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Les micro-organismes sont indispensables à la production d’aliments fermentés traditionnels comme le pain, le fromage, le yaourt, la bière ou le vin, mais les enzymes et les additifs qu’ils produisent sont aussi largement utilisés de nos jours dans une importante quantité d’autres produits alimentaires.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the relative impact of 12 odour-active compounds on the odours of three different non-processed semi-hard kinds of cheese using a combination of different odour stimulation tools. Based on a previous study, eight odorants were identified as contributors to the basic odour of the cheeses, and four additional odorants were identified as contributors to the specificity of each cheese. The eight basic odorants were dispatched into four vessels of an olfactometer, which delivered mixtures following a Box-Behnken design. Each odour mixture was compared with each real cheese odour based on a direct similarity rating. An optimal basic composition of the four olfactometer vessels for each of the three cheeses was obtained. One vessel that contained a mixture of four odorants significantly impacted the odour similarity scores; thus, the four odorants (3-methyl butane-1-ol, butanoic acid, 3-methylbutanoic acid and dimethyl trisulphide) were individually tested along with four additional odorants (2,3-dimethyl pyrazine, benzaldehyde, methyl 2-methyl-3-furyl disulphide and gamma heptalactone) in a second experiment using the olfactoscan technique. A paired comparison between real cheese odours and the odour mixtures delivered by the olfactometer combined with odorants eluted from a gas-chromatograph indicated that dimethyl trisulphide primarily contributed to one of the cheese odours and butanoic acid contributed to another cheese odour. Gamma heptalactone had a positive impact, whereas benzaldehyde and 1-octen-3-one had a negative impact, on the similarity between the recombined odour and the odour of the third cheese. This original approach is a promising tool for the reformulation of food aromas.

Chymosin is the major enzyme used in cheesemaking but latex enzymes are also used. The aim of this work was to characterize the composition and the structure of dairy gel obtained by an extract of Calotropis procera leaves in comparison with those obtained by chymosin. The biochemical and mineral compositions of the curds and the cheese yields obtained by using Calotropis procera extract or chymosin were relatively similar. Quantitative and qualitative evaluations of proteolysis after milk coagulation, determined by the non-protein nitrogen content and chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, indicated that Calotropis procera extract was more proteolytic than chymosin and that κ-casein was proteolyzed. The main consequence of proteolysis by Calotropis procera extract or chymosin was the formation of a similar and regular network with the presence of aggregates of casein micelles. These results support that Calotropis procera extract can be used as effective coagulant in cheesemaking.

In Press; The milking of Salers cows requires the presence of the calf. The removal of the calf would simplify the milking routine, but it could also modify the milk yield and the milk and cheese composition. Therefore, the aim of this experiment was to evaluate the effect of calf presence during milking during sampling period (winter or grazing periods), on dairy performance, milk fatty acid (FA) composition, lipolysis and cheese yield and composition. Nine and 8 Salers lactating cows were milked in the presence (CP) or absence (CA) of their calves respectively. During winter, the cows were fed a hay-based diet and then they only grazed a grassland pasture. Calf presence during milking increased milk yield and milk 16:0 concentration and decreased milk fat content and milk total odd- and branched-chain FA (OBCFA) concentrations. Calf presence only increased initial lipolysis in milk collected during the winter season. Milk from CP cows compared to CA cows resulted in a lower cheese yield and ripened cheeses with lower fat content. Milk from the grazing season had lower saturated medium-chain FA and OBCFA concentrations and higher 18:0, cis-9-18:1, trans-11-18:1 and cis-9, trans-11-CLA concentrations than that from the winter season. Initial milk lipolysis was higher in the winter than in the grazing season. These variations could be due to seasonal changes in the basal diet. Furthermore, the effect of calf presence during milking on milk fat composition was lower than that on dairy performance, cheese yield and composition. Removing the calf during the milking of Salers cows seems feasible without a decrease in milked milk, and with a positive effect on cheese yield and fat content, under the condition that we are able to select cows having the capacity to be milked easily without the calf.

L’origine des produits alimentaires et en particulier la référence au terroir est devenue le support d’une segmentation importante dans l’offre proposée aux consommateurs. Cet article propose une revue de la littérature précisant les mécanismes à l’œuvre dans la perception et l’attitude des consommateurs vis-à-vis des produits de terroir avec un focus particulier sur les fromages de terroir issus de filières organisées. Après rappel du cadre conceptuel, cette synthèse développe les sources perçues du terroir par le consommateur, l’apport de la région d’origine et leurs effets sur la qualité, l’attitude et la préférence du produit. Ceci est complété par l’analyse des effets des labels ainsi que les facteurs de variation pouvant impacter la perception. La préférence pour le produit est fonction de la perception des attributs du produit, elle-même significativement influencée par l’image régionale spécifique du produit et par l’attitude envers la région d’origine. L’image spécifique des produits de la région d’origine intègre deux dimensions dont les composantes sont les facteurs humains (temps-culture) et les facteurs d’environnement naturel. La combinaison de ces deux dimensions correspond à une notion de terroir. Son effet est principalement cognitif et spécifique au produit considéré (nécessité de congruence). L’attitude envers la région d’origine quant à elle, influence les préférences de manière directe à travers un processus affectif. Ces résultats sont à modérer selon les produits étudiés, leurs caractéristiques et au regard des différents consommateurs. Enfin cet article soulève des pistes d’actions marketing pour appuyer le développement de ces produits de manière cohérente avec les attentes des consommateurs., Food products origin and specifically “terroir” (regional products) has become a powerful segmentation factor of foods offered to consumers. This article provides a literature review detailing the mechanisms that influence consumer perception and attitude towards “terroir” products with a focus on “terroir” cheeses from organized sectors. After recalling the conceptual framework, this synthesis develops the perceived sources of the “terroir” by the consumer, the contribution of the region of origin and their effects on food quality, on attitude and preference toward the product. This is supplemented by the study of the impact of labels and also the factors impacting perception. The preference for the product depends on the perception of product attributes, which itself is significantly influenced by a specific regional image of the product and the attitude towards the region of origin. The specific image of region of origin products integrates two dimensions whose components are the human factors (time-culture) and factors of the natural environment. The combination of these two dimensions corresponds to a notion of terroir. Its effect is primarily cognitive and specifically to the product (need of congruence) while attitudes toward region of origin have a direct influence on preferences through an affective process. These results vary according to the nature and attributes of the studied products, and they are closely linked to consumers' characteristics. Finally, this article suggests possible marketing actions to support the development of these products consistently with consumers’ expectations.

