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Ketogenic low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) diets reduce growth and bone mineral density in children with epilepsy and in rats. Part of this effect might be due to a reduced availability of calcium in high-fat diets. The aim of this study was to determine mineral digestibility by total collection method in LCHF diets compared with a chow diet and a standard high-fat diet (HFD, high in fat and carbohydrates).Twelve-wk-old male Wistar rats were pair-fed isoenergetic amounts of either six different LCHF diets based on tallow and casein (crude fat 75%-50%, crude protein 10%-35%), with chow or with a HFD diet. Mineral-to-energy ratio was matched in all diets. Circulating parathyroid hormone was measured by immunoassay.The apparent digestibility of calcium was reduced in all HFDs (high-fat diets, LCHF diets and the HFD diet) by at least 30% compared with the chow diet (P0.001). Fecal calcium excretion correlated positively with fecal fat excretion, presumably because of formation of calcium soaps. Apparent digestibility of phosphorous was higher in all HFDs. This resulted in a decrease of the ratio of apparently digested calcium to apparently digested phosphorous in all HFDs below a ratio of 1:1. Plasma parathyroid hormone was not affected by any diet.The alteration of apparent calcium and phosphorus digestibility may affect the impact of HFDs on bone metabolism.

Zusammenfassung Einflus von Zitronensaure, Olaquindox, Zinkbacitracin und Zinkoxid auf die praecaecale Verdau-lichkeit von Rohnahrstoffen sowie den ileocaecalen Flus an Mineralstoffen bei Minipigs In Futterungsversuchen mit 5 Gottinger Miniaturschweinen (16–37 kg Lebendmasse), die mit Ileocaecal-Umleitungskanulen versehen waren, wurde der Einflus von Futterzusatzen (10 g Zitronensaure, 100 mg Olaquindox, 40 mg Zink-Bacitracin, 3 g Zink als Zinkoxid pro kg Futter) im Vergleich zu einer Kontrollration (Mais-Sojaextraktionsschrotmischung) ohne Zulagen auf die scheinbare praecaecale Verdaulichkeit der Rohnahrstoffe, den ileocaecalen Flus von Wasser, Mengenelementen, Zink und Kupfer, die Konzentration von Ammoniak und organischen Sauren sowie den pH-Wert im Ileumchy-mus uberpruft. Die scheinbare praecaecale Verdaulichkeit des Rohproteins zeigte nur eine geringfugige, nicht statistisch abzusichernde Verbesserung. Die Verdaulichkeit der ubrigen Rohnahrstoffe wurde nicht systematisch beeinflust. Der Zusatz von Zitronensaure bewirkte einen Anstieg des Lactatgehaltes im Ileumchymus bei gleichzeitigem Ruckgang des pH-Wertes. Bei Zitronensaurezusatz nahm der ileocaecale Natriumflus und der Wassergehalt im Ileumchymus zu, wahrend der Kaliumflus zuruck-ging. Bei Zinkoxidzulage war es umgekehrt. Die scheinbare praecaecale Verdaulichkeit von Zink stieg bei Zinkoxidfutterung von 1 % in der Kontrollgruppe auf 44 % an, wahrend die praecaecale Kupferverdaulichkeit nicht beeinflust wurde.

Zusammenfassung Einflus von Lactose auf die praecaecale und Gesamtverdaulichkeit der Rohnahrstoffe und Men-genelemente beim Schwein In der vorliegenden Untersuchung wurde bei acht Minipigs (vier intakte und vier mit Ileo-caecalumleitungskanulen versehen) der Einflus von Lactose (60 % in der lufttrockenen Substanz) im Austausch gegen Maisstarke auf die scheinbare praecaecale und Gesamtverdaulichkeit der Rohnahrstoffe, Aminosauren und Mengenelemente uberpruft. Lactose fuhrte zu einer signifikanten Abnahme der praecaecalen Verdaulichkeit aller Rohnahrstoffe und Aminosauren. Die praecaecale Verdaulichkeit der Lactose betrug 27,4%. Mit Ausnahme des Calciums ging auch die praecaecale scheinbare Verdaulichkeit der Mengenelemente zuruck. Auserdem kam es zu einem erheblichen Anstieg des ileocaecalen Chymusflusses. Die scheinbare Gesamtverdaulichkeit der organischen Substanz, des Rohproteins, des Rohfettes und der Rohfaser wurde durch Lactose ebenfalls beein-trachtigt. Dagegen nahm die scheinbare Gesamtverdaulichkeit von Calcium und Magnesium in der Lactosegruppe zu. Die Gesamtverdaulichkeit der ubrigen Mengenelemente wurde nicht beeinflust.

In this study preileal starch digestibility of starchy feeds (oats, corn, barley, potatoes, manioc) was determined in seven jejunofistulated horses. The grains were fed whole (oats, corn), rolled (oats, barley), crushed, ground and expanded (corn); the potatoes were fresh, the manioc rolled. Ground corn was also fed in combination with amylase. The feeds were fed partly isolated or in combination with alfalfa meal or hay (Table 1). At least four horses with a cannula in the terminal jejunum were used for each diet. Two meals per day were offered at 12 h intervals. The starch intake was mostly about 2 g/kg bw/meal, except one period with oats (3.9 g starch/kg bw) and with expanded corn (1.4 g/kg bw). Jejunal chyme was postprandially collected 11 times (from 1st to the 11th h after the morning meal for 15 min). Starch was determined polarimetrically. The preileal digestibility of starch was calculated by the marker method (chronic oxide 0.25% DM) and by estimating the total jejunoileal chyme flow during 12 h postprandially extrapolating the sample volume from the 15 min sampling periods. The results of both methods agreed quite well. Preileal digestibility of oat starch (80-90%) was (independent of doses or preparation or of the combination with hay, Table 4) significantly higher than that of whole or crushed corn (30%) or barley (26%). Grinding of corn significantly increased preileal digestibility to 51%, expanding to 90%. The addition of amylase improved digestion of ground corn by 10% (absolute). The preileal digestibility of potato or manioc was less than 10%. Individual factors in the horse (chewing intensity, amylase activity) had also considerable influence on preileal starch digestibility.

