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A study analyzed word recognition instruction in four first-grade classrooms to begin to identify the instructional practices that best foster learning to read words for particular profiles of children. The study was based on the question of which, and how many, word-recognition strategies should be taught to first-grade children. Subjects were part of four demographically similar classrooms which were observed for a year. In each classroom, students were organized into reading groups of varying abilities. Instructional practice varied widely across these classrooms; phonics and phonemic awareness activities were more common in Classrooms 2 and 4, and while children in Classrooms 2, 3, and 4 were on average reading at or above their grade level by the end of the year, the only low group children who were reading at grade level were those in Classrooms 2 and 4. Findings suggest: (1) differential instruction may be helpful in first grade; (2) children who enter first grade with low literacy benefit from early exposure to phonics, moving later toward the increased vocabulary and text discussion that serves their higher range peers well; and (3) a structured phonics curriculum that includes both onsets and rimes and also sounding and blending phonemes within rimes appears to be very effective. Contains 49 references, 16 tables, and 4 figures. An appendix contains examples of classroom dialogs. (EF)

This paper argues that the standards for reporting and interpreting educational research should be raised. It suggests the need for a higher standard is urgent in fields such as beginning reading, in which public interest is intense, because findings can quickly become distorted or misinterpreted and enshrined through misinformed policy decisions. The paper argues that researchers investigating beginning reading should exercise extra caution to delimit findings from their own studies and should take special pains to shows how studies contribute to a larger picture of literacy development which policy makers and educational leaders, in turn, need to consider. The paper examines B.R. Foorman, D.J. Francis, J.M. Fletcher, C. Schatschneider, and P. Mehta's "The Role of Instruction in Learning to Read: Preventing Reading Failure in At-Risk Children" (1998), a recent, and uncommonly influential, reading methods study as an "example of research that has been overly promoted by the media and misused by some policy makers and educational leaders to support a simple solution to the complex problem of raising the literacy of young children in high poverty neighborhoods." Contains a figure and 93 references. (EF)

Large household surveys are used to analyze links between schooling inequality and earnings inequality in Brazil and South Africa, countries that have long had among the highest levels of income inequality in the world. The studies were the 1995 South African October Household Survey (32,000 households) and the 1995 Brazilian Pesquisa Nacional de Amostra de Domicilios (about 85,000 households). Although the countries have similar earnings inequality, South Africa has much lower inequality in schooling. The contribution of schooling to earnings inequality is very similar in the two countries, however, due to the convex relationship between schooling and earnings. If the countries traded schooling distributions or returns to schooling, there would be little effect on earnings inequality. Both countries demonstrate strong relationships between parents' schooling and children's schooling, a key component of the intergenerational transmission of inequality. It is significant, however, that the penalty for having poorly educated parents is much smaller in South Africa. The results suggest that even large improvements in schooling maybe associated with inertia in earnings inequality in developing countries. (Contains 6 tables, 8 figures, and 18 references.) (Author/SLD)

This paper describes the context that has encouraged the emergence of more than 100 employer-linked charter schools throughout the United States and examines the efforts of the employers and educators who are involved in employer-linked charter schools. The paper begins by explaining how the following business changes have promoted development of employer-linked charter schools: technology; globalization; escalating customer expectations; view of people as a strategic element; and extended enterprise. Discussed next are the promise of employer-linked charter schools and the natural affinity between employers and charters. Examples are then presented that illustrate the following key elements of employer-linked charter schools at work: founders' vision; learning in context and in the world; meeting workforce development needs; charters' relationship to traditional school systems; unique features of employer-linked charter schools; curriculum innovation; raising standards; assessment of student achievement; flexibility in staffing; and role models and mentoring. The paper's conclusion emphasizes the following findings regarding employer-linked charter schools: they provide compelling evidence of what charters can accomplish; they can increase the level of ownership by the business community; their relationship with public education can take many forms; they serve diverse as well as disadvantaged student populations; and they are an experiment in progress. (MN)

