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Besides increasingly important issues with regard to quantity and availability of raw materials together with their properties and quality the feedstock costs are very important for the production of bulk chemicals. Especially for biotechnological processes, in which the carbon of various substrates should be converted into microbial products (e.g. lactic acid), there is an increasing interest in the use of biogenic residues and waste materials. Carbohydrates like starch, which is the main constituent of the bakery waste, are preferably used as substrates/nutrients for several fermentation processes. As part of a European project (BREAD4PLA) we have been carried out different analytical methods for the estimation of parameters which are basically characteristic in terms of the further use as main substrate for lactic acid fermentation processes. The main objective of this research is to show the production of polylactic acid from residual bread in a pre-industrial continuous process. In the sense of a closed loop (organic waste from the bakery industry, fermentative production of lactic acid from remaining bread, polymerization of lactic acid to polylactic acid, PLA modification by compounding and film production as well as final testing and evaluation of these films for packaging), the 100% biodegradable PLA film can subsequently be used for the packaging of fresh baking goods. First results about the potential of waste bread as an alternative substrate source for lactic acid fermentation are presented and discussed.

After selection from eight yeast commercial or type strains based on their aromatic potential to valorize bread by-products, Geotrichum candidum ATCC 62217 formed fruity aroma compounds (pineapple-like) on fermented waste bread (35% white bread crumb and 65% water). Fatty acids esters were identified, including ethyl esters of acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and isobutyric acid. Their production corresponded to the stationary growth phase of the strain and, after 48 h, it was improved by agitation and, to a lesser extent, at 30°C compared to 25 or 20°C. Aromatic properties of the strain were linked to its ability to metabolize organic acids.

Optimal conditions for sourdough production from waste bread containing sugar were studied. Using a dough prepared with 50% white bread crumb in water instead of 35% crumb, high levels of acidity were formed at 35°C with a commercial lyophilized starter containing Lactobacillus plantarum . The effect of temperature (25 or 35°C) on titratable acidity development was equivalent to crumb concentration (35 or 50%). Cell growth stopped after 12–24 h but acid production continued for more than 48 h. Best results were obtained with whole wheat bread crumb followed by sweet-type crumb (about 8% sugar, dry basis) and white bread crumb. Two commercial sources of Lactobacillus plantarum , one meat starter and one bread starter, were screened based on acid production in fermented bread crumb.

Bread, the staple of the west and, increasingly, the rest of the world, is also one of the most heavily wasted of all food products. Currently, much of this waste is disposed of in landfill sites where it decomposes to methane and carbon dioxide. Yet it is a potentially valuable, renewable resource for the production of chemicals. This chapter explores the opportunities for enhancing the value of this cereal-based waste food through the use of fermentation. Following a review of the literature concerning bread waste utilization, potential process systems are proposed and examined. As bread is a solid raw material, solid state fermentation is preferred as the most efficient means of delivering bioprocesses, and some preliminary optimization studies are presented.

Background: Many species of sustainable mycotoxin-producing fungi are considered as dangerous agents for humans. Bread is one of the materials exposed to fungal infection and molds are amongst the most important pollutant microbial and chemical mycotoxin-producing agents of bread. In this study, the microbial and chemical contamination of recycled waste breads and the types of produced mycotoxins at two areas of Tehran municipality, Iran, were investigated. Methods: Using fungal culture media, twenty samples of waste bread were analyzed for microbial contaminations. To recognize contamination to mycotoxins, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method and fuorescence detector (FLD) were used. Findings: All but one sample were contaminated to mold infections such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, and yeasts including Geotricum candidum, Candidia albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Eight samples were contaminated to aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol, whereas none of them showed contamination with zearalenone. Conclusion: The results indicated that presence of microbial and toxic contamination in bread waste is inevitable, which is harmful for human health. The sanitary control of food waste to reduce or eliminate microbial hazards in food recycling is necessary.

