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Aims to facilitate the work of researchers studying problems/phenomena in social systems from a systemic point of view. Discusses the type of causal processes which exist in social systems and how patterns in social systems can be revealed. Presents four causal processes: historical, functional, cybernetic and pattern. Typologizes pattern processes into the four categories of empirical generalizations, models, theories and social laws. Elaborates on the relationship between models and theories relative to systemic research strategy.

Considers the question: how can we study organizational fields from a systemic angle of incidence? First determines what is meant by a systemic perspective, and then what is meant by an organizational field. Designs a superior methodological scheme, where the main entities in the systemic approach are clarified. Looks at the underlying process for each of the main entities in the research scheme. Develops a systemic research strategy for the study of organizational fields.

The article presents an explorative research study, where the questions were: where, how, and why do innovative small-company managers look for external information? The context we chose was Norwegian firms operating in Russia. Our empirical findings corroborate the dichotomy between the external information search of innovative and non-innovative small companies. As a reply to the question of how innovative small-company managers look for external information, our results show that they sense data in a combination of knowledge building, in addition to being very patient and focusing on developing personal networks. As an answer to the question of where they look for external information, it appears from our results that they make extensive contact with personal networks, basing their decisions on external feedback from the 'field' and from co-operators in which they have trust. As an answer to the question of why they look for external information, our studies point out that it is for planning, relationship building and to get an idea of the relation between technology, the need for competence and market information.

The purpose of this article is to design the basic features of an information and communication system in order to promote organisational learning. The purpose is, further, to categorise the concept of learning to prevent errors of categorisation in connection with organisational learning. The article is, in accordance with this purpose, clearly normative. First, we weave together parallel currents in organisational learning, by referring to sources influencing these currents. We categorise three currents of learning: the system-theoretical, the classical school of learning, and the strategic school of learning. Our contribution is linked mainly to the system-theoretical school of learning. We then develop basic features of an information system aimed at the promotion of organisational learning. Then we discuss basic features of a communication policy, also focused on organisational learning. Finally, we categorise organisational learning at four levels.

Describes a research project to identify an information search pattern among entrepreneurs so that agencies devoted to the promotion of new business might allocate their resources more effectively. Sources of information used by entrepreneurs were divided into five categories: family and friends, business relations, public agencies, professional advisers and books and other written sources of information. Suggests in light of the findings that professional advisors and public agencies should actively seek information and contact their target group rather than passively supply information when approached.

The literature widely argues that there is a strong and positive causal relationship between the entrepreneur’s abilities and post start-up success. Hence, implying that founders with limited abilities are likely to be at a greater disadvantage due to these very inabilities. However, even though the advantages of their abilities may appear as intuitively obvious, there exists a lack of well developed theoretical foundations to the causal link between the entrepreneurs ability and future venture performance. The paper is based on a literature review on the relationship between ability and future venture performance. The starting point stems from the notion of entrepreneurial learning, and we ask the question “What is entrepreneurial learning and how do abilities acquired through learning affect the future performance of a new firm? Using learning theory, we try to outline possible directions. We then review the entrepreneurial literature linking it with education, managerial experience, start-up experience, and industry experience. In conclusion we design a causal model which integrates the literature review on entrepreneurial ability and learning theory, with respect to future venture performance.

This is a Case Study of a medium-sized firm, called (anonymously) Net, Located on the north coast of Norway in an area known for its fishing industry. Net is involved in fishing — its production and sales. Until recently, Net was on the verge of bankruptcy, but following an alliance with a Russian firm, achieved a substantial surplus in relation to its size. Net's top manager has stated that the firm's competitive edge has been sharpened by its alliance with the Russians. Net is the only Norwegian company known to have created an alliance of this kind with a Russian firm in the fishing industry. The research in this article centres around finding out what processes are the most effective in an intelligence search in Russia. The results identify three processes: trust-conducive, relationship and integration.

Identifies critical innovation factors (CIF) linked to information technology (IT). First, identifies the various trends in research and how they relate to each other in terms of IT and organizational change processes. Then identifies and discusses five elements regarded as crucial for the relation between IT and innovation. These are: the change agent′s role, organizational culture, management style, the market, co‐ordination and service. For each of these elements CIF is identified in relation to IT. Concludes by systematizing the various CIF in relation to the five elements in a coherent framework.

The intention of this paper is to look at different relationships that can occur between people in a network. These relationships have to be anticipated by managers in order to diagnose and elaborate relationships that fit into the context of their organization. The development of a relationship matrix creates the foundation for analyzing and understanding relationships in a network. Third-order cybernetics is seen as the relationship which exists between the observers in a network. A cognitive approach is developed that aims at analyzing the link among relational properties, communication, and organizational change processes.

Organizational performance is closely related to the features of the information system of an organization. Sterkoder Ltd changed its organizational structure in 1989 to increase productivity in the shipyard. Eighty per cent of its employees were rehired and retrained in 1989. The company focused on a flatter organization with an information system to link the corporation, which resulted in a better working logistics between the different units. In this process the number of middle managers was decreased by 65 per cent. This was carried out in an agreement between the top management and the trade union for the blue collar workers. The total result was an increase in productivity by 34 per cent from 1989 to 1991. A further increase of 20 per cent is planned for 1992-1993 and a productivity gain of 3 per cent has been achieved in the first quarter of 1992. Based on the requirements specified in Drucker's 1989 book. The New Realties, the efforts of reorganizing a Norwegian is interpreted in terms of the relationships between patterns of communication, intraorganizational variability, political alliances and economic performance. Crucial properties of an 'information-intensive organization' are discussed with an emphasis on the vital impact of the ecology of communicative routines with regard to organizational performance in organizations in transition.