Patterns of interaction, including power relations and social goals, were investigated by observing first-grade children over a 5-month period as they worked in small groups to compose stories on the computer. Three groups selected for in-depth analysis represent the wide range of observed interaction patterns. Differences in interaction patterns included emphasis on fairness, control, exploration, and social cohesion. Several social goals guided children's actions, including appearing competent to peers, dominating peers, and creating solidarity with peers. Differential status within the partnership was reflected in the variation in types of social behaviors that children displayed. Commonalities in interaction patterns among groups included using one another as resources, expressing opposition, directing versus instructing, and using self-monitoring and repetition. Agreed-upon strategies and plans emerged as facilitative in maintaining positive affect in contrast with negative and conflict-ridden exchanges. Focus on local concerns in composing was observed in all three groups, consistent with the level of development of first graders' writing off the computer. Suggestions are provided for modeling positive social interactions and higher-level compositional planning. Contains 47 references and 4 tables of data. (Author/RS)

This report describes the design, implementation, and impact of a book loan program in an inner-city preschool where books were freely and easily available to low-income primarily Spanish-speaking families, most of whom are recent immigrants. Data collected included check-out frequency, book titles, student participation, and field notes of the interactions between project staff and families during book check-out. In one year, book check-out increased from an average of 1.5 to 16 books per day, with 70% of eligible children checking out books. Six of the eight most popular books are Spanish titles. Questionnaires and field notes indicated that immigrant parents typically place a high value on books. Large turnouts (100 parents) at the two parent receptions/reading demonstrations were concrete evidence of parents' commitment to supporting their children's learning. Findings suggest that the program's success can be attributed to accessibility and the content of the literacy materials (books on culturally appropriate topics and in Spanish). Contains 53 references, 1 table and 6 figures of data; appendixes contain a preliminary assessment tool and book loan program parent responses. (Author/RS)

The America Reads Challenge Act of 1997 created a nationwide effort to meet President Clinton's challenge for American citizens to volunteer as reading tutors "to ensure that every American child...learns to read well and independently by the end of third grade" (USDOE, 1997). Research has shown that volunteer tutors can be effective in reading to children, providing supervised practice in oral reading, and engaging children in enriching conversation. Much has been written about the training of tutors, but little mention of materials and the tutors' application of their training has been made. This report documents the first year of an America Reads program at a midwestern university where federal work study students were trained as reading tutors. The study provides a broad overview of the training provided to approximately eighty federal work study university students and their reported implementation of tutoring components. It also includes an indepth examination of the yearlong tutoring sessions of two tutors and their three tutees. Contains 25 references and 11 tables of data; an appendix contains a tutor survey. (Author/RS)

This paper reviews the existing research on joint storybook reading practices, outlining the behaviors essential for success. It then describes and reports on the efficacy of an assessment instrument, the Adult/Child Interactive Reading Inventory (ACIRI). The ACIRI is an observational tool for assessing the joint reading behaviors of both adults and children which is intended to encourage good instruction and authentic, friendly assessment. It also helps teachers working with parents and children determine where to focus their instructional efforts. The ACIRI evaluates 12 literacy behaviors in three categories: (1) enhancing attention to text; (2) promoting interactive reading/supporting comprehension; and (3) using literacy strategies. This instrument was piloted within Even Start, a federal project providing support and educational services to high-risk families with young children. The Even Start teachers collected data on 29 mothers and their children. These teachers routinely observed joint reading in the mothers' homes, evaluating them with the ACIRI in September and again in May. Results indicated that adults and children improved over time in all categories. The more comfortable adults were reading with their children, the higher the ACIRI scores were. Contains 50 references and 5 tables of data; the ACIRI is attached. (Author/RS)

This paper describes the development of a Web-based literacy learning software application, Technology Enhanced Learning Environment on the Web (TELE-Web). TELE-Web was developed based on the curriculum of the Early Literacy Project (ELP), an existing literacy program for elementary school students. In describing the development of TELE-Web, the paper adopts an emerging perspective on technology and established practices in education and literacy. This perspective explores how technology is affected by literacy practices in educational contexts, instead of concentrating only on technology's impact on practice. The paper is divided into five sections: the first section discusses the established practice, particularly the literacy goals and the believed effective approach to reaching the goals; the second section describes how technology extends the existing practice; the third section examines the affordances and constraints of the technological innovation to be applied; the fourth section describes the results of the dialogue between technology and established practices--the product; and the fifth section summarizes the discussions and concludes the paper. Contains 32 references and 4 figures representing screen images from TELE-Web. (RS)