Suivi et intérêt de la mesure du potentiel d'oxydo-réduction en transformation laitière

Enzymatic hydrolysis (lipolysis) of milk glycerides to free fatty acids is essential for flavor development in cheese. The principal lipolytic agents in cheese include lipoprotein lipase from raw milk, pregastric esterase in cheeses made using rennet paste, and enzymes from the starter and nonstarter microbiota. Lactic acid bacteria are weakly lipolytic and mainly possess nonlipolytic esterases located intracellularly. Lipolysis level is, thus, low in many internal bacterially ripened cheeses. It is higher in certain varieties, such as Swiss cheese, smear-ripened, and particularly mold-ripened cheeses, in which specific lipolytic secondary microbiota develops. Exogenous lipases are occasionally used to develop flavor. Short-chain fatty acids directly contribute to flavor, but fatty acids can also act as precursors for the production of a wide range of other flavor compounds, such as esters, lactones, and methylketones that are associated with diverse flavors. Methods for determining levels of fatty acids are also discussed. Fil: Thierry, Anne. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Francia Fil: Collins, Yvonne F.. Teagasc Food Research Centre; Irlanda Fil: Abeijon Mukdsi, Maria Claudia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos; Argentina. Universidad del Norte Santo Tomás de Aquino; Argentina Fil: McSweeney, Paul LH.. University College. School of Food and Nutritional Sciences; Irlanda Fil: Wilkinson, Martin G.. University of Limerick; Irlanda Fil: Spinnler, Henri E.. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Francia

Les bactéries croissent en formant des colonies dans les aliments fermentés, comme dans les fromages où les bactéries lactiques sont immobilisées lors de la coagulation du lait. Pour mieux comprendre la physiologie et le métabolisme bactérien in situ, nous avons développé des approches novatrices, à l’échelle microscopique, pour explorer les interactions entre la colonie bactérienne et la matrice. Nous avons utilisé un fromage modèle ensemencé en une souche de Lactococcus lactis, pour lequel nous avons caractérisé la distribution spatiale des colonies, i.e. leur nombre et leur taille, et ses conséquences sur les réactions pendant le processus d’affinage, notamment la protéolyse. Nous avons également déterminé quel était le micro-environnement de la colonie bactérienne en termes de pH et de diffusion des solutés dans la matrice et dans les colonies. La distribution spatiale des colonies a été quantifiée pour la première fois dans un fromage modèle. La même population finale est obtenue quelle que soit la population initiale, mais la distribution diffère : plus la population initiale est faible, plus les colonies sont grosses et distantes, et vice-versa, à population initiale élevée, les colonies sont petites et proches. Pour deux distributions spatiales de la même population de L. lactis sous forme de petites ou de grosses colonies (3.107 petites colonies/g de 4 µm de rayon ou 2.105 grosses colonies de 25 µm de rayon), le taux de croissance, la vitesse d’acidification et la survie de L. lactis étaient les mêmes. La distribution spatiale des colonies de L. lactis n’influençait que de façon modérée la cinétique d’affinage, avec notamment une accélération de la protéolyse pour la population distribuée en petites colonies. Concernant le micro-environnement, aucun micro-gradient de pH n’est observé autour des colonies de L. lactis, quelle que soit leur taille dans la gamme couverte et ii) des solutés de très haute masse moléculaire (dextrans jusqu’à 2000 kDa) diffusent dans les matrices fromagères et les colonies bactériennes. Par contre, la diffusion de protéines laitières est ralentie dans les matrices fromagères en raison de leur rigidité et leur charge, et elles ne diffusent pas dans les colonies. Ces résultats suggèrent que le métabolisme des colonies dans le fromage se rapproche de celui des bactéries en culture planctonique, alors que la plupart des travaux étudiant les colonies, majoritairement conduits sur des « macro-colonies » de rayon supérieur à 200 µm, montrent un changement de métabolisme et la détection de micro-gradients de pH dans et autour des colonies.

Fried ripened curd cheese is a traditional dairy product from the Wielkopolska region of Poland. It is made from cows’ milk and has Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) status. The aim of this study was to use the microbial-culture-independent PCR-DGGE technique to examine whether a link exists between the fungal community present in the product and the geographical origin of the cheese. To look for correlations between the geographical origin and the microbiota composition, the DGGE fingerprinting profiles were subjected to a multivariate analysis, which included k-means clustering and principal component analysis (PCA). The dominant eukaryotic community of this traditional product, which has been investigated here for the first time, was shown to be composed of Galactomyces geotrichum, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Pichia kudriavzevii, Candida inconspicua, and Trichosporon spp. Our results demonstrated that PCR-DGGE is a simple and relatively inexpensive method for the traceability of Wielkopolska fried cheese and could be extended to other microbe-enriched foodstuffs., This research project was supported by grant No. 2011/01/N/NZ9/04558 from the National Science Centre, Poland.

Esters are important flavour-active compounds in cheese and result from the activity of cheese bacteria. The bacteria and reactions involved, however are still largely unknown, with two main mechanisms, alcoholysis or esterification, potentially involved in ester synthesis from different precursors. The aim of this study was to compare the potential for ester synthesis via different reactions in ripening bacteria. Four strains, one Lactobacillus fermentum, one L. casei, and two Propionibacterium freudenreichii, were tested as growing cultures and cell-free extracts (CFE) for their capacity to synthesise ethyl butanoate (EtC4) in the presence of different precursors. In cultures, EtC4 was mainly produced via alcoholysis. The highest EtC4 levels were produced by L. fermentum. Propionibacteria were also able to synthesise esters via alcoholysis, as demonstrated here for the first time. CFE from L. fermentum synthesised EtC4 via alcoholysis, whereas the other three strains did it via esterification. Our results show that the EtC4 synthesis mechanisms and the amounts produced were markedly strain-dependent, and suggest that both esterification and alcoholysis could be involved in ester formation during cheese ripening. By providing a better understanding of EtC4 biosynthesis, this work paves the way for controlling its production in cheese, accelerating the formation of desirable flavour. Fil: Abeijon Mukdsi, Maria Claudia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucuman. Centro de Referencia Para Lactobacilos; Argentina Fil: Maillard, Marie Bernadette. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Francia Fil: Medina, Roxana Beatriz. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucuman. Centro de Referencia Para Lactobacilos; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán; Argentina Fil: Thierry, A.. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Francia

Livre à la fois synthétique et complet, Initiation à la technologie fromagère présente les principales étapes de la transformation fromagère, de la coagulation du lait à l'affinage des fromages. En s'appuyant sur les acquis de la science laitière, il permet de mieux appréhender et comprendre les mécanismes physicochimiques et biologiques impliqués aux différentes étapes de cette transformation.Cette 2e édition intègre les dernières connaissances en matière de composition et de structure des constituants du lait. Elle met en avant des liens entre physicochimie laitière, paramètres technologiques appliqués et caractéristiques des fromages obtenus.

