild-type strain both in vitro and in vivo, causing high mortality in yellow perch (Perca flavescens). A modified recombinant VHSV was generated in which the NV gene was substituted with an enhanced green fluorescent protein gene (rVHSV-ΔNV-EGFP), and another recombinant was made by inserting the EGFP gene into the full-length viral clone between the P and M genes (rVHSV-EGFP). The in vitro replication kinetics of rVHSV-EGFP was similar to rVHSV; however, the rVHSV-ΔNV-EGFP grew 2 logs lower. In yellow perch challenges, wtVHSV and rVHSV induced 82–100% cumulative per cent mortality (CPM), respectively, whereas rVHSV-EGFP produced 62% CPM and rVHSV-ΔNV-EGFP caused only 15% CPM. No reversion of mutation was detected in the recovered viruses and the recombinant viruses stably maintained the foreign gene after several passages. These results indicate that the NV gene of VHSV is not essential for viral replication in vitro and in vivo, but it plays an important role in viral replication efficiency and pathogenicity. This system will facilitate studies of VHSV replication, virulence, and production of viral vectored vaccines.

Background Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) is the type species of the genus Novirhabdovirus, within the family Rhabdoviridae, infecting several species of wild and hatchery reared salmonids. Similar to other rhabdoviruses, IHNV has a linear single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome of approximately 11,000 nucleotides. The IHNV genome encodes six genes; the nucleocapsid, phosphoprotein, matrix protein, glycoprotein, non-virion protein and polymerase protein genes, respectively. This study describes molecular characterization of the virulent IHNV strain 220-90, belonging to the M genogroup, and its phylogenetic relationships with available sequences of IHNV isolates worldwide. Results The complete genomic sequence of IHNV strain 220-90 was determined from the DNA of six overlapping clones obtained by RT-PCR amplification of genomic RNA. The complete genome sequence of 220-90 comprises 11,133 nucleotides (GenBank GQ413939) with the gene order of 3'-N-P-M-G-NV-L-5'. These genes are separated by conserved gene junctions, with di-nucleotide gene spacers. An additional uracil nucleotide was found at the end of the 5'-trailer region, which was not reported before in other IHNV strains. The first 15 of the 16 nucleotides at the 3'- and 5'-termini of the genome are complementary, and the first 4 nucleotides at 3'-ends of the IHNV are identical to other novirhadoviruses. Sequence homology and phylogenetic analysis of the glycoprotein genes show that 220-90 strain is 97% identical to most of the IHNV strains. Comparison of the virulent 220-90 genomic sequences with less virulent WRAC isolate shows more than 300 nucleotides changes in the genome, which doesn't allow one to speculate putative residues involved in the virulence of IHNV. Conclusion We have molecularly characterized one of the well studied IHNV isolates, 220-90 of genogroup M, which is virulent for rainbow trout, and compared phylogenetic relationship with North American and other strains. Determination of the complete nucleotide sequence is essential for future studies on pathogenesis of IHNV using a reverse genetics approach and developing efficient control strategies.

Reverse genetics system is a powerful tool to study the function of a particular gene. The currently available reverse genetics system for Novirhabdovirus is based on vaccinia-driven T7 RNA polymerase expression. An improved system for the recovery of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) was developed which utilizes cellular RNA polymerase II machinery for transcription. A full-length cDNA clone of IHNV, flanked by hammerhead ribozyme and hepatitis delta ribozyme sequences, was assembled in an expression plasmid under the control of a cytomegalovirus promoter. Transfection of this full-length plasmid along with the supporting plasmids (N, P, NV and L) into epithelioma papulosum cyprini cells resulted in the recovery of a viable recombinant IHNV (rIHNV). The authenticity of rIHNV was confirmed by the presence of restriction sites introduced artificially in the genome. A recombinant IHNV expressing a foreign gene - enhanced green fluorescent protein - was also recovered. The recovered IHNVs showed similar growth characteristics as the parental IHNV in cell cultures. Challenge of susceptible rainbow trout with wild-type IHNV and rIHNV induced clinical disease signs indistinguishable from the parental strain and produced mortality. Thus, a vaccinia-virus-free reverse genetics system described for IHNV is applicable for the recovery of any Novirhabdovirus, which will facilitate studies on viral pathogenesis and the design of new generation of viral vectored vaccines.