This paper reviews current developments in the field of emergent literacy (the study of reading and writing behaviors that develop into conventional literacy). The review includes studies that look at preschoolers' emerging literacy in homes, day-care environments, and kindergartens and that focus on children's development of literacy knowledge and processes through holistic literacy events (storybook reading, play, etc.). Findings suggest the need for a theoretical model to test the complex cognitive, social, and cultural explanations for emergent literacy. There is a need to explain individual differences, to design early reading instruction, and to decide what, when, and whether to provide it. In order to develop and expand research and knowledge about emerging literacy, the paper recommends defining literacy more broadly to include linguistic and nonlinguistic communication. It also recommends changes in research methodology: (1) researchers can no longer generalize findings to all students but must examine a wider range of social, political, economic, and cultural understandings of literacy; and (2) researchers must move away from concepts like high vs. low and discover the strengths, factors of resilience, and ways in which students from underrepresented populations can be successful in school. Contains approximately 200 references (Author/RS)

This study investigated children's profiles on four constructs fundamental to areas of children's early literacy acquisition: auditory processing, crystallized ability, processing speed, and short-term memory. These areas were measured using six tests: Memory for Sentences, Visual Matching, Incomplete Words, Sound Blending, Oral Vocabulary, and Listening Comprehension. Results were used to establish the most common reading profiles. Children within profiles were then compared to children in other profiles on various reading outcomes to determine which profiles were likely to be associated with reading success. Analysis led to six profiles, three of which were relatively flat (had equivalent scores across the different areas) and were labeled Above, Slightly Below, and Below Average Reading Ability. The remaining three profiles demonstrated average overall reading ability with strengths in one or more areas. Children with flat average profiles performed significantly worse overall than their average peers who had secondary strengths in one or more areas. The comparison suggests that there is more than one route to successful reading performance. (Contains 34 references, 4 tables and 1 figure of data.) (Author/RS)

This report is a description and evaluation of two computer-based learning environments, Rappin' Reader and Say Say Oh Playmate, that build upon the lived literacy experiences African-American children bring to classrooms as scaffolds for early literacy instruction. When Rappin' Reader and Say Say Oh Playmate were used with low-socioeconomic-status African-American first to fourth graders attending after school tutoring/mentoring programs, students made substantial gains on literacy measures such as sight word knowledge. The results suggest at least modest benefits from using culturally responsive reading materials and a computer-based learning environment in literacy instruction. Contains 37 references, 6 tables and 5 figures of data. (Author/RS)

Mandates about the kind and amount of literacy instruction in classrooms and levels of reading required for successful promotion from grade to grade are currently dominating state and federal legislation. This paper gathers scholarship from three disparate sources to produce the first integrated review of policy-related research on literacy education: (1) policy analyses that examine policies about literacy in the framework of systemic reform; (2) measurement and evaluation studies, conducted by psychometricians, that examine the assessments mandated by policies; and (3) studies by literacy researchers that attend to policies and literacy-specific content. Each of these literatures has a unique set of questions, frameworks, methodologies, and audiences. Together, they provide a comprehensive perspective on policies and literacy education. The paper concludes that the best way to influence policy, instruction, and children's learning is for policy, measurement, and literacy researchers to collaborate in conducting and reporting research. Each group needs to learn more about the others' work in order to affect real change in literacy practice. Contains 121 references. (RS)

Integrated instruction may be everyone's ideal, but it is the reality in few classrooms. This review of existing literature examines research to determine why this ideal may be infrequently realized. The review concluded that the mismatch between ideal and practice may be at least partially explained by the ambiguity in definitions in the professional literature. Finding no theoretical framework on which to base the review, the first task of the reviewers was to develop one. Next, the reviewers applied this framework to existing research on integrated instruction in elementary grades. They found few data-driven studies on integrated instruction of any sort, although essays advocating integrated language arts were many. Most projects interpreted integration as loose, thematic links. When studies considered interdisciplinary instruction, the boundaries between the subject areas were often rigid. Rarely would a literary stance or writing as a means for reflection be fostered across subject areas. While integrated approaches can serve to restructure school curriculum within and beyond the language arts, the paper concludes that a stronger theoretical and a research base is needed in establishing when and how to integrate the curriculum as well as for what purposes and for whom. Contains 108 references and a figure presenting a conceptual map of integration. (RS)