Bioactive peptides represent an interesting alternative to pharmaceutical drugs without known side effects, as they are present in a variety of protein-rich foods that are consumed on a daily basis. Most of these peptides are embedded and inactive in their parental protein and must be cleaved during food-processing, bacterial fermentation, or gastrointestinal digestion. In recent years, bioactive peptides have attracted increasing interest in the research community, and many health-promoting effects have been attributed to specific amino acid sequences. This mini-review provides a summary of the most important biological functions that have been described for bioactive peptides in various review papers, and an update on findings from the last two years for specific milk- and cheese-derived bioactive peptides.

International audience

CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico FAPEMIG - Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior Marajó cheese made with raw buffalo milk in the Amazon region of Brazil can be considered a good source of wild lactic acid bacteria strains with unexplored and promising characteristics. The aim of this study was to develop a potential probiotic starter culture for industrial applications using freeze drying and spray drying. A decrease in the survival rates of freeze-dried samples compared with spray-dried samples was noted. The spray-dried cultures remained approximately 109 cfu·g−1, whereas the freeze-dried samples showed 107 cfu·g−1 after 60 d of storage at 4°C. All of the spray-dried samples showed a greater ability to decrease the pH in 10% skim milk over 24 h compared with the freeze-dried samples. The spray-dried samples showed a greater resistance to acidic conditions and to the presence of bile salts. In addition, under heat stress conditions, reduction was under 2 log cycles in all samples. Although the survival rate was similar among the evaluated samples after drying, the technological performance for skim milk showed some differences. This study may direct further investigations into how to preserve lactic acid bacteria probiotics to produce spray-dried starters that have a high number of viable cells that can then be used for industrial applications in a cost-effective way.

Livre à la fois synthétique et complet, Initiation à la technologie fromagère présente les principales étapes de la transformation fromagère, de la coagulation du lait à l'affinage des fromages. En s'appuyant sur les acquis de la science laitière, il permet de mieux appréhender et comprendre les mécanismes physicochimiques et biologiques impliqués aux différentes étapes de cette transformation.Cette 2e édition intègre les dernières connaissances en matière de composition et de structure des constituants du lait. Elle met en avant des liens entre physicochimie laitière, paramètres technologiques appliqués et caractéristiques des fromages obtenus.

Accorder vins et fromages, tout un programme ! A la faveur de la méthode d’analyse sensorielle dite de la Dominance temporelle des sensations, adaptée à l’évaluation d’associations vin-fromage, des chercheurs de l’Inra ont mis en évidence que, si le fromage modifie et améliore le goût du vin, ce dernier modifie assez peu le goût du fromage et pas du tout son appréciation hédonique. Leurs travaux ont également montré que la durée de certaines sensations, comme le salé et l’arôme lactique du fromage, était augmentée par un vin différent pour chaque fromage étudié. Piliers de la gastronomie française, ambassadeurs de notre culture alimentaire, le vin et le fromage sont également porteurs d’enjeux économiques importants. Même si la question de savoir quel vin associer à quel fromage intéresse la gastronomie depuis fort longtemps, très peu d’études scientifiques l’ont abordée et seul le postulat que ni le vin ni le fromage ne doivent dominer la perception, ressort de ces rares travaux. Sur fond d’innovation, des chercheurs de l’Inra ont revisité la question des interactions perceptives susceptibles de générer l’harmonie des combinaisons vin-fromage à l’aune d’une méthode d’analyse sensorielle destinée à définir le profil temporel perceptif d’un produit. Vins et fromages, pratiques de laboratoire Afin d’étudier la succession des sensations perçues tout au long de la consommation conjointe d’une portion de fromage et d’un verre de vin, les chercheurs ont adapté une méthode de référence en analyse sensorielle développée par l’Inra dite de Dominance temporelle des sensations à l’étude des associations vin-fromage. Elle a ensuite été implémentée dans le logiciel TimeSens® dédié à l'acquisition et au traitement des données d'analyse sensorielle. Au cours de cette consommation, ils ont également réalisé des mesures hédoniques afin d’expliquer l’évolution du plaisir ressenti par l’apparition des sensations dominantes. Ce travail a été mis en œuvre auprès d’une centaine de consommateurs. Il a concerné différents fromages (Chaource, Comté, Crottin de Chavignol, Epoisses et Roquefort) et vins, rouges (Madiran, Bourgogne et Beaujolais), rosés (Ricey) et blancs (Sancerre, Pacherenc et Pouilly Loché). A la faveur de leurs explorations, les scientifiques ont mis en évidence que le fromage modifie de manière importante le goût du vin et améliore presque systématiquement son appréciation hédonique. Par exemple, la dureté gustative (astringence, acidité et amertume) des vins rouges est réduite grâce au fromage, ce qui permet une meilleure perception des arômes du vin et par conséquence une amélioration de son appréciation par le consommateur. Par contre, avec un vin blanc liquoreux tous les fromages ont semblé réduire la perception aromatique du vin sans pourtant diminuer son appréciation hédonique élevée, mais cette fois-ci sans l’augmenter non plus. Le Roquefort, vanté pour bien se marier avec ce type de vin, n’a pas fait exception à la règle. Contre toute attente, les chercheurs ont également mis en évidence que la réciproque n’était pas vraie : le vin ne modifie que marginalement le goût du fromage et pas du tout son appréciation hédonique. Ce résultat souligne que les préférences du consommateur sont beaucoup plus robustes, ou moins plastiques, en matière de fromage qu’en matière de vin. Enfin, ces travaux ont aussi exhibé d’intéressantes interactions sensorielles ; par exemple, c’était un vin différent pour chaque fromage qui maximisait les durées de dominance des descripteurs salé et lactique (spécifiques du fromage) au cours de la consommation d’une combinaison vin-fromage. Ainsi, la perception du couple ne peut pas se réduire à la somme de la perception du vin et du fromage et justifie pleinement l’étude des associations. Par ailleurs, ces données suggèrent aussi que le vin blanc sec accommoderait mieux le fromage que le vin rouge. Composantes essentielles de l’économie française, les secteurs viticole et fromager comme la filière de la restauration ne pourront que bénéficier d’une compréhension élargie des préférences relatives aux associations vin-fromage. Au-delà, la méthode mise au point au cours de ces travaux peut s’appliquer à d’autres combinaisons d’aliments et de boissons, ouvrant ainsi de nouveaux champs d’application à l’analyse sensorielle.

peer-reviewed Cheese flavor development is directly connected to the metabolic activity of microorganisms used during its manufacture, and the selection of metabolically diverse strains represents a potential tool for the production of cheese with novel and distinct flavor characteristics. Strains of Lactobacillus have been proven to promote the development of important cheese flavor compounds. As cheese production and ripening are long-lasting and expensive, model systems have been developed with the purpose of rapidly screening lactic acid bacteria for their flavor potential. The biodiversity of 10 strains of the Lactobacillus casei group was evaluated in 2 model systems and their volatile profiles were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In model system 1, which represented a mixture of free AA, inoculated cells did not grow. In total, 66 compounds considered as flavor contributors were successfully identified, most of which were aldehydes, acids, and alcohols produced via AA metabolism by selected strains. Three strains (DPC2071, DPC3990, and DPC4206) had the most diverse metabolic capacities in model system 1. In model system 2, which was based on processed cheese curd, inoculated cells increased in numbers over incubation time. A total of 47 compounds were identified, and they originated not only from proteolysis, but also from glycolytic and lipolytic processes. Tested strains produced ketones, acids, and esters. Although strains produced different abundances of volatiles, diversity was less evident in model system 2, and only one strain (DPC4206) was distinguished from the others. Strains identified as the most dissimilar in both of the model systems could be more useful for cheese flavor diversification.