Horse meat is often used in the context of an elimination diet. For reasons of practicability some pet owners feed canned horse meat, which is commercially available. Based on a report of a cat with food allergy that displayed cervical spondylosis, the vitamin A content was analyzed in various horse meat products.The vitamin A (retinol) content was analyzed in 14 commercially available horse meat products. The content of metabolizable energy was calculated on the basis of the declaration by using estimation equations.High amounts of vitamin A were found in some products for which liver, offal or animal by-products were labelled as contents. When feeding exclusively with one of these products, the vitamin A supply was just below the safe upper limit for cats while above the safe upper limit for dogs.Labelling and content of all-meat-products should be thoroughly checked to identify products with high liver percentages.An excessive vitamin A intake can occur when feeding with horse-meat products with a high liver content over a long period.

Feed hygiene is an essential contribution to equine health and welfare. It can be assessed by sensory and microbiological analysis. The aim of this study was: (a) to compare these systems using the results of 171 horse feed samples, previously examined at the Chair of Animal Nutrition and Dietetics, Munich; (b) to compare the microbiological findings with the results of the sensory examination; and (c) to evaluate the relationship between hygiene scores and case history. Outcomes of the sensory examination (texture, odour, colour, contamination) were classified as either ‘no’, ‘minor’, ‘moderate’ or ‘significant’ hygienic deficiencies. The results of the microbiological analysis were evaluated by two methods: (1) quantitatively, and (2) both qualitatively and quantitatively. The germ counts were categorised in 2 groups as either ‘adequate’ or ‘elevated’ for comparison of the systems. Both systems scored 52% (n=88) of the feed samples as adequate, but 38% (n=65) of the feed samples had elevated counts for at least one of the germ counts. The qualitative evaluation (method 2) rated 10% (n=17) of the mould counts to be elevated indicating poor quality, while these were found to be ‘adequate’ by method 1. The latter graded the yeasts more strictly with seven elevated cases (4%) which were judged normal by method 2. The sensory score strongly correlated with yeast counts (P

The effect of starch and sugars on blood sugar level and renal excretion of sugars and galactitol was investigated. Fifty-nine adult cats were divided into seven dietary groups (carbohydrate content in dry matter): STARCH (29-37% starch, decomposed or raw), SUC (36% sucrose), LAC1 and LAC2 (11 and 28% lactose, respectively), GLUC (40% glucose), GAL (39% galactose) and a carbohydrate-free control diet, FAT. Diet STARCH did not significantly influence postprandial blood glucose level (3.65 +/- 0.68 mmol/l +/- SD, n = 16) compared with diet FAT (3.20 +/- 0.77 mmol/l, n = 14) 1, 3 or 6 h after feeding (weighted means). Diet GLUC led to a steep rise in blood glucose concentration 1 h after feeding (5.08 +/- 0.69 mmol/l, n = 6). Diet SUC induced a mild persistent hyperglycemia without marked postprandial changes (4.52 +/- 0.52 mmol/l, n = 15, weighted mean of 0, 3 and 6 h post-prandially). Diet GAL induced persistent hypoglycemia before and after feeding (2.58 +/- 0.38 mmol/l, n = 13) and considerable postprandial galactosemia (3.26 +/- 1.38 mmol/l, n = 7). In the groups STARCH and FAT, glucose was only detectable in traces in urine, whereas all diets containing sugars led to glucosuria. In group SUC, fructose and sucrose were found in urine and in both lactose groups galactose and lactose were found. Diet GAL led to galactosuria (140 mmol galactose/l). In group LAC1, and especially in group GAL, galactitol was detected in urine. These results point to a rather limited capacity of the cat to metabolize sugars.

Six healthy adult cats were fed a basal minced beef meat and rice diet (one meal per day) with varying amounts or combinations of acidifying and alkalixing additives (ammonium chloride, calcium and sodium carbonate). The base excess in the food (mmol/kg dry matter) was calculated (data on food compounds in g/kg dry matter) as follows: base excess=49.9*Ca+82.3*M8+43.5*Na+25.6*K-64.6*P13.4*met-16.6*cys-28.2*Cl, Base excess in the experimental diets amounted to between +305 and -1079 mmol/kj dry matter. After an adaptation period of 5 d, urine and blood pH as well as water and mineral balance were determined in the cats over a 10-15-d period. The daily mean urine pH ranged between 6.1 and 7.8. There was a highly significant correlation between the base excess in the food and the mean urine pH. The regression line was linear down to a base excess in the diet of ∼-400 to -500 mmol/kg dry matter and a pH in the urine of 6.2. The postprandial increase of urine pH was suppressed either by large amounts of ammonium chloride (>780 mmol/kg dry matter) alone or in combination with calcium carbonate but not in combination with sodium carbonate. The relationship between the decrease of the blood pH and the amount of ammonium chloride added to the diet was more marked than the relationship between blood pH and base excess in the food. To avoid health risks from long term feeding of acidifying diets, it is recommended that struvite diets with low base excess be formulated and that they contain as few alkalixing compounds as possible that must be neutralized by acidifiers