A study asked how the use of the Reading Classroom Explorer (RCE)--a hypermedia learning environment that features video clips of successful teachers teaching reading to a diverse array of students--influences beginning teachers' thinking about reading issues. The context of the study was a reading education course which included use of RCE. Various kinds of information were gathered on 14 participants (all post-BA students), including course papers, interviews, surveys, and videotaped RCE work sessions. The statements in course papers were analyzed to identify claims, questions, interpretations, and summaries in relation to RCE content. Participants were clustered into three groups, reflecting the degree to which they used RCE in their course papers: investors (high use of RCE, even when not required in an assignment); compliers (use of RCE when required to do so for an assignment); and resisters (low use of RCE). Results indicated that involvement in an interactive learning environment such as RCE increases beginning teachers' awareness of multiple perspectives and approaches to teaching reading; but that the long-term impact on these teachers' classroom practice has yet to be established. Further studies should address this question and others--most specifically, the effects of opportunities such as RCE during the first few years of teaching. (Contains 11 references and 6 tables of data; appendixes contain paper assignments and the classification scheme.) (RS)

A study addressed two challenges in American teacher education: (1) the differences in background between a largely Euro-American teaching force and the diverse pupils it serves; and (2) the difficulty of teaching about literacy and culture in responsive ways. Working with a group of teachers, the study used ethnic autobiographies, written by authors to illustrate cultures other than late 20th century white America, combined with a context for discussion around these books new to many teachers--"Literary Circles." Results indicated that, for the teachers who participated in Literary Circles, the ethnic literature and autobiographies became the means for conducting autobiographical studies of their own lives and, in turn, led to changes in teachers' beliefs about literacy, schooling, and cultural identity. Findings suggest that the combined activities of reading, writing, and discussion have the potential to simultaneously foster personal and professional development. Contains 20 references and a 24-item list of works studied in the Literary Circles. (RS)

Although scholars have called for greater attention to informational texts in the early grades for some time, there have been few data available about the degree to which informational texts are actually included in early grade classrooms, and in what ways. This study provides basic, descriptive information about informational text experiences offered to children in 20 first-grade classrooms selected from very low- and very high-SES (socio-economic status) school districts. Each classroom was visited for 4 full days over the course of a school year. On each visit, data were collected about the types of texts on classroom walls and other surfaces, in the classroom library, and in classroom written language activities. Results show a scarcity of informational texts in these classroom print environments and activities--there were relatively few informational texts included in classroom libraries, little informational text on classroom walls and other surfaces, and a mean of only 3.6 minutes per day spent with informational texts during classroom written language activities. This scarcity was particularly acute for children in the low-SES school districts, where informational texts composed a much smaller proportion of already smaller classroom libraries, where informational texts were even less likely to be found on classroom walls and other surfaces, and where the mean time per day spent with informational texts was 1.9 minutes, with half the low-SES classrooms spending no time at all with informational texts during any of the 4 days each was observed. Strategies for increasing attention to informational texts in the early grades are presented. Contains 100 references, and 5 figures and 4 tables of data. (RS)

This report discusses findings from the Monitoring the Future study in relation to adolescent cigarette preferences. Results show that in 1998, 19.1% of the eighth graders, 27.6% of the tenth graders, and 35.1% of the twelfth graders reported smoking within 30 days prior to the survey. By the time they finish high school, 65.2% of American young people say they usually smoke Marlboro. Newport and Camel accounted for most of the remainder. Those who have an established smoking habit are more likely to have a brand that they usually smoke. The proportion of adolescents who purchase their own cigarettes rises with age. There is no indication that the grade level at which a current smoker first began smoking cigarettes affects his or her current brand preferences. Marlboro appears to be at least as popular among girls as among boys. Marlboro is the brand of preference for Whites (61% - 70%) and Hispanics (57% - 65%) while Newport is the brand of preference for African-Americans (71% - 82%). Marlboro is the leading brand in all four U.S. regions. Contains Appendix A: Text of Questions and Appendix B: Confidence Intervals and Selected Significance Tests for Three Cigarette Brands. (Contains 3 figures and 20 tables.) (MKA)