Aims The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of bread as substrate for γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) biosynthesis, establishing a valorization strategy for surplus bread, repurposing it within the food chain. Methods and Results Surplus bread was fermented by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to produce GABA. Pediococcus pentosaceus F01, Levilactobacillus brevis MRS4, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum H64 and C48 were selected among 33 LAB strains for the ability to synthesize GABA. Four fermentation experiments were set up using surplus bread as such, added of amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes, modifying the pH or mixed with wheat bran. Enzyme-treated slurries led to the release of glucose (up to 20 mg g−1) and free amino acid, whereas the addition of wheat bran (30% of bread weight) yielded the highest GABA content (circa 800 mg kg−1 of dry weight) and was the most suitable substrate for LAB growth. The selected slurry was ultimately used as an ingredient in bread making causing an increase in free amino acids. Conclusions Besides the high GABA concentration (148 mg kg−1 dough), the experimental bread developed in this study was characterized by good nutritional properties, highlighting the efficacy of tailored bioprocessing technologies as means to mitigate food wastage. Significance and Impact of Study Our results represent a proof of concept of effective strategies to repurpose food industry side streams.

Surplus bread is a major bakery side stream that should be strictly kept within the human food chain to reduce waste and ensure resource efficiency in baking processes. Optimally, surplus bread should be recycled as a dough ingredient, however, this is known to be detrimental to the volume and texture of bread. The purpose of this study was to investigate how gelatinized starch in surplus bread, untreated or enzymatically hydrolyzed, affects dough development, bread volume and textural attributes. Starch was hydrolyzed to various degrees using commercial alpha-amylase and amyloglucosidase. Bread hydrolysates containing different carbohydrate profiles (untreated, 75%, 57%, and 26% starch remaining) were evaluated as dough ingredients. More complete starch hydrolysis resulted in better dough visco-elastic properties and higher dough level, and reduced dough water absorption by 13%. Nonetheless, breads containing hydrolysate with high-malto-oligosaccharides had the lowest intrinsic hardness and similar volume yield when compared to control bread. Furthermore, compared to untreated slurry, the hydrolysate with high-malto-oligosaccharides, reduced crumb hardness by 28% and staling rate by 42%, and increased specific volume by 8%. The present findings show that enzymatic hydrolysis dramatically transforms the impact of gelatinized starch. Thus, by selecting correct bioprocessing approaches, bread recycling performance may be significantly improved.

WOS: 000477688700040 Bacillus subtilis, an alkaline protease producing strain isolated from soil sample, was identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing method and its biochemical properties. The optimum pH and temperature of the enzyme were found as 9.5 and 60 degrees C, respectively. The enzyme showed excellent stability with some commercial liquid laundry detergents. Wash performance analysis revealed that B. subtilis crude protease could effectively remove bloodstains. Bacillus subtilis strain produced nine major extracellular proteases, which was revealed by zymography technique. Appraising its promising properties, Bacillus subtilis crude enzyme can be considered as a potential candidate for future use in detergent industries. Cukurova University Research FundCukurova University [FEF2013D10] This study financially was supported by Cukurova University Research Fund (Project No: FEF2013D10).

WOS: 000403134800042 Biosurfactants are amphiphilic biological compounds which are produced by various fungi and bacteria that reduce surface and interfacial tensions. In this study, a biosurfactant-producing microorganism was isolated from a soil sample which was collected from Cukurova University campus. The microorganism was identified as Bacillus subtilis by 16 S rRNA gene sequencing method and by investigating its biochemical properties obtained from VITEK-II Compact Identification System. Production of the biosurfactant was carried out by Bacillus subtilis using waste bread as substrate in culture medium. The biosurfactant production process was followed by surface tension measurement, emulsification index assay, determination of carbohydrate groups, foam stability and antimicrobial and antifungal activity observation of biosurfactant. Bacilllus subtilis showed very good hemolytic activity and diameter of the hemolytic zone was observed to be larger than 3 cm i.e. complete hemolysis (++++). Xylen was the best substrates for emulsification index (39%) of biosurfactant produced from Bacillus subtilis. Surface tension of biosurfactant was determined as 48.64 mN/m by using pendant drop method. The rhamnose test was positive which indicates that biosurfactant could be of rhamnolipid type. Biosurfactant had a good foaming stability and the purified biosurfactant exhibited antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Consequently, biosurfactant produced by Bacillus subtilis will provide improved wash efficiency as a detergent additive due to its characteristic features. Cukurova UniversityCukurova University [FEF2013D10] This study was financially supported by Cukurova University Research Fund (Project No: FEF2013D10)