Zusammenfassung Die Aktivitat der Amylase im Magen-Darm-Kanal des Pferdes An insgesamt 18 Pferden (146–410 kg KM) wurde die Aktivitat der Amylase im Pancreasgewebe (postmortal, n = 8), im Chymus des terminalen Jejunums (Fistel am Ende des Jejunums, n = 8) bzw. des Caecums (Caecumfistel, n = 2) nach Futterung von Getreide (Hafer, Mais, Gerste in verschiedenen Zubereitungen), Maissilage und Corn-Cob-Mix sowie Knollenstarken (Tapioka, rohe Kartoffeln) im Vergleich zu ausschlieslicher Heufutterung uberpruft. Der Effekt eines Amylasezusatzes (50 g Amylase HT1000 aus Bacillus subtilis) im Futter auf die Aktivitat im Jejunum wurde ebenfalls untersucht. Auserdem erfolgte die Bestimmung des pH-Optimums der Amylase. Der Einflus einer 3stundigen in vitro-Fermentation des Jejunumchymus auf Amylaseaktivitat und pH-Optimum wurde uberpruft. Die Amylaseaktivitat im Pancreasgewebe bewegte sich zwischen 85 und 909 U/g Gewebe, ein Einflus der Futterung war nicht offensichtlich. Im Mittel betrug die Amylaseaktivitat im Dunndarm 22,3 U/g Chymus. Sie lag bei Rationen mit Getreide deutlich hoher (30,8 ± 15,4 U/g Chymus; n = 161) als bei ausschlieslicher Heufutterung (15,0 ± 3,4 U/g; n=12) bzw. bei Maissilage und Corn-Cob-Mix (7,0 ± 6,6 U/g; n = 32) oder bei Knollenstarke (12,5 ± 9,8 U/g; n = 50). Zwischen einzelnen Pferden bestanden erhebliche Differenzen in der Hohe der Amylaseaktivitat im Jejunumchymus, die sich bei allen Rationen reproduzieren liesen. Der Zusatz von Amylase zum Futter fuhrte zu einem erheblichen Anstieg der Aktivitat im Jejunum (132,3 ± 50,1 U/g; n = 8). Die Aktivitat der Amylase nahm vom Jejunum- zum Caecumchymus sowie nach in vitro-Fermentation ab. Das pH-Optimum der Pancreasamylase lag bei pH 7. Der Verlauf des pH-Optimums war im Jejunumchymus ahnlich wie im Pancreasgewebe, wahrend die Kurve im Caecumchymus und nach in vitro-Fermentation flacher verlief.

Case Description—3 hornbills (2 Papua hornbills [Aceros plicatus] and 1 longtailed hornbill [Tockus albocristatus]) were evaluated because of general listlessness and loss of feather glossiness. Clinical Findings—Because hepatic iron storage disease was suspected, liver biopsy was performed and formalin-fixed liver samples were submitted for histologic examination and quantitative image analysis (QIA). Additional frozen liver samples were submitted for chemical analysis. Birds also underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) under general anesthesia for noninvasive measurement of liver iron content. Serum biochemical analysis and analysis of feed were also performed. Results of diagnostic testing indicated that all 3 hornbills were affected with hepatic iron storage disease. Treatment and Outcome—The iron chelator deferiprone was administered (75 mg/kg [34.1 mg/lb], PO, once daily for 90 days). During the treatment period, liver biopsy samples were obtained at regular intervals for QIA and chemical analysis of the liver iron content and follow-up MRI was performed. In all 3 hornbills, a rapid and large decrease in liver iron content was observed. All 3 methods for quantifying the liver iron content were able to verify the decrease in liver iron content. Clinical Relevance—Orally administered deferiprone was found to effectively reduce the liver iron content in these 3 hornbills with iron storage disease. All 3 methods used to monitor the liver iron content (QIA, chemical analysis of liver biopsy samples, and MRI) had similar results, indicating that all of these methods should be considered for the diagnosis of iron storage disease and monitoring of liver iron content during treatment.

Data on body weight of pure-bred kittens (Maine Coon, Norwegian Forest Cat, Birman, Persian, Siamese/Oriental Shorthair Cat) from birth (n 245) to 12 weeks of age (n 135) were obtained from breeders. Absolute birth weight (in g) was higher in larger breeds than in smaller breeds, whereas relative birth weight (in % of mature female weight) tended to be higher in smaller breeds (Maine Coon 115 g, 2·3 %; Norwegian Forest Cat 106 g, 2·7 %; Birman 97 g, 2·8 %; Siamese 92 g, 2·8 %; Persian 82 g, 3·2 %). Relative birth weight was lower than that described in the literature for colony cats. Relative litter weight was highest in Norwegian Forest Cats (14·6 (sd 1·8) %; n 10) and lowest in Birmans (8·8 (sd 3·1) %, n 7; P sd 2·0) %; n 19). Absolute growth was faster in larger breeds than in smaller breeds. In relation to expected mature weight, there was good agreement with data from colony cats but no clear-cut effect of breed size. There appeared to be a trend to an earlier onset of sexual dimorphism in larger breeds.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a different energy supply on the development of Warmblood foals with a focus on examining the recommended allowances of the German Society for Nutrition Physiology.Two groups of foals received different amounts of concentrates from the 1st until the 6th month of life. With regards to the total energy content, the rations were composed to either comply with the recommendations (6) (group "Norm", n=15) or to exceed those by approximately 20% (group "Zulage", n=16). The supply with concentrates of the group "Norm" aimed for a total energy intake of 73 MJ DE/animal/day, the intake of the group "Zulage" of 87 MJ DE/animal/day. Both groups were provided with the same amount of foal starter feed, but different amounts of oats. Both groups were supplied with 1.0, 1.2, 2.0, 2.0 and 2.35 kg foal starter feed per animal and day from the 2nd until the 6th month of life. Additionally, 0.6, 0.7, 0.5, 0.8 and 0.45 kg oats per animal and day (group "Norm") and 1.8, 2.0, 1.75, 2.0 and 1.75 kg (group "Zulage") were offered during months 2 to 6. The animals were fed twice daily. The roughage consisted of a late first cut of haylage. The animals were out to pasture for several hours/day. Individual concentrate intake, body mass and body condition score (BCS) as well as several other growth parameters were recorded. The total amount of haylage consumed by all animals was documented.The daily average intake of concentrates lay between 0.4 ("Norm") and 0.5 kg ("Zulage") in the 2nd month and between 2.8 ("Norm") and 3.7 kg ("Zulage") in the 6th month. The groups did not differ in any recorded parameter. The amount of concentrates offered was entirely eaten for the first time at an age of approximately 180 days.The results suggest that the energy requirements of foals are approximately 10-20% lower than the recommendations.