The United States armed forces adopted "zero tolerance" policies concerning illicit drug use in 1980, and later developed policies to discourage tobacco and alcohol abuse. This paper examines drug use among young active-duty recruits both before and after enlistment, compared with non-military age-mates. It also documents historical shifts in such drug use across two decades. Analyses employed longitudinal panel data from 20 nationally representative samples of high school seniors (cohorts of 1976-1995) each surveyed just before graduation and again within two years. Separate analyses for men (n=12,082) and women (n=15,345) contrasted those who entered military service, college, and civilian employment. Results show that illicit drug use declined more among young military recruits than among their civilian counterparts. Analyses of male recruits at multiple time periods showed declines in the prevalence of marijuana use and cocaine use after the initiation of routine military drug testing. Lower proportions of smokers of half a pack or more cigarettes per day elected to enter service after initiation of tobacco bans during basic training. An appendix discusses racial/ethic differences. Tables contrast substance use between high school seniors, college students, civilians, and those in military service. (Contains 11 tables, 3 figures, and 29 references.) (Author/MKA)

An inventory of business-linked charter schools operating in the United States was developed. The data collection methods used to develop the inventory were as follows: soliciting nominations from key contacts in each state having charter school legislation; comparing the nominations with lists of charter schools from selected state education department Web sites; identifying additional schools through personal contacts at a 1997 national charter schools conference; and searching the school profile database. A total of 77 business-linked charter schools were identified, and profiling of each school was initiated. To date, 59 summary profiles have been developed. The inventory established the existence of four broad types of career orientation at various business-linked charter schools: career preparation; career focus; career informed; and noncareer partnership. Six recurring themes identified during the inventory were explored in depth: (1) stages of school development and their implications for cross-fertilization; (2) adapting to the environment; (3) career path identification and choice; (4) customized design options; (5) variability of organizational structures; and (6) impact of state legislation on business-linked charter schools. (The bibliography contains 22 references. Appendixes, constituting approximately 50% of the document, contain an overview of the research methods and the 59 summary profile sheets.) (MN)

It is viable to argue that literacy can be construed as a set of culturally-based discursive practices rather than as merely a set of cognitive skills. This idea has special relevance for students with learning disabilities, who often struggle with more traditional, individually-based curricular approaches. This study explored the ways in which an experienced second-grade teacher engaged students formally assessed as "learning disabled" in the collaborative editing of a written text. Analyses suggest that one group of teacher utterances served to orchestrate students' participation in the repair of the text while a second group of utterances seemed to guide the level at which students were considering the text. Regarding the latter, the teacher's comments seemed intended to push students toward either one of two ways of thinking. Some comments encouraged them to clarify the conceptual meaning of the text (e.g., "What does that mean?"), while others asked them to consider the grammatical/syntactic structure of the text itself (e.g., "So, how should we say it?"). As a group, collaborative editing appears to have allowed these students to perform at levels well beyond those at which they typically perform individually. These data demonstrate one way that teachers can socialize students, especially those who are academically challenged, into the collaborative creation and revision of texts. Contains 39 references and 2 tables and 5 figures of data; an appendix contains the full transcript of a round of collaborative editing. (RS)

The study described in this report was intended to provide researchers with comprehensive, longitudinal baseline data on average children and their families. The study focused on positive growth and development by identifying a national sample of children and families for researchers to study. The children were examined in five main areas: (1) relationships with parents, peers and teachers; (2) behavior; (3) socioemotional well being; (4) health, and access to health care; and (5) standardized test results. The study also examined factors affecting children's positive achievement and found that the following factors mattered most: (1) good health; (2) reading; (3) parental presence; and (4) positive parental/child relationship. The study also provided evidence to support the importance of: (1) educated parents; (2) verbally able parents; (3) parents with high expectations; and (4) parents who spend quality time with their children. The report is organized into five sections. Part one provides an introduction to the study, while part two, "Measuring Children's Well Being," describes five indicators of children's well-being. Part three, "How Well Are Children Doing?" analyzes the data on children's well-being by indicator. Part four, "What Matters Most for Children's Achievement and Adjustment?" explains the most important aspects of positive child development. The final section of the report summarizes the general study conclusions. (Author/SD)