WOS: 000404459100012 An alkaline protease-producing microorganism was isolated from a soil sample which is collected from Cukurova University campus and identified as a strain of Bacillus subtilis. The culture conditions were optimized for maximum enzyme production. Optimum enzyme production was achieved from fermentation medium which includes 1% waste bread and 1% casein powder as carbon and nitrogen source at pH 10.5 and 37 degrees C for 72 h incubation period with agitation of 200 rpm. The optimum inoculum amount and inoculum age were found as 5% and 4 hrs, respectively. Enzyme production reached its maximum value when a baffled Erlenmeyer flask with cotton was used. The approximately 20-fold increase in alkaline protease production was observed as a result of culture medium optimization. Substantial increase in alkaline protease activity was detected in optimized medium (134.64 U/mL) when compared with unoptimized medium (6.45 U/mL). It has been concluded that screening of suitable medium components has asignificant role in the production of alkaline protease by B. subtilis. Cukurova UniversityCukurova University [FEF2013D10] This study financially was supported by Cukurova University Research Fund (Project No: FEF2013D10).

TEZ10567 Tez (Doktora) -- Çukurova Üniversitesi, Adana, 2014. Kaynakça (s. 211-231) var. xix, 233 s. : res. (bzs. rnk.), tablo ; 29 cm. Bu çalışmada, toprak örneğinden izole edilen Bacillus subtilis’den alkali proteaz ve biyosürfektan üretimi ve karakterizasyonu gerçekleştirilmiştir. Alkali proteaz enzimini maksimum miktarda üretmek için enzim üretim ortamının optimizasyonu yapılmıştır. Maksimum alkali proteaz üretimi için en iyi karbon kaynağı %1 ekmek tozu, en iyi azot kaynağı %1 kazein olarak belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, optimum pH 10.5, sıcaklık 37ºC, çalkalama hızı 200 rpm, inokulum miktarı %5, inokulum yaşı 4 saat, ekmek tozu %1 olarak saptanmıştır. Aynı zamanda çalkalamalı erlen kullanıldığında maksimum alkali proteaz üretiminin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Aynı zamanda Bacillus subtilis’den biyosürfektan üretimi de çalışılmıştır. Hemolitik aktivitede Bacillus subtilis çok iyi hemoliz zonu göstermiş ve hemolitik zon çapı 3 cm’den büyük olduğu için (++++) tam hemoliz şeklinde değerlendirilmiştir. Emülsifikasyon için en iyi substat ksilen (%68) olarak belirlenmiştir. Pendant drop yöntemi kullanılarak biyosürfektanın yüzey gerilimi 48.64 mN/m olarak tespit edilmiştir. Ramnoz testi pozitiftir bu da biyosürfektanın ramnolipid tipte olabileceğini göstermektedir. Çalışmada elde edilen biyosürfektan iyi köpürme, antimikrobiyal ve antifungal aktiviteye sahiptir. Ayrıca yüksek sıcaklıklara, yüksek tuzluluğa maruz kalma süresince ve geniş pH aralığında stabilite göstermiştir. Sonuç olarak, Bacillus subtilis tarafından üretilen alkali proteaz ve biyosürfektanın sahip olduğu özelliklerden dolayı deterjan katkı maddesi olarak birlikte kullanılması geliştirilmiş yıkama verimliliği sağlayacaktır. In this study, the alkaline protease and biosurfactant from Bacillus subtilis isolated from soil sample were produced and characterized. The culture conditions were optimized for maximum alkaline protease production. The best carbon and nitrogen sources for maximum alkaline protease production were 1% waste bread powder and 1% casein, respectively. In addition optimal pH 10.5, temperature 37ºC, agitation rate 200 rpm, inoculum size 5%, inoculum age 4 hours, waste bread powder 1% were determined. Also maximum enzyme production was detected when using baffled erlenmeyer flask. The production of a biosurfactant by Bacillus subtilis was also studied. In hemolytic activity, Bacilllus subtilis showed very good hemolysis and diameter of the hemolytic zone was larger than 3 cm was evaluated as complete hemolysis (++++). Xylen was the best substrates for emulsification (68%). Surface tension of biosurfactant was determined 48.64 mN/M using pendant drop method. The rhamnose test was positive which indicates that biosurfactant could be of rhamnolipid type. It had a good foaming, antimicrobial and antifungal activities. Furthermore, it showed stability during exposure to high temperatures, high salinity and a wide range of pH. Consequently, due to the characteristic features of alkaline protease and biosurfactant produced by Bacillus subtilis their together use will provide improved wash efficiency as a detergent additive. Bu çalışma Ç.Ü. Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Birimi tarafından desteklenmiştir. Proje No: FEF2013D10.