Zusammenfassung Kohlenhydmtstoffwechsel der Katze. 4. Maltase-, Isomaltase-, Saccharase- und Lactaseaktivitat im Verdauungskanal in Abhangigkeit von Alter und Futteung Bei 26 erwachsenen Europaisch-Kurzhaarkatzen und 32 Katzenwelpen (neugeboren bis 12 Wochen alt) wurde die Aktivitat der Maltase, Isomaltase, Saccharase und Lactase in der Dunndarmmucosa uberpruft. Bei einem Teil der adulten Tiere wurde auserdem die Aktivitat im Pancreasgewebe, in der Dickdarmmucosa, im Chymus und in den Faeces untersucht. Die Bestimmung der Disaccharidaseaktivitat erfolgte durch Freisetzung von Glucose aus Disacchariden, als Bezugssystem wurde der Proteingehalt der Mucosa herangezogen. Die Futterung (kohlenhydratfrei, starkereich mit 29–37% Starke, saccharosereich mit 36% Saccharose, lactosereich mit 28% Lactose in der Trockensubstanz) hatte keinen Einflus auf die Aktivitat der Disaccharidasen. Maltase, Isomaltase und Saccharase wurden auch vom Alter nicht beeinflust (Maltase adult 102 ± 58, neugeboren 66 ± 77, Isomaltase 35 ± 28 bzw. 30 ± 20, Saccharase 17 ± 23 bei adulten und 15 ± 8 U/g Protein bei neugeborenen Katzen). Dagegen ging die Lactaseaktivitat von 96 + 66 U/g Protein bei neugeborenen Katzen auf 13 ± 9 U/g Protein bei 6 Wochen alten Welpen zuruck (adulte 7 ± 8). Bei einzelnen adulten Tieren trat im Jejunum eine weit uberdurchschnittliche Lactaseaktivitat (bis zu 53 U/g Protein) auf. Im Pancreasgewebe wurde eine geringe Maltase- und Isomaltaseaktivitat aber weder Lactase noch Saccharase, nachgewiesen. In Chymus und Feces waren alle uberpruften Disaccharidase (Maltase, Saccharase, Lactase) in geringer Aktivitat vorhanden, in der Dickdarmmucosa lag sie in ahnlicher Grosenordnung wie im Chymus.

Zusammenfassung Einflus der Futterung auf die Aktivitat der Maltase, Saccharase und Lactase in der Dunndarmmucosa des Pferdes Bei 29 Kleinpferden (126–311 kg, 3–15 Jahre) wurde die Aktivitat der Disaccharidasen in der Dunndarmmucosa (Duodenum, mittleres Jeiunum, Ileum) bestimmt. Die Tiere erhielten fur mindestens 6 Wochen vor der Untersuchung eine von folgenden 4 Rationen - Heu ohne Kraftfutter, - saccharosereiche Ration auf der Grundlage von Trockenschnitzeln, Sojaprotein und Stroh (24–31% Stroh, 23–30% Saccharose), - starkereiche, rohfaserarme Mischung auf der Basis von Maisschrot (10% Heu, 56% Starke), - Maissilage. Nach Totung der Pferde 5 Stunden postprandial erfolgte die Entnahme und Praparation der Mucosa. Die Enzymaktivitat im Mucosahomogenat wurde anhand der Freisetzung von Glucose aus gepufferter Disaccharidlosung (pH 6) ermittelt. Als Bezugssystem diente der Proteingchalt der Mucosa. Daneben wurde die Aktivitat pro g Frischgewicht und pro g Darmwand berechnet. Die spezifische Maltase- und Saccharaseaktivitat pro g Protein war im Jejunum am hochsten und stieg nach Futterung beider Kraftfutterrationen tendenziell an, wahrend sie nach Maissilagefutterung zuruckging (Aktivitat der Maltase/Saccharase im Jejunum U/g Protein: Heu 219/80, Maisschrot 413/128, zuckerreiche Ration 318/105, Maissilage 162/124). Bei Kraftfuttergabe sowie bei Maissilagefutterung ging der Proteingehalt der Mucosa zuruck (Jejunum: Heu 10,8, Maisschrot 7,5, zuckerreiche Ration 6,1, Maissilage 4,8%). Der Anteil der Mucosa am Darm nahm bei der rauhfutterarmen, starkereichen Maisschrotration im Vergleich zu allen anderen Rationen zu (Mucosaanteil im Jejunum: Heu 8, Maisschrot 20, zuckerreiche Ration 8, Maissilage 11 %). Wenn statt des Proteins das Feuchtgewicht der Mucosa als Bezugssystem gewahlt wurde, kam daher nur noch fur die rauhfutterarme Maisschrotration tendenziell ein gewisser Induktionseffekt des Kraftfutters zustande, wahrend die Aktivitat bezogen auf das Gewicht der Darmwand ebenfalls nur bei dieser Ration signifikant zunahm. Die auftretenden Differenzen sind daher vermutlich eher auf rationsbedingte Veranderungen der Zusammensetzung und Starke der Mucosa als auf spezifische Induktionseffekte zuruckzufuhren. Die Aktivitat der Lactase war von der Futterung unabhangig, das Maximum lag ebenfalls im Jejunum. Nach dem 6. Lebensjahr kam es auch bei adulten Pferden zu einem deutlichen Ruckgang der Aktivitat (Jejunum: 3–6 Jahre 38 ± 19, > 6 Jahre 7 ± 8 U/g Protein).