Background Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is a highly contagious viral disease of fresh and saltwater fish worldwide. VHSV caused several large scale fish kills in the Great Lakes area and has been found in 28 different host species. The emergence of VHS in the Great Lakes began with the isolation of VHSV from a diseased muskellunge (Esox masquinongy) caught from Lake St. Clair in 2003. VHSV is a member of the genus Novirhabdovirus, within the family Rhabdoviridae. It has a linear single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome of approximately 11 kbp, with six genes. VHSV replicates in the cytoplasm and produces six monocistronic mRNAs. The gene order of VHSV is 3'-N-P-M-G-NV-L-5'. This study describes molecular characterization of the Great Lakes VHSV strain (MI03GL), and its phylogenetic relationships with selected European and North American isolates. Results The complete genomic sequences of VHSV-MI03GL strain was determined from cloned cDNA of six overlapping fragments, obtained by RT-PCR amplification of genomic RNA. The complete genome sequence of MI03GL comprises 11,184 nucleotides (GenBank GQ385941) with the gene order of 3'-N-P-M-G-NV-L-5'. These genes are separated by conserved gene junctions, with di-nucleotide gene spacers. The first 4 nucleotides at the termini of the VHSV genome are complementary and identical to other novirhadoviruses genomic termini. Sequence homology and phylogenetic analysis show that the Great Lakes virus is closely related to the Japanese strains JF00Ehi1 (96%) and KRRV9822 (95%). Among other novirhabdoviruses, VHSV shares highest sequence homology (62%) with snakehead rhabdovirus. Conclusion Phylogenetic tree obtained by comparing 48 glycoprotein gene sequences of different VHSV strains demonstrate that the Great Lakes VHSV is closely related to the North American and Japanese genotype IVa, but forms a distinct genotype IVb, which is clearly different from the three European genotypes. Molecular characterization of the Great Lakes isolate will be helpful in studying the pathogenesis of VHSV using a reverse genetics approach and developing efficient control strategies.

An infectious bronchitis virus Arkansas DPI (Ark DPI) virulent strain was sequenced, analyzed and compared with many different IBV strains and coronaviruses. The genome of Ark DPI consists of 27,620 nucleotides, excluding poly (A) tail, and comprises ten open reading frames. Comparative sequence analysis of Ark DPI with other IBV strains shows striking similarity to the Conn, Gray, JMK, and Ark 99, which were circulating during that time period. Furthermore, comparison of the Ark genome with other coronaviruses demonstrates a close relationship to turkey coronavirus. Among non-structural genes, the 5'untranslated region (UTR), 3C-like proteinase (3CLpro) and the polymerase (RdRp) sequences are 100% identical to the Gray strain. Among structural genes, S1 has 97% identity with Ark 99; S2 has 100% identity with JMK and 96% to Conn; 3b 99%, and 3C to N is 100% identical to Conn strain. Possible recombination sites were found at the intergenic region of spike gene, 3'end of S1 and 3a gene. Independent recombination events may have occurred in the entire genome of Ark DPI, involving four different IBV strains, suggesting that genomic RNA recombination may occur in any part of the genome at number of sites. Hence, we speculate that the Ark DPI strain originated from the Conn strain, but diverged and evolved independently by point mutations and recombination between field strains.

The galectin family of β-galactoside-binding proteins is evolutionarily conserved. Galectins are known to interact with and affect the infectivity and/or pathogenicity of several viruses. We hypothesize that galectin interactions with viruses influence anti-viral immune responses. We investigate the interactions of zebrafish galectins with the glycosylated (G) protein of the rhabdovirus IHNV. We (a) characterized the carbohydrates present on IHNV proteins, and (b) identified direct interactions between zebrafish galectins (Drgal) and IHNV. We assessed the effects of immune challenge on (c) galectin and (d) cytokine expression in zebrafish. Several IHNV proteins exhibit complex glycosylation patterns. One or multiple IHNV proteins exhibit terminally linked mannose, sialic acid terminally linked to galactose, galactose-β(1-3)-GalNAc, sialic acid terminally linked to galactose or GalNAc, and galactose-β(1-4)-GlcNAc. The proto type Drgal1-L2, the chimera type Drgal3-L1 and the tandem-repeat type Drgal9-L2 all appear to bind to one or more IHNV proteins. All tested Drgal appear to bind to the IHNV G protein. ZFL cells endogenously express mRNA encoding Drgal1-L2, -L3, and -L4, Drgal3-L1 and -L2, and Drgal9-L1 mRNA. Drgal mRNA expression in ZFL cells was not induced by treatment with polyI:C. ZFL cells were found to endogenously express mRNA encoding Mx, TNFα, and IFNαβ. Treatment of these cells with polyI:C induced the expression of mRNA encoding IL-10 and IFNγ2.