A study examined the opportunities provided by several types of text for beginning readers to learn about three aspects of written English: (1) consistent, common letter-sound patterns; (2) the most frequent words; and (3) the contexts of sentences and texts. Results indicate that texts based on high-frequency words give beginning readers ample opportunity to learn highly frequent words but may impede use of letter-sound knowledge because of the irregular patterns of many of these words. While phonetically regular texts compensate for this problem, occasions for developing fluency with high-frequency words may be few. Texts chosen for literary merit or predictable sentence and text patterns compensate for these problems by providing natural language, a close picture-text match, and predictable text structure, but the variety of different high-frequency and phonetically regular words in literature and little books make these texts demanding for beginning readers. Results also indicated that beginning readers require texts that allow them to become proficient with all three aspects of written English. Findings suggest that such experiences can be provided in two ways: all three of the "single-criterion" texts can be used in first-grade programs, or multiple-criteria texts modeled after some of Dr. Seuss's books can be developed. Contains 53 references and 2 tables and a figure of data. (RS)

In response to the first of the National Education Goals (1991), which reads, "all children in America will start school ready to learn," this paper addresses four interpretations of the term "readiness" and the methods that have been devised to assess children's learning at the outset of formal schooling. The idealist or nativist view claims that children's proficiency in school is a function of the child's maturation. The empiricist or environmental view sees readiness in terms of proficiency with a specific set of skills. The social constructivist perspective describes readiness as a function of the meanings and values assigned by an individual school community. Each of these views presents dilemmas for young children's learning and teachers' instruction. The paper identifies a fourth view--the interactionist--as a means for resolving these dilemmas. This perspective attends both to what children know and to the capacity of schools to adapt experiences for children who demonstrate different strengths and needs. The instructional tasks that emerge are grounded in a comprehensive assessment of the child's skills, knowledge, behaviors, and accomplishments. Contains 84 references and 3 tables and a figure of data. (RS)

This document reports on a study of employer-linked charter schools that included case studies of 9 of the more than 70 employer-linked charter schools currently in operation across the United States. Section 1 is an overview of employer-linked charter schools' key elements and unique features. Topics examined include the following: vision of charter school founders, learning in context, meeting workforce development needs, charters' relationship to traditional school systems, curriculum innovation, raising standards, assessment of student achievement, flexibility of staffing, and role models and mentoring. Section 2 is a discussion of the study methodology that includes the following: case study selection criteria; characteristics of the case study sites; the research questions; and site summaries. The case study sites, which had enrollments ranging from 60 to 2,480, included a program that helped students identify areas of vocational interest and explore related career options and programs targeted toward specific groups (for example, out-of-school urban youths) or students with specific career interests (for example, students interested in careers in manufacturing, the performing arts, and health careers). Appendixes, constituting approximately two-thirds of the document, contain the case studies, which describe the following elements for each school: defining purpose, learning standard, curriculum, worksite learning, governance, and career purpose. (MN)

To begin the task of evaluating the impact of state standards on American students, a study compared the structure and information of state language arts standards. The analysis focused on the 14 state documents that provided benchmarks or objectives by grade level for grades K-3. The other 28 states either provided a single set of standards for K-12 or separate sets of standards for different grade clusters (e.g., K-3, 4-6, etc.). The analysis of the state standards documents led to several recommendations: (1) state standards should provide more information for grades K-3, due to the significant differences between and among these grade levels, as compared to the upper grades; (2) the organization of state standards and benchmark documents should conceptualize reading in a manner that is simple enough to support manageable systems of curriculum, instruction, assessment, and reporting, but not so simple that important areas of emphasis are overlooked; (3) state standards should include a logical progression of knowledge and skills from kindergarten through grade 3, and again from grade 3 to grade 12; (4) the content of early reading/language arts standards and benchmarks should derive from information based on current research conducted from a variety of perspectives, including research on reading acquisition among linguistically and culturally diverse children; and (5) state standards should invite conversation about what students should be able to do. Evaluations of state standards need to be based on defensible criteria and should reflect current research. The criteria used for this analysis should be useful to districts in evaluating their states' standards for early reading/language arts. Contains 67 references and 7 tables of data. (RS)

The high school portion of the "Monitoring the Future Study" is presented. Since 1975, this national survey has helped to quantify, track, characterize, and explain changes