Zusammenfassung Koblenhydratstoffwechsel der Katze 1. Aktivitat der Amylase im Verdauungskanal Erwachsene Katzen erhielten entweder eine von 3 verschiedenen starkereichen Rationen (gekochte bzw. rohe Maisstarke, rohe Kartoffelstarke, 30–37% Starke in der Trockensubstanz) oder eine kohlenhydratfreie Kontrollration. In Pancreas, Chymus und Faeces wurde die Aktivitat der Amylase bestimmt. Auserdem erfolgte eine Charakterisierung der Amylase aus Pancreasgewebe und Kot (pH-Optimum, Bindung an Partikel, Aktivitat im Bakteriensediment, Saurestabilitat, Einflus von in-vitro-Fermentation). In einem weiteren Versuchsdurchgang wurde der Effekt oraler Antibiose (500 mg Ampicillin, 75 mg Clindamycin, 12,5 mg Enrofloxacin/Tier/d) auf die Amylaseaktivitat im Kot uberpruft. Chymotrypsin wurde in Chymus, Kot und nach in-vitro-Fermentation bestimmt. Die Aktivitat der Amylase im Pancreas und Chymus war relativ gering (Pancreas 75 U/g, Dunndarmchymus 10–50 U/g Frischgewicht). Es trat nur ein geringer Induktionseffekt durch Starke im Futter auf, nach sehr langfristiger Starkefutterung verdoppelte sich die Aktivitat im Dunndarm. Die Amylaseaktivitat nahm nach caudal ab. Die grose Ahnlichkeit der faecalen Amylase mit der Pancreasamylase bei der Charakterisierung, das Ausbleiben einer systematischen Veranderung der Aktivitat im Kot bei oraler Antibiose sowie der Ruckgang bei in-vitro-Fermentation sprechen dafur, das der uberwiegende Teil der Amylase im Verdauungskanal der Katze aus dem Pancreas stammt.

The development of a metabolizable energy (ME) system for horses is described. Predictive equations for gross energy and digestible energy (DE) are revisited. The relationship between feed protein content and renal energy losses and the relationship between feed fibre content and methane energy losses were analysed in a literature review to develop predictive equations for ME. In horses, renal energy losses are much higher than losses by methane energy. Renal energy losses were correlated more strictly to protein intake than to digestible protein intake. The reason probably is that per gram of digestible crude protein energy losses are higher for roughage than for concentrates presumably because phenolic acids of forage cell walls contribute to higher urinary energy losses. However, digestibility of protein is lower in forages than in concentrates. The net result is a rather constant urinary energy loss of 0.008 MJ/g of crude protein in the feed. Methane losses in horses are smaller than in ruminants, presumably because of reductive acidogenesis in hind gut fermentation. Methane energy losses in equines are closely related to crude fibre intake. The mean methane energy losses amount to 0.002 MJ ME/g of crude fibre which can be used to correct for methane losses. Both corrections can be made for any predictive equation for DE. Metabolizable energy is then calculated as follows: ME MJ/kg = DE MJ/kg - 0.008 MJ/g crude protein - 0.002 MJ/g crude fibre. The equation of Zeyner and Kienzle (2002) to predict DE was adapted as mentioned above to predict ME: ME (MJ/kg dry matter) = -3.54 + 0.0129 crude protein+0.0420 crude fat-0.0019 crude fibre+0.0185 N-free extract (crude nutrients in g/kg dry matter).

The retention of ingesta in the digestive tract is a major characteristic of herbivorous animals. We measured particle and fluid mean retention times (MRT) in 13 lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) and 5 Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) from five zoological institutions on their usual zoo diet and 2 lowland and 4 Malayan tapirs additionally on roughage-only diets (total n of trials = 24) with cobalt-EDTA as fluid and chromium-mordanted fibre (

Estimating the energy content is the first step in diet formulation, as it determines the amount of food eaten and hence the concentration of nutrients required to meet the animal's requirements. Additionally, being able to estimate the energy content of a diet empirically known to maintain body condition in an animal will facilitate an estimation of maintenance energy requirements. We collated data on nutrient composition of diets fed to captive wild canids, felids, hyenids, mustelids, pinnipeds, and ursids and the digestibility coefficients from the literature (45 species, 74 publications) to test whether differences in protein and fat digestibility could be detected between species groups, and whether approaches suggested for the estimation of dietary metabolizable energy (ME) content in domestic carnivores (NRC [2006] Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.) can be applied to wild carnivores as well. Regressions of digestible protein or fat content vs. the crude protein (CP) or fat content indicated no relevant differences in the digestive physiology between the carnivore groups. For diets based on raw meat, fish, or whole prey, applying the calculation of ME using “Atwater factors” (16.7 kJ/g CP; 16.7 kJ/g nitrogen-free extracts; 37.7 kJ/g crude fat) provided estimates that compared well to experimental results. This study suggests that ME estimation in such diets is feasible without additional digestion trials. For comparative nutrition research, the study implicates that highly digestible diets typically fed in zoos offer little potential to elucidate differences between species or carnivore groups, but research on diets with higher proportions of difficult-to-digest components (fiber, connective tissues) is lacking. Zoo Biol 29:687–704, 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Knowledge about metabolisable energy (ME) intake is crucial for various experimental settings in rodent studies. ME considers faecal and renal energy losses. In particular, faecal energy excretion can vary considerably between differentially composed diets. Thus determination of faecal energy losses, i.e. apparent energy digestibility, is the most important experimental approach to determine ME. Predictive equations for ME such as Atwater factors or an equation for pigs, which are frequently employed for rodent feed, consider an average energy digestibility for nutrients and average renal losses for protein. Both equations, however, were never validated for rat feed. We therefore determined experimentally the digestibility of energy (experimentally determined digestible energy − 5·2 kJ/g digestible protein) and nutrients of eleven natural and five purified rat diets and compared the present results with the predicted values. Compared with natural diets, digestibility of gross energy (GE) and nutrients was higher by about 20 % in the purified diets (P n11). Atwater factors predicted ME with satisfactory accuracy in purified diets. In contrast, for natural diets, only the equation for pig feed gave acceptable estimates of ME. Choosing an inappropriate predictive equation for ME resulted in considerable error. For prediction of ME in mixed rat feed, we propose to use the equation for pig feed for natural diets and Atwater factors for purified diets. If the equation for pig feed cannot be applied we suggest using the lower modified Atwater factors instead of the ‘original’ Atwater factors to estimate the ME of a diet.