Describes an innovative marketing strategy of a Norwegian shipyard gaining access to the Russian market and explains its use of innovation theory as a framework. Explains why the shipyard gained a productivity growth of 34 per cent in 1989‐91 and is expecting a further 20 per cent increase in 1992‐93, which may be mainly due to the market orientation of the shipyard. Develops a model for grouping measures of innovativeness and suggests that the main reasons for change are in the total quality management programmes, organizational networking and market‐oriented project management. The coalition for change in the company includes the trade union and top management, while the coalition against change comprises middle management and local private business. The first want to keep the organization market driven, while the latter want to keep the organization “as it is”. It is a classic fight between a market‐driven management and a state‐driven management style. Sterkoder Ltd had to understand that the market gives the direction – and not the state‐supported policy.

Discusses possible future approaches to questions of industrial organization. Suggests a meta‐model of an organization producing goods which combines the information requirements of management and control functions and critical requirements of a holographic (heterarchic) organization. Suggests a conceptual framework that provides a method of linking information and communication. Makes a distinction between information‐network organization and communication‐network organization. Discusses various architectural designs in terms of how their properties can serve the governing mechanism of the organization. Argues that synergetic effects are, ideally, optimized through fully integrated communication networks. Also discusses advantages gained through the use of communication‐related technology with the aim of shortening idea‐to‐product time‐cycles. The questions of architectural design and the technological options cannot be treated separately or extracted from the organizational context. Successful implementation of such technology is dependent on simultaneous development of high‐level “communicative competence”, i.e. the ability to create and convey metaphoric knowledge in ways that enhance the holographic qualities of the organization.

To most organizations in competitive markets, continuously improving organizational performance is a precondition for survival. Efforts to reorganize may, in most instances, be seen as attempts to overcome the detrimental effects of the traditional hierarchical organization. In the present study, the process of reorganizing is seen as an attempt to enhance the potential level of performance in lieu of the heterarchical, or brain metaphor. Based on observations at a Norwegian shipyard undergoing major changes, central characteristics of a heterarchical model of organization are suggested and discussed.

A model is developed to meet some of the criteria for a holographic-heterarchica) organization. The model is intended to be used as a reference model at the meta level, integrating the work of J. G. Miller, S. Beer, and R, L. Ackqff. The primary objective is to design a holographic organization that can learn, adapt, create, and change in conjunction with rapid changes in the environment.

Tacit knowledge is recognized as playing a key role in determining the extent to which companies are able to create and sustain competitive advantages. However, investments in ICT may lead to a de-emphasizing of tacit knowledge with devastating consequences. Emerging empirical evidence have indicated a lack of support for the positive economic impact of investments ICT. We have argued that this may be due to the mismanagement of knowledge. This mismanagement is first of all created by an imbalance between the emphasis on tacit- and explicit knowledge, often manifested trough firms ICT-strategies prior to investing in ICT. A central point in this is article the focus on establishing the right balance between tacit and explicit knowledge. Central in our argument is the creation of a learning loop where by continuos innovation enhance a higher level of learning by doing-using-, experimenting-, and interacting, creating a positive spiral. To create such learning loop, there is a need to link the company’s tacit knowledge to the company’s external knowledge base by the use of ICT. However, this need to be accompanied by a sensitivity to change and the creation of external meeting places, in order to promote innovation, which in turn promotes performance and enhances a higher level of learning by doing-, using, experimenting—and interacting. The learning loop also improve the company’s sustainable competitive advantages, by limiting competitors possibilities for imitation (througha higher level of tacit knowledge), and by increasing continuous improvements, innovation and performance.

The focus on knowledge as a productive resource for innovation, economic growth, in addition to the productivity of the knowledge workers, has received increasing attention during the 90s. The persons who have discussed this theme extensively have been, among others, Toffler (1990), Reich (1991), Quinn (1992), Drucker (1993), Archibagi & Michie (1995) in addition to Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995) and Barton (1995). Clear research findings from, among others, Von Hippel (1988:5) indicate that companies performing innovative activities display greater earning power than companies which do not innovate. Furthermore research (European Commission, 1995, table 29: 26) indicates a correlation leading up to a conclusion that smaller companies are more dependent on external sources to develop innovation, than larger companies.

Schumpeter’s view of the conditions for developing innovation changed from a very early view (Schumpeter, 1934) of the entrepreneur as the motor of innovation processes, to a later notion (Schumpeter, 1942), where he strongly emphasised the collective process constituted by the R & D activities. Through the concept national innovation systems, Lundvall (1988; 1992) and Nelson (1993), among others, further developed Schumpeter’s view of innovation as an interactive process. Our contribution in this article is also at the collective level, but contrary to Lundvall and Nelson, we do not view the collective prerequisites which have to exist in the individual company in order for innovation processes to occur. It is systemst working in an interactive process which will constitute our focus of attention.

The question we want to shed light on in this article is: How can we study organisational fields from a systemic angle of incidence?

Surveys existing literature pertaining to the role of communication and information in generating innovation in organizations, aiming to organize innovation literature, coupled with information and communication in organizations, around critical innovation factors in the various phases of the information process, and asking, principally, what critical innovation factors, coupled with information and communication, exist in the various phases of an innovation process? Finally, systematizes the literature in a model displaying CIF in relation to the above question.

An epistemological hierarchy of system levels are discussed to uncover the premises and presuppositions that lie behind every observer observing a system. Theese assumptions etc. will lead the observer when observing a system.