National audience

Nouveau regard sur les liens entre microorganismes du fromage et microbiote intestinal . 2 ème séminaire REPASTOL Apprivoiser le vivant invisible – Savoirs, usages, appropriations de la microbiodiversité fromagère

Le Disque-monde est un monde plat comme un disque, traversant l’espace sur le dos de quatre éléphants eux-mêmes juchés sur la carapace d’une tortue stellaire géante, la Grande A’Tuin. Sir Terry Pratchett, l’auteur le plus connu de light fantasy (ou fantasy humoristique), doit beaucoup à J.R.R. Tolkien, Robert E. Howard, William Shakespeare, Jerome K. Jerome, P.G. Wodehouse et bien d’autres encore, et pourtant, l’univers fantaisiste et souvent absurde qu’il a construit au cours des trente-deux années depuis le premier de ses quarante-et-un romans principaux ne ressemble à aucun autre. Son sens de l’humour, qui allie bouffonnerie, satire et un comique de répétition presque névrotique, s’attache à magnifier plutôt qu’à avilir ; l’humour soutient le Disque-monde autant qu’il éduque ses lecteurs. Au cours de cet article, nous nous intéresserons aux fonctions et au pouvoir de cet humour à la croisée des genres littéraires. Le rire du Disque-monde, affectueux, accueillant et jamais réservé aux initiés, dépasse la théorie de Bergson, et Pratchett, qui sait passer sans complexe d’une blague scatologique à une autre sur la physique quantique, apporte à la parodie postmoderne la légèreté et bonne humeur propre à la light fantasy. The Discworld is a world shaped like a disc, travelling through space on the backs of four elephants, themselves astride the shell of the great turtle A’Tuin. Sir Terry Pratchett, the most famous representative of the light (or comic) fantasy subgenre, pays tribute to J.R.R. Tolkien, Robert E. Howard, William Shakespeare, Jerome K. Jerome, P.G. Wodehouse, the Monty Pythons and so many others, yet the whimsical, borderline absurd universe he has developed during thirty-two years and over the course of forty-one main novels resembles no other. His humour, though given to slapstick, satire and almost maniacal repetition, always elevates where it could demean, holding his universe together and enlightening his readers. It is this power of humour, and how it relates to the Discworld’s generic hybridity, which we will explore in the course of this article. Contrary to Bergson’s theory, the Disc’s laughter is inclusive and even affectionate, not limited to the happy few. Unabashedly juxtaposing toilet humour with jokes about quantum physics, Pratchett embraces postmodern parody with the unique levity and good cheer of light fantasy.

[Présentation orale].Les Journées Francophones de Nutrition (2018-11-28-2018-11-30) Nice (FRA). 2018.; Introduction et but de l’étudeLes maladies inflammatoires chroniques de l’intestin (MICI) sont reliées à divers facteurs, incluant le fond génétique, le système immunitaire, l’alimentation et d’autres facteurs environnementaux. Le microbiote intestinal est impliqué dans les MICI. La consommation de bactéries probiotiques sélectionnées peut induire ou prolonger des rémissions dans le cas de MICI telles que la RCH (rectocolite hémorragique). L’effet des bactéries consommées massivement dans les aliments fermentés est encore peu pris en compte. L’actinobactérie Propionibacterium freudenreichii est couramment consommée dans les fromages à pâte pressée cuite, ainsi que dans des compléments alimentaires probiotiques. Un grand nombre de souches sont disponibles pour cette espèce. Le but de cette étude était de :– rechercher l’aptitude de certaines souches à induire la cytokine modulatrice IL-10, au niveau de cellules immunitaires humaines (PBMC) ;– développer un fromage expérimental « monosouche » avec la souche la plus immunomodulatrice de P. freudenreichii ;– de tester l’impact de la consommation de ce fromage dans le contexte de la colite induite chez la souris.Matériel et méthodesLes propionibactéries ont été cultivées sur ultrafiltrat de lait de vache supplémenté en peptone de caséine puis conservées à -20°C dans du PBS glycérolé (1 milliard de bactéries par mL). La colite aiguë a été induite par administration intra-rectale de TNBS (100mg/kg de poids corporel) et les animaux euthanasiés après 3 jours d’induction. L’inflammation a été quantifiée par mesure des score macroscopique Wallace et microscopique Ameho. Les résultats sont exprimés comme des moyennes±SEM.Résultats et analyse statistiqueLa consommation de ce fromage a protégé les souris de la colite aiguë induite. L’induction de marqueurs locaux et systémiques de l’inflammation était réduite par la consommation du fromage. IL-6 : 366,17±134 versus 1726,7±548 pour le placebo (p˂0,05). SAA : 29 812±2909 versus 9535±2909 pour le placebo (p˂0,05). La consommation de fromage a également conduit à une forte diminution de l’expression colique des gènes Il6, Cox2 et Hmox, des scores cliniques et anatomopathologiques. En revanche, cette consommation a restauré l’expression de Pparg et de Zo1. Globalement, ces résultats démontrent un effet protecteur du fromage fermenté par P. freudenreichii, et pas du fromage placébo stérile, vis-à-vis de l’induction de la colite aiguë.ConclusionCette étude confirme le potentiel probiotique précédemment décrit pour la bactérie alimentaire P. freudenreichii. Elle propose un nouveau produit laitier fermenté, et ouvre de nouvelles perspectives, pour des études pré-cliniques et cliniques ultérieures, visant la prévention et/ou l’aide au traitement de maladies inflammatoires.

Propionibacterium freudenreichii is widely used as cheese ripening starter. Its probiotic effects have also been reported at the gut level, including modulation of bifidobacteria, of colon epithelial cells proliferation and apoptosis and of intestinal inflammation. They rely on active metabolism in situ. Growth media and growth conditions determine stress tolerance acquisition in P. freudenreichii, thereby determining its probiotic efficacy in the final products. A simplified process from growth to spray drying of propionibacteria was developed using hyperconcentrated sweet whey as a 2-in-1 medium to both culture and protect P. freudenreichii from spray drying, without harvesting and washing step. The hypertonic stress in hyperconcentrated sweet whey led to overexpression of key stress proteins, accumulation of intracellular storage molecules, compatible solutes, enhanced multistress tolerance acquisition, as well as enhanced survival upon spray-drying. This work opens new perspectives for the sustainable development of new starter and probiotic preparations with enhanced robustness.