A major difference between reptile and mammalian herbivores is that the former do not masticate their food. Actually, food particle size reduction by chewing is usually considered one of the adaptations facilitating the higher metabolic rates of mammals. However, quantitative comparisons of ingesta particle size between the clades have, to our knowledge, not been performed so far. We measured mean fecal particle size (MPS) in 79 captive individuals of 14 reptile herbivore species (tortoises, lizards, and Corucia zebrata) by wet sieving and compared the results with a mammalian dataset. MPS increased with body mass in both clades, but at a significantly higher level in reptiles. Limited evidence in free-ranging and captive individuals of Testudo hermanni indicates that in reptiles, the ability to crop food and food particle size significantly influence fecal particle size. The opportunistic observation of a drastic particle size difference between stomach and intestinal contents corroborates findings that in reptiles, in contrast to terrestrial mammals, significant ingesta particle size reduction does occur in the gastrointestinal tract, most likely owing to microbial action during very long ingesta retention. Whether behavioral adaptations to controlling ingesta particle size, such as deliberate small bite sizes, are adaptive strategies in reptiles remains to be investigated.

The objective of this study was to confirm that weight loss after treatment with mitratapide (Yarvitan®) is loss of adipose tissue. Obese dogs were treated with the recommended treatment schedule of mitratapide. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was done before and after the treatment schedule. Body weight, feed consumption and pelvic circumference were recorded and a glucose tolerance test was performed. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements showed an impressive loss of fat tissue, corresponding to a mean loss of approximately 41.6% of the body fat mass recorded before treatment. After treatment with mitratapide, the mean body fat percentage had returned within the normal range. At the end of the study, the dogs had lost on average 14.2% of their body weight and 15.2% of their pelvic circumference compared to baseline. The results also suggest that losing weight with mitratapide might help to reverse insulin resistance.

Allometric equations are often used to extrapolate traits in animals for which only body mass estimates are known, such as dinosaurs. One important decision can be whether these equations should be based on mammal, bird or reptile data. To address whether this choice will have a relevant influence on reconstructions, we compared allometric equations for birds and mammals from the literature to those for reptiles derived from both published and hitherto unpublished data. Organs studied included the heart, kidneys, liver and gut, as well as gut contents. While the available data indicate that gut content mass does not differ between the clades, the organ masses for reptiles are generally lower than those for mammals and birds. In particular, gut tissue mass is significantly lower in reptiles. When applying the results in the reconstruction of a sauropod dinosaur, the estimated volume of the coelomic cavity greatly exceeds the estimated volume of the combined organ masses, irrespective of the allometric equation used. Therefore, substantial deviation of sauropod organ allometry from that of the extant vertebrates can be allowed conceptually. Extrapolations of retention times from estimated gut contents mass and food intake do not suggest digestive constraints on sauropod dinosaur body size.

To test whether mineral recommendations for horses are likely to guarantee adequate mineral provision for tapirs (Tapirus spp.), we investigated the apparent absorption (aA) of macro and micro-minerals in 18 tapirs from five zoological institutions in a total of 24 feeding trials with total faecal collection. Samples of feeds and faeces were analysed for Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Cu and Zn. The resulting aA coefficients and the linear relationships of apparently absorbable dietary mineral content to total dietary mineral content (per 100 g dry matter) were compared with data for domestic horses. While there were no apparent differences in the absorption patterns for P, K, Na, Fe, Cu or Zn, the absorption of both Ca and Mg was distinctively higher in tapirs than in horses. Tapirs are browsers that are adapted to a diet of higher Ca content and higher Ca:P ratio than equids, and high absorptive efficiency for Ca might have evolved to ensure that high dietary Ca concentrations do not lead to the binding of dietary P in the intestine, making it unavailable for hindgut microbes. Similar to other hindgut fermenters, in tapirs, absorption coefficients for Ca increased with dietary Ca:P ratio, and urinary Ca:creatinine ratios increased with dietary Ca. Several zoo diets used were deficient in one or more minerals. When compared with faeces of free-ranging animals, faeces of zoo animals had higher concentrations of most minerals, probably indicating a lesser diluting effect of indigestible fibre in zoo animals.