Tüm toplumlarda temel besin kaynaklarının başında tahıl ve tahıl ürünleri yer almaktadır. Ekmek de en önemli tahıl ürünü olarak toplam gıda tüketimindeki payı ile önemini korumaktadır. Ekmek, geleneksel olarak beslenme alışkanlığımızda aldığı payın yüksekliği kadar farklılaştırılmış ürünlerin artması, ihtiyaç fazlası satın alma ve israfa konu olması açısından da dikkat çekici bir üründür. Dünyada gıda arz ve fiyatlarında yaşanan dalgalanmalar, gıda güvenliği ve güvenilirliği tartışmalarının gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerde gündemde olması ve ayrıca, iklim değişikliğinin yarattığı baskı altında sürdürülebilirliğin risk altında olması gıda israfı ve bu israfın sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel etkilerini su yüzüne çıkarmıştır. Türkiyede de gündemde olan ekmek tüketimini, israf boyutu ile ele almayı amaçlayan bu çalışma TR6-Akdeniz Bölgesinde önemli nüfus artışları olan ve göç alan sosyo-ekonomik düzeyleri farklı 3 büyükşehir sınırları içinde 2011 yılında 20 yaş ve üstü kadınlarla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışma, ekmek tüketimine, israfına ve bayat ekmeklerin değerlendirilmesine yönelik tüketici alışkanlıklarını ortaya koymak amacıyla yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre, yüzde 85 ile en fazla beyaz ekmek tercih edilmektedir. Araştırmaya katılan kadınların kişi başına günlük beyaz ekmek tüketimi 273,38 gr.dır ve alınan ekmeğin %38,2'si israf edilmektedir. Her gün kişi başına ortalama 2 dilim ekmek israf edilmektedir. Bu nedenle yıllık ekonomik kayıp 107 TL/kişi'dir., Grain and grain products, in all societies, are among the most important sources of essential nutrients. Bread is one of the most important cereal products, with a significant share in total food consumption, also remains important. Increased interest in different types of bread leads to purchasing surplus and wasting. Fluctuations in food production and food price contribute to the food security debate both in industrialised countries and the developing countries; besides, sustainability is at risk under the pressure of climate change "food waste" has been discussed in recent years because of the environmental, economic and social impacts it generates. The study was carried out in the 3 metropolitan area with significant population growth, high rate of migration and different socio-economic levels, in Mediterranean region in 2011. The results of the study based on face to face survey data with the women responders which were living in the area and at the age 20 year and older. The purpose of the study is to determine consumers habits on bread consumption, bread waste and altenative use of stale bread. The findings of this study indicate that consumers prefer white bread the most, for those who prefer white bread ratio is 85%. The consumption of white bread per person per day for women participating in the study 273,38 gr. and 38,2 percent of this amount is wasted. Every day an average of 2 slices of bread per person is wasted. Therefore, the annual economic loss is 107 TL/person.

Objective : The study was designed to determine nutrient composition, evaluate physical and organoleptic properties of bread incorporated with abattoir waste (blood meal) as protein and micronutrient fortifier. Methods : Fresh abattoir blood meal was collected from Anyigba abattoir, divided into two equal parts, one part kept frozen until used and the other prepared into powder (6.5% moisture content, 180 micron particle size) and packaged into heat sealed HDPE bag for use. Both liquid and powdered abattoir wastes were each incorporated into bread recipe at four (4) different levels: 5.0%, 7.5%, 10.0% and 12.5% of flour, and then baked into bread loaves, making eight experimental samples plus the control, using standard methods and procedures. The physical characteristics and chemical composition of the bread loaves were determined. Their sensory qualities as well as acceptability were also evaluated. The data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis. Results: Protein contents of experimental bread loaves increased with increase in abattoir waste levels from 8.98% - 13.31%, showing appreciable increase above 6.89% obtainable in conventional bread. Similarly, the range of values for micronutrients content of the experimental bread were: Fe (14.5-23.1 mg /100g), P (24.8-37.8mg/100g) and I2 (0.100-0.261 mg/100g).They also showed significant increases over and above the respective micronutrient contents of traditional bread. There were little or no variations in physical characteristics, except the weight of bread loaves. The crust and crumb colours of bread loaves containing liquid abattoir waste (at 5.0 – 12.5% levels) and powder (at 5.0% level) were more cherished, though significantly different (P