Staphylococcus xylosus belongs to the food-related species of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Thisspecies is present in the natural microbiota of traditional cheeses. It is also commercially available as an adjunct culture to enhance the aroma and texture of cheeses, as well as the color of the surface of smeared cheeses. The molecular mechanisms allowing the growth and adaptation of S. xylosus in the dairy products are still poorly understood. A microarray representing the S. xylosus C2a genome was used to determine how the gene expression profile was modified during growth and adaptation to a cheese model. The C2a strain was inoculated at 5.6 log CFU/g in ultra filtered milk concentrated 5.5-fold and supplemented with UHT cream and salt. Then rennet was added. The temperature of incubation was decreased from 30°C to 12°C after 10 hours of culture, to mimic the temperature shift generally encountered during cheese making. The growth of S. xylosus in the cheese model was exponential until 5 hours and reached a maximum of 8.7 log CFU/g at 24h. S. xylosus population remained almost at this population level after 48 hours of incubation. Total RNA extractions were performed directly from the solid dairy matrix inoculated with S. xylosus after 6, 24 and 48 hours of incubation. Compared to the 6 hours time point sampling, more than 1000 genes of S. xylosuswere differentially expressed at 24 and/or 48 hours of incubation. In particular, extensive upregulation of genes involved in the biosynthesis of purines, pyrimidines, aromatic amino acids and arginine was observed.This work generates a comprehensive genome-wide picture of what genes are modulated during S. xylosus growth and adaptation to a cheese model. Our study increases the understanding of the physiology of adjunct culture in the first step of cheese making process.

The respective inputs of plate counting and qPCR for the quantification of starters in cheese were evaluated using hard-cooked cheeses made with various starter combinations. Five starter strains were quantified at their different growth phases, from 0.5 h to day 214 of manufacture: one strain of Streptococcus thermophilus (ST) and two strains each of Lactobacillus delbrueckii (LD) and Lactobacillus helveticus (LH). Numbers of colony-forming units (CFU) were obtained by plate counting (PC) and qPCR (GNCFU). The qPCR standard curves require a special attention since GNCFU depends on the degree of culturability of the standard culture. Discrepancies were evidenced from the vat milk to the end of ripening. During cheese making, GNCFU were lower than PC at the inoculation for all ST and LD samples and 83% of the LH samples, and during both the exponential and stationary phases for many of the ST and LD samples. During ripening which corresponds to the decline phase, GNCFU were higher than PC for 90% of the ST, 78% of the LD and 69% of the LH samples. Hypotheses are discussed to explain those discrepancies. The data provided by GNCFU and PC complement each other, providing a better description of starter growth in cheese.

Conférence invitée; International audience

The most frequently used technique for dehydration of dairy products is spray drying. The aims of this study were to evaluate the ratio of bound to unbound water availability by using a drying by desorption [1]. Typical curves were registered with a water activity meter on water, dairy and food concentrates . With these data, more than 80 experiments to correlate calculated and measured parameters in a pilot plant (Bionov) and industrial plants have been performed. The results show that the difference between the calculated and measured inlet air temperature was below 5%. The economic interest of this system is obvious, because it is easy to anticipate the spray-drying parameters by using a controller integrating the water availability of the concentrate and certain thermodynamic parameters. Software based on this step was developed (SD2P®, Spray Drying Parameters Simulation & Determination). The combined results provide more precise determination of spray-drying parameters (including inlet/outlet air temperature, mass/powder flow rate, powder temperature, etc.), powder state during spray-drying (stickiness) and the cost of spray-drying with respect to weather conditions. This method has recently been adapted for cheese.

International audience

Cheese flavour results from the activity of many starter and non-starter bacteria that contribute to the conversion of curd components into a number of odorant and sapid compounds. Growing bacteria participate in flavour-related reactions, as well as non‐proliferating or even non‐cultivable bacteria encountered during cheese ripening. Some enzymes released from lysed bacteria can participate as well. Many of the activities are strain-dependent, leading to the need of screening approaches to evaluate the flavouring potential of the strains. This lecture presents the main biochemical pathways for the production of flavour compounds and summarizes the variety of approaches used for screening purpose, with examples ranging from simplified in vitro systems to mini-cheese experiments

Propionibacterium freudenreichii is a beneficial bacterium used as vitamin producer, bio-preservative, cheese ripening starter and probiotic. It adheres to intestinal epithelial cells and mucus and modulates the immune response. Interaction with the host is strain-dependent and relies on key surface proteins, still poorly investigated. We identified surface-exposed proteins in a strain previously selected for its probiotic properties. The role of these proteins in immunomodulatory properties was evidenced. Cheese being a major source of bacteria, we developed an experimental pressed cheese, exclusively fermented by a single strain of P. freudenreichii. Key surface proteins involved in the observed immunomodulatory effects were expressed within the cheese matrix. Consumption of this single-strain cheese protected mice from acute colitis induced by TNBS. P. freudenreichii expressed the key genes of stress tolerance response during growth in the aqueous phase of Emmental cheese, in agreement with enhanced stress tolerance, compared to laboratory culture medium.This work confirms the probiotic potential of P. freudenreichii, it provides a new functional fermented product for preclinical and clinical studies aimed at prevention or treatment of IBD. It constitutes a basis for further studies aimed at the elucidation of mechanisms responsible for its probiotic effects, in a post-genomic context.

[i]Lactobacillus helveticus[/i] is widely used as starter or adjunct in fermented milks and cheeses. L. helveticus possess from one to four cell envelope proteinases that hydrolyze milk proteins to sustain its growth. Recent advances have been made to deepen knowledge on these proteinases regarding the distribution of the corresponding genes between the L. helveticus strains, their activity and specificity on caseins under various physico-chemical conditions in vitro and in cheeses, as well as their location on cell surface. We will also make a special focus on how L. helveticus plays crucial roles in techno-functional properties and flavor formation in dairy products as well as in generating in situ bioactive peptides.

Development of volatile compounds contributing to cheese flavour primarily depends on the metabolic activity of bacterial cultures used during manufacture. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) preceded by volatiles extraction is widely used for volatile analysis. The volatile profiles of ten strains of Lactobacillus casei/paracasei generated using a cheese model were assessed by GC-MS using two extraction methods, headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) with DVB/CAR/PDMS fibre and HeadSpace-Trap (HS-Trap) with Tenax® adsorbent. Chromatographic data was processed using XCMS package of R software. Numbers of total fragments detected were 1788 for HSSPME and 2073 for HS-Trap method. After annotation, 70 and 64 compounds considered as flavour contributors were successfully identified in HS-SPME and HS-Trap profiles respectively, with 40 compounds in common. HS-SPME extracted numerous alcohols, esters and acids, while HS-Trap showed higher selectivity towards short aldehydes and ketones, pyrazine derivatives and specific sulfur-containing compounds. Comparison of common volatiles revealed high correlation in extraction of long-chain ketones and alcohols, but poorcorrelation for aldehydes, sulfur compounds and acids. Principal Component Analysis highlighted similar differences between individual samples using both extraction techniques.Although two extraction techniques identified distinct compounds in the samples, they equally represented differences within the sample set.

Untargeted metabolomics approaches are being developed and appear as a must in the modern food science and microbiology research to investigate food quality and safety. Our objective was to assess the relevance of untargeted metabolomics to explore for the first time Camembert cheese ripening, by using liquid chromatography coupled on-line with high resolution mass spectrometry. Metabolic fingerprints were found to differ significantly depending on the ripening time, pointing out the capacity of this approach to study microbial metabolism within cheese and its influence on the ripening process of Camembert cheese. Nearly a hundred metabolites were identified thanks to in-house and public databases. The results highlighted variations over the ripening process of a large diversity of well-known cheese metabolites such as 13 amino acids and 25 volatile compounds, but also less studied ones such as two vitamins and creatinine. As a consequence, untargeted metabolomics approach appears as a technology-driven opportunity to further deepen the characterization of the overall mechanisms of cheese ripening.

Microbial ecosystems of cheese can be explored at different scales, with a dynamic and/or spatial view, and for different purposes: functionalities, safety, nutrition. An incredible knowledge has been accumulated since Pasteur discoveries on the involvement of microorganisms in fermentation. However most of the work was dedicated to starter development and starter technological properties. By the way, the microbial ecology of cheese in the sense of “microorganisms real life within cheese” has been much less investigated. We know that key ripening phenomena like proteolysis, and lipolysis are due to close interactions between the cheese matrix and the bacterial enzymes provided by the bacterial colonies, but how does it work at a molecular level ? How diffuse substrates, enzymes, and products within and around the colony ? How colonies are communicating with each other, if they do? Which are the biochemical or biophysical properties of the cheese matrix that can significantly impact the microbial ecology ? Because the answers are largely missing, we are still not able to predict the behaviour of a strain in situ and its full impact on the curd ; a fortiori the behaviour of a complete ecosystem. This would probably require in the future multicriteria approaches. In this presentation, an overview of the main work dedicated to “real microbial life” in cheese will be summarized for discussion.

Diffusion phenomena in cheeses are crucial to control their transformation and stabilization and then to maintain desired textural and sensorial properties. However, these phenomena are still not fully understood for solutes other than salt and water in cheeses. The aim of this work was then to investigate how solute diffusion is influenced by both microstructure of model cheeses and physicochemical characteristics of solutes. The model cheeses presented the same casein concentration (130 g.kg-1) but their microstructure was modulated by different technological treatments. A high-pressure freezing coupled with a freeze-substitution protocol was applied prior to Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) in order to minimize any modification of cheese microstructure. An automated image analysis procedure was developed to determine microstructural parameters from TEM images including pore size, interface area, particle size, inter-particle distance and tortuosity. Model solutes such as dextrans, proteins and peptides were used for their various properties of shape (flexible/rigid) and charge (neutral/negative/positive) in a wide range of molecular weights (from 4 to 2000 kDa). Their diffusion coefficients were determined using the innovative Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) technique. The diffusion phenomena were explained by microstructural parameters of model cheeses, mainly pore size and interface area between solutes and the surrounding matrix. However, the influence of the physicochemical characteristics of solutes on diffusion was more pronounced than that of the cheese microstructure and were related to the solute flexibility. Now, mathematical models will be developed to predict diffusion behaviour from both microstructural parameters of cheeses and physicochemical characteristics of solutes.

International audience

International audience

This thesis was realized to respond to two particular objectives a) to determine the presence of bioactive peptides with activities as antioxidants and inhibitors of the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in Mexican cheeses; and b), to observe the effect of composition and structure of dairy matrices in survival of dairy microorganism through digestion. Two Mexican cheeses were analyzed separately: Cotija cheeses ripened 6 months; and Fresh goat cheese (unripened) produced from raw and pasteurized milk. Studied cheeses had important antioxidant activity that was higher in fractions with smaller peptides. Young Cotija cheese had similar values than Fresh goat cheese. But activity increased throughout ripening (because of the production of soluble peptides). Milk pasteurization (Fresh goat cheeses) did not affect the antioxidant activity. This activity was correlated with the hydrophilic peptides. Also, both cheeses possess ACE inhibitor activity that was higher in Fresh goat cheese than in young Cotija cheese. This inhibitor activity was more correlated with the hydrophobic peptides. Pasteurization of Fresh goat cheeses increased the production of hydrophobic peptides. The release of bioactive peptides in cheeses has always been considered as dependent of the proteolysis caused by cheese microbiota. Some of these microorganisms are capable to survive digestion. It has been hypothesized that the presence of a food matrix could enhance their resistance through digestion.We measured the viability of three dairy microorganisms; Streptococcus thermophilus, Brevibacterium aurantiacum and Hafnia alvei during (in vitro and in vivo) digestion. Microorganisms were included in liquid and gel dairy matrices with and without fat: Skim milk (SM), whole milk (WM), rennet gel of skim milk (GSM) and rennet gel of whole milk (GWM). In vitro digestion was carried on with a dynamic digester (DIDGI) that simulated the stomach, duodenum and small intestine. Parameters of digestion were the same for all the matrices tested. The degradation of the dairy matrices through in vitro digestion was analyzed by electrophoreses and GC-Mass. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was performed to observe matrix microstructure.During in vitro digestion, the microorganisms had different survival rates; S. thermophilus was highly sensitive to gastric stress, and was not found in the duodenal compartment. B. auranticum was moderately sensitive to gastric stress but resistant to duodenal stress. H. alvei was highly resistant to both stresses. Despite its buffer capacity, we did not observe any effect of the dairy matrices on microorganisms survival. CLSM images, probed the effect of low pH on microorganisms survival. However our in vivo analyses failed to confirm in vitro observations and tested microorganisms were not detected.; Cette thèse eu deux objectifs: A) Déterminer la présence de peptides bioactifs avec des activités antioxydantes ou inhibitrices d´enzyme de conversion de l'angiotensine (ECA) dans les fromages mexicains. B) Observer l'effet de la composition et de la structure de matrices laitières dans la survie des microorganismes laitières pendant la digestion. Les fromages ont été analysés séparément: fromage Cotija, affiné 6 mois et fromage de chèvre frais (non affiné) produit à partir de lait cru et pasteurisé. L´activité antioxydante a été plus élevé dans les fractions contenant des petits peptides. Le fromage Cotija jeune a donné des valeurs similaires au fromage de chèvre frais mais l'activité augmente pendant l´affinage (en raison de la production de peptides solubles). La pasteurisation n'a pas impacté l'activité antioxydante dans les fromages de chèvre frais. Cette activité a été corrélée avec les peptides hydrophiles. Les deux fromages ont une activité inhibitrice de l´ECA qui a été plus élevée dans le fromage de chèvre que dans le fromage Cotija jeune. Cette activité était corrélée avec les peptides hydrophobes. Les fromages de chèvre frais, fait avec du lait pasteurisés, ont une concentration en peptides hydrophobes plus élevé. La libération de peptides bioactifs dans le fromage a toujours été considérée comme dépendante de la protéolyse par action des microorganismes. Certains de ces microorganismes sont capables de survivre à la digestion et l'hypothèse que la présence d'une matrice alimentaire pourrait améliorer leur résistance pendant la digestion a été testée. Nous avons mesuré la viabilité des microorganismes; Streptococcus thermophilus, Brevibacterium aurantiacum et Hafnia alvei pendant la digestion (in vitro et in vivo). Les microorganismes ont été inclus dans des matrices laitières liquides et gélifiées avec et sans matière grasse: lait écrème (SM), lait entier (WM), gel présure de lait écrèmé (GSM) et gel présure de lait entier (GWM). La digestion in vitro a été réalisée sur un digesteur dynamique (DIDGI) qui simule l'estomac, le duodénum et l'intestin grêle. Les paramètres de la digestion ont été les mêmes pour toutes les matrices. La dégradation des matrices pendant digestion in vitro a été analysée par électrophorèse et GC-Mass. La microscopie confocale à balayage laser (CLSM) a été aussi réalisée pour observer la microstructure. Pendant la digestion in vitro, il a été montré que S. thermophilus était très sensible au stress gastrique, et n'a pas été trouvé dans le compartiment duodénale. B. auranticum était modérément sensible au stress gastrique, mais résistant au stress duodénale. H. alvei était très résistant aux deux stress, par contre aucun effet des matrices laitières n'a été observé. Les images de CLSM ont montré l'effet de l´acidité sur la survie des microorganismes. Mais les analyse in vivo n’ont pas réussi à confirmer les observations in vitro parce que les microorganismes testés ne sont pas détectés.

National audience; Les recherches de l’UMRH contribuent au développement de systèmes durables d’élevage des herbivores, conciliant efficacité des productions, viabilité socio-économique, bien-être animal et qualité des produits. L’unité étudie les mécanismes impliqués dans l’élaboration des qualités nutritionnelles et sensorielles des fromages sous signe de qualité. L’URF s’attache quant à elle à étudier le rôle du microbiote complexe dans la construction des qualités du fromage et en particulier les fromages AOP. L’objectif de l’unité est plus particulièrement de contribuer à la sécurité sanitaire de ces produits tout en préservant la diversité et la richesse de leurs qualités sensorielles. Les fromages issus de vaches conduites au pâturage par rapport à ceux provenant de rations hivernales se caractérisent par leur coloration plus jaune, leur texture plus fondante et leur flaveur légèrement corsée. Des différences sensorielles sont également perceptibles selon que l’herbe est pâturée ou conservée (foin ou ensilage). Les recherches actuelles portent sur l’effet de la composition de la matrice fromagère en interaction avec les communautés microbiennes dans la construction de la qualité sensorielle des fromages.

Prodinra 354808; Food products are matrices of complex and varied composition, among which proteins are the main molecules possessing various functionalities, i.e. foam and emulsion stabilisation, gelation, solubilisation of some components. They led to various final textural properties of the food products. Modification of proteins by mild enzymatic hydrolysis, allowed improving some of the functionalities and in turn changing the structural and rheological properties of the food product. Protein-derived peptides are present in a huge number of food products either by in situ production or by incorporation as an ingredient during food formulation. Questions remains i) whether some general rules can be put forward or not to explain the building-up of the interactions between peptides and between peptides and proteins and ii) the subsequent reorganization of the food matrices and namely dairy ones that has to be done to induce new or modified functional properties in various dairy matrices.The objective of this thesis was to determine how and to what extent casein-derived peptides are able to modify the texture, the rheology and the microstructure of highly-concentrated casein matrices. We showed i) what kinds of structural and textural changes occurred at various scales from microscopic to macroscopic ones, when we varied the type of peptides produced, their percentage in the dairy matrices and the concentration of the matrices they were incorporated in; ii) interactions between peptides and caseins and the non-linearity of the phenomena explaining some adversely evolutions of the rheol; Les aliments sont des matrices de composition complexe et variée au sein desquelles les protéines possèdent diverses fonctionnalités, pour stabiliser des mousses ou des émulsions, gélifier, solubiliser certains composés menant à différentes textures finales du produit. Une modification de ces protéines par hydrolyse enzymatique ménagée permet d’améliorer certaines de ces fonctionnalités et donc de changer les propriétés rhéologiques et structurales du produit. Les peptides dérivés des protéines sont présents dans de nombreux aliments soit par production in situ soit par incorporation lors de la formulation des produits sous forme d'hydrolysats. Des questions subsistent pour savoir i) si des règles générales d’assemblage existent ou non pour expliquer comment les peptides et les protéines interagissent entre eux et ii) et si une réorganisation se fait au sein des matrices ici laitières pour induire de nouvelles propriétés fonctionnelles ou les modifierL’objectif de la thèse était de déterminer comment et jusqu’à quel niveau les peptides sont capables de modifier la texture, la rhéologie et la microstructure des matrices à haute teneur en caséines.Nous avons ainsi pu montrer i) quels changements de structure et de texture avaient lieu à différentes échelles en variant le type de peptides produits, leur proportion et la concentration de la matrice dans laquelle ils étaient ajoutés et ii) les interactions entre peptides et caséines et la non-linéarité des phénomènes expliquant les évolutions parfois contradictoires des propriétés de texture des matrices caséiniques.

The discovery of cheese is a narrative at least 8,000 years old, dating back to the Neolithic era. Yet, after all of these thousands of years we are still finding new ways to combine the same four basic ingredients - milk, bacteria, salt, and enzymes - into new and exciting products with vastly different shapes, sizes, and colors, and equally complex and varied tastes, textures, and, yes, aromas. In fact, after a long period of industrialized, processed, and standardized cheese, cheesemakers, cheesemongers, affineurs, and most of all consumers are rediscovering the endless variety of cheeses across cultures.The Oxford Companion to Cheese is the first major reference work dedicated to cheese, containing 855 A-Z entries on cheese history, culture, science, and production. From cottage cheese to Camembert, from Gorgonzola to Gruyère, there are entries on all of the major cheese varieties globally, but also many cheeses that are not well known outside of their region of production. The concentrated whey cheeses popular in Norway, brunost, are covered here, as are the traditional Turkish and Iranian cheeses that are ripened in casings prepared from sheep's or goat's skin. There are entries on animal species whose milk is commonly (cow, goat, sheep) and not so commonly (think yak, camel, and reindeer) used in cheesemaking, as well as entries on a few highly important breeds within each species, such as the Nubian goat or the Holstein cow. Regional entries on places with a strong history of cheese production, biographies of influential cheesemakers, innovative and influential cheese shops, and historical entries on topics like manorial cheesemaking and cheese in children's literature round out the Companion's eclectic cultural coverage.The Companion also reflects a fascination with the microbiology and chemistry of cheese, featuring entries on bacteria, molds, yeasts, cultures, and coagulants used in cheesemaking and cheese maturing. The blooms, veins, sticky surfaces, gooey interiors, crystals, wrinkles, strings, and yes, for some, the odors of cheese are all due to microbial action and growth. And today we have unprecedented insight into the microbial complexity of cheese, thanks to advances in molecular biology, whole-genome sequencing technologies, and microbiome research. The Companion is equally interested in the applied elements of cheesemaking, with entries on production methodologies and the technology and equipment used in cheesemaking.An astonishing 325 authors contributed entries to the Companion, residing in 35 countries. These experts included cheesemakers, cheesemongers, dairy scientists, anthropologists, food historians, journalists, archaeologists, and on, from backgrounds as diverse as the topics they write about. Every entry is signed by the author, and includes both cross references to related topics and further reading suggestions. The endmatter includes a list of cheese-related museums and a thorough index. Two 16-page color inserts and well over a hundred black and white images help bring the entries to life.This landmark encyclopedia is the most wide-ranging, comprehensive, and reliable reference work on cheese available, suitable for both novices and industry insiders alike.; absent

The discovery of cheese is a narrative at least eight thousand years old, dating back to the Neolithic era. Yet, after all of these thousands of years we are still finding new ways to combine the same four basic ingredients—milk, bacteria, salt, and enzymes—into new and exciting products with vastly different shapes, sizes, and colors, and equally complex and varied tastes, textures, and, yes, aromas. In fact, after a long period of industrialized, processed, and standardized cheese, cheesemakers, cheesemongers, affineurs, and most of all consumers are rediscovering the endless variety of cheeses across cultures. The Oxford Companion to Cheese is the first major reference work dedicated to cheese, containing 855 A–Z entries on cheese history, culture, science, and production. From cottage cheese to Camembert, from Gorgonzola to Gruyère, there are entries on all of the major cheese varieties globally, but also many cheeses that are not well known outside of their region of production. The concentrated whey cheeses popular in Norway, brunost, are covered here, as are the traditional Turkish and Iranian cheeses that are ripened in casings prepared from sheep’s or goat’s skin. There are entries on animal species whose milk is commonly (cow, goat, and sheep) and not so commonly (yak, camel, andreindeer) used in cheesemaking, as well as entries on a few highly important breeds within each species, such as the Nubian goat or the Holstein cow. Regional entries on places with a strong history of cheese production, biographies of influential cheesemakers, innovative and influential cheese shops, and historical and cultural entries on topics like manorial cheesemaking and cheese in children’s literature round out the Companion’s eclectic coverage

The Oxford Companion to Cheese (10.1093/acref/9780199330881.001.0001); Mont d'Or

La présente invention concerne un procédé pour la fabrication d'une denrée alimentaire fromagère, avantageusement du type fromage, spécialité fromagère ou substitut de fromage. Ce procédé de fabrication est caractérisé en ce qu'il comprend les étapes successives suivantes : a) une étape de fourniture A) : - d'au moins une matrice aromatique, dont la consistance s'étend de liquide à pâteuse, issue d'une étape de culture d'au moins un micro-organisme d'aromatisation dans un milieu de culture, - d'au moins une matrice de texture, dont la consistance s'étend de liquide à pâteuse, qui est adaptée à réaliser la texture de ladite denrée alimentaire, puis b) une étape B) de mélange de ladite au moins une matrice aromatique et de ladite au moins une matrice de texture, puis c) une étape de texturation C), au cours de laquelle le mélange issu de l'étape de mélange B) est soumis à des conditions physico-chimiques de texturation qui sont adaptés en fonction de la texture finale recherchée pour ladite denrée alimentaire fromagère.

The Oxford Companion to Cheese (10.1093/acref/9780199330881.001.0001); Reblochon

The discovery of cheese is a narrative at least 8,000 years old, dating back to the Neolithic era. Yet, after all of these thousands of years we are still finding new ways to combine the same four basic ingredients - milk, bacteria, salt, and enzymes - into new and exciting products with vastly different shapes, sizes, and colors, and equally complex and varied tastes, textures, and, yes, aromas. In fact, after a long period of industrialized, processed, and standardized cheese, cheesemakers, cheesemongers, affineurs, and most of all consumers are rediscovering the endless variety of cheeses across cultures.The Oxford Companion to Cheese is the first major reference work dedicated to cheese, containing 855 A-Z entries on cheese history, culture, science, and production. From cottage cheese to Camembert, from Gorgonzola to Gruyère, there are entries on all of the major cheese varieties globally, but also many cheeses that are not well known outside of their region of production. The concentrated whey cheeses popular in Norway, brunost, are covered here, as are the traditional Turkish and Iranian cheeses that are ripened in casings prepared from sheep's or goat's skin. There are entries on animal species whose milk is commonly (cow, goat, sheep) and not so commonly (think yak, camel, and reindeer) used in cheesemaking, as well as entries on a few highly important breeds within each species, such as the Nubian goat or the Holstein cow. Regional entries on places with a strong history of cheese production, biographies of influential cheesemakers, innovative and influential cheese shops, and historical entries on topics like manorial cheesemaking and cheese in children's literature round out the Companion's eclectic cultural coverage.The Companion also reflects a fascination with the microbiology and chemistry of cheese, featuring entries on bacteria, molds, yeasts, cultures, and coagulants used in cheesemaking and cheese maturing. The blooms, veins, sticky surfaces, gooey interiors, crystals, wrinkles, strings, and yes, for some, the odors of cheese are all due to microbial action and growth. And today we have unprecedented insight into the microbial complexity of cheese, thanks to advances in molecular biology, whole-genome sequencing technologies, and microbiome research. The Companion is equally interested in the applied elements of cheesemaking, with entries on production methodologies and the technology and equipment used in cheesemaking.An astonishing 325 authors contributed entries to the Companion, residing in 35 countries. These experts included cheesemakers, cheesemongers, dairy scientists, anthropologists, food historians, journalists, archaeologists, and on, from backgrounds as diverse as the topics they write about. Every entry is signed by the author, and includes both cross references to related topics and further reading suggestions. The endmatter includes a list of cheese-related museums and a thorough index. Two 16-page color inserts and well over a hundred black and white images help bring the entries to life.This landmark encyclopedia is the most wide-ranging, comprehensive, and reliable reference work on cheese available, suitable for both novices and industry insiders alike.; absent