Free-ranging browsing herbivores ingest a range of secondary plant compounds, such as tannins, with their natural diet. As many of these substances have been shown to have antibacterial properties, it could be speculated that a lack of such compounds in captive zoo diets could favour the growth of potentially pathogenic intestinal bacteria. The effect of a supplementation of a conventional diet (N, consisting mainly of grass hay and/or lucerne hay and pelleted compound feeds) fed to eight captive black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) from three zoological institutions with either tannic acid (T), a source of hydrolysable tannins, or quebracho (Q), a source of condensed tannins, was investigated. The number of faecal colony forming units (CFU) of Enterobactericeae was determined by colony count of dilution series from fresh faeces applied to MacConkey agar plates. Tannins were added to the diets at approximately 5-15 g/kg dry matter, depending on the varying intake of roughage and compound feeds by the animals. There was no difference in the number of CFU between diets N (95.0 x 10(5) +/- 225.3 x 10(5)/g fresh faeces) and T (164.3 x 10(5) +/- 225.1 x 10(5)/g fresh faeces); in contrast, diet Q led to a significant reduction in CFU (4.3 x 10(5) +/- 6.5 x 10(5)/g fresh faeces) compared with the other diets. These findings suggest that condensed tannins could have the potential to reduce the number of potentially pathogenic intestinal bacteria, and that the deliberate inclusion of tannin sources in the diets of captive wild animals should be further investigated. The fact that tannic acid, shown to have antibacterial effects in various in vitro studies, did not have an effect in this study, emphasizes that the relevance of tannin supplementation for intestinal health must be verified in vivo.

Hay samples from 29 horse farms in Southern Upper Bavaria and 31 horse farms in Switzerland were taken and analysed for minerals such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium. The content of herbs and legumes in the hay was determined and the Weende analysis was performed. Comparison between Bavaria and Switzerland resulted in comparable calcium contents of approximately 4 g Ca/kg dry matter (DM) in grass hay. Hay with more than 10% of herbs and legumes found only in Switzerland showed higher Ca contents of >7 g Ca/kg DM in hay. The mineral contents of phosphorus and potassium were lower in hay from Switzerland (P: 1.8 +/- 0.7 g/kg DM, K: 15.4 +/- 5.1 g/kg DM) than from Bavaria (P: 3.8 +/- 0.6 g/kg DM, K: 20.0 +/- 6.0 DM), whereas the magnesium content of the hay showed no difference between the regions ( approximately 1.5 g Mg/kg DM). Very late first grass hay cuts showed low magnesium and calcium (

Data from captive animals indicated that browsing (BR) ruminants have larger fecal particles-indicative of lesser chewing efficiency-than grazers (GR). To answer whether this reflects fundamental differences between the animal groups, or different reactions of basically similar organisms to diets fed in captivity, we compared mean fecal particle size (MPS) in a GR and a BR ruminant (aurox Bos primigenius taurus, giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis) and a GR and a BR hindgut fermenter (Przewalski's horse Equus ferus przewalskii, lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris), both from captivity and from the wild. As would be expected owing to a proportion of finely ground, pelleted feeds in captive diets, MPS was smaller in captive than free-ranging GR. In contrast, MPS was drastically higher in captive than in free-ranging BR of either digestion type. Thus, the difference in MPS between GR and BR was much more pronounced among captive than free-ranging animals. The results indicate that BR teeth have adapted to their natural diet so that in the wild, they achieve a particle size reduction similar to that of GR. However, although GR teeth seem equally adapted to food ingested in captivity, the BR teeth seem less well suited to efficiently chew captive diets. In the case of ruminants, less efficient particle size reduction could contribute to potential clinical problems like "rumen blockage" and bezoar formation. Comparisons of MPS between free-ranging and captive animals might offer indications for the physical suitability of zoo diets. Zoo Biol 27:70-77, 2008. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Purpose. It has been repeatedly speculated that a deficiency in copper (Cu) or an excessive provision with dietary manganese (Mn) could play a role in spongiform encephalopathies [bovine (BSE) and others]. Therefore, commercial cattle feeds were screened for their content of these minerals.Design. The historical development of the levels of Cu and Mn in Bavarian cattle feeds was evaluated and the levels compared with feeding recommendations.Materials and methods. We report declared Cu and Mn contents from proprietary cattle feeds sold in Bavaria between 1978 and 1998.Results. Mn contents in ruminant feeds were generally high, and there was a trend of increasing Mn levels in ruminant feeds between 1980 and 1990, which was in synchrony with an increase in internationally recommended Mn levels for ruminants. Recently, the recommendations have been modified again to lower levels.Conclusion. Although no causative connection to the occurrence of BSE can be made, the practice of high Mn supplementation of propri...

Free-ranging browsers such as the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) consume a diet that contains tannins, whereas the diets offered to them in captivity consist mostly of items known to contain hardly any such secondary plant compounds. Tannins could have potentially beneficial effects, including the chelation of dietary iron (iron storage disease is a common problem in black rhinos). Here, we tested the acceptance, and the consequences on digestion variables, of a low-dose tannin supplementation in captive animals. Eight black rhinoceroses from three zoological institutions were used. Faecal output was quantified by total faecal collection. Diets fed were regular zoo diets supplemented with either tannic acid (T, hydrolysable tannin) or quebracho (Q, condensed tannins); overall tannin source intake increased at 5-15 g/kg dry matter (DM) in relation to regular zoo diets. Adaptation periods to the new diets were >2 months. Additional data were taken from one hitherto unpublished study. Data were compared to measurements in the same animals on their regular zoo diets. All animals accepted the new diets without hesitation. There was no influence of tannin supplementation on digestion coefficients of DM and its constituents, or faecal concentrations of short-chain fatty acids or lactate. Water intake did not increase during tannin supplementation. Should the inclusion of dietary tannin sources be an objective in the development of diets for captive rhinoceroses, moderate doses such as used in this study are unlikely to cause relevant depressions of digestive efficiency and will not interfere with bacterial fermentation in a relevant way.

Synopsis A case is reported where a commercial milk substitute coagulated in the stomach of kittens into a big lump causing lethal digestive disorders. The solid clotting type could be reproduced in vitro by adding hydrochloric acid. It is recommended that milk substitutes containing soluble casein should be tested for their clotting quality in an acid environment.

Numerous investigations and reports have covered the potential negative effects of an excess of calcium (Ca) in the skeletal development of young dogs. However, it still remains unclear why not all puppies, particularly of larger breeds, develop clinical signs of skeletal disorders after an overexposure to Ca. This trial with the small Beagle breed and a larger Foxhound-crossbred dog (with an adult weight of around 35 kg) investigated the effects of Ca-excess on parameters of bone growth. The employed small breed is known for its chondrodystrophic predispositions, no such data are reported for the slender hound-type Foxhound-crossbred dogs. The Ca-supply had no influence on weight development and general health of the dogs. The measurements of bone lengths and widths in X-rays of the forearm of Beagles and Foxhound-crossbred dogs at 6 weeks of age, and again after a period of overexposure to Ca at about 27 weeks of age, revealed a growth-reducing influence only in Beagles, without influence on clinical parameters of skeletal health.

In contrast to the grazing white (C. simum) and Indian (R. unicornis) rhinoceros, the black rhinoceros (D. bicornis) is an exclusive browser. Due to the particular fermentation characteristics of browse, one would expect browsers to display both shorter ingesta retention times and lower digestion coefficients on comparable diets than grazers. In order to generate a database to test this hypothesis, we performed digestibility studies in eight black rhinoceroses (D. bicornis) from three zoological institutions, using total faecal collection for the quantification of faecal output. One to three regularly fed zoo rations of roughage, concentrates and varying proportions of browse material were used per animal. Additional data was taken from three hitherto unpublished studies as well as several published sources. When compared with horses on similar rations, black rhinoceroses achieved lower digestion coefficients for organic matter and CF. In general, an increase in dietary CF content led to a steeper decrease in organic matter and GE digestibility in black rhinoceroses than in horses. When comparing available data for rhinoceroses, browsing species showed a steeper decrease in organic matter digestibility than grazing species with increasing dietary cell wall content. Endogenous losses as determined by linear regression analysis were within the range reported for horses and Indian rhinoceroses. The results suggest that the horse is not a useful model animal for evaluating diets for black rhinoceroses energetically. In general, diets fed to captive black rhinoceroses seem to include higher proportions of concentrates than diets for other rhinoceros species, and an increase in browse or roughage would reduce digestion coefficients to levels observed in animals fed natural forage.

In order to identify the management and feeding practices that might have contributed to the occurrence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in Bavaria, Germany, information from 110 dairy farms on which a case of BSE had been reported was compared with information derived from a questionnaire sent to approximately 10,000 Bavarian farms on which no case of BSE had been reported up to February 2003. Representative information was obtained from 4006 dairy farms. The results indicated that in comparison with these control farms a higher proportion of the BSE farms had also kept pigs or poultry, although the difference was not significant, and that a significantly higher proportion of the BSE farms had fed proprietary concentrates and/or milk replacers to their calves.

In context with the frequent observations of excessive iron (Fe) storage in captive black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis), it has been suggested that both an excessive dietary Fe content and a lack of dietary Fe-chelating substances, such as tannins, is the underlying cause. Therefore, studies on the effects of tannin supplementation to captive diet are warranted. Six captive rhinoceroses were fed their normal zoo diet (N), and a similar diet supplemented with either tannic acid (T, hydrolysable tannin) or quebracho (Q, condensed tannins), and the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was measured as mmol Trolox equivalents per kg fresh faeces. The TAC values on diets N (1.24 +/- 0.39 mmol/kg fresh faeces) and T (1.34 +/- 0.33 mmol/kg fresh faeces) were similar, but significantly higher on diet Q (2.32 +/- 0.61 mmol/kg fresh faeces). In contrast to expectations, faecal TAC increased with increasing faecal Fe, possibly as a result of the fact that the faecal Fe content was positively correlated to the proportion of concentrate feeds in the diet, which also contain antioxidants, such as vitamin E, in addition to Fe. Increased antioxidant status caused by the use of tannin substances could have a beneficial effect on animal health, but if tannins should be incorporated in designed diets, other tannin sources, such as grape pomace should be tested.

In the captive Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), two disease complexes with a high incidence-chronic foot problems and uterine leiomyomas-may be linked to excess body weight (BW). In this study, intake and digestion trials were conducted (by means of 7-day weigh-backs, and 5-day total fecal collections, respectively) with I I Indian rhinoceroses at four zoological institutions in Europe and the United States to quantify energy and mineral nutrition on conventional or roughage-only diets. Diets comprising a variety of forages (grass hay only, a combination of grass hay and grass silage, straw, or a mixture of grass and legume hay) were offered as the roughage source, along with various concentrates, produce, and supplements. Water intake was quantified, and urine samples were obtained opportunistically. The animals consumed 0.5-1.1% of their BW in dry matter (DM) daily, with calculated digestible energy (DE, in megajoules MJ) values ranging from 0.27 to 0.99 MJ DE/kg BW0.75/day compared to an estimated requirement of 0.49-0.66 MJ DE/kg BW0.75/day. Seven of 11 rhinos (64%) fed restricted levels of concentrate plus forage consumed DE in excess of this estimate. Even on roughage-only diets, some individuals consumed energy well above the presumed metabolic requirements. Hence, restriction of both concentrates and roughage may be important for weight management in this species. Water intake ranged from 30 to 49 mL/kg BW daily (3.4-5.2 L/kg ingested DM), similar to values that have been reported for domestic equids. Excretion amounts and patterns also resembled those found in horses. Endogenous fecal losses measured for Ca, P, Cu, Fe, and Zn indicate that the maintenance requirements of these minerals should be met in Indian rhinoceroses by diets that meet recommendations for domestic horses. It is particularly important to evaluate dietary adequacy in mineral nutrition in this species in concert with the need for restricted energy intake, especially with regard to the hypothetical involvement of a low Zn supply in chronic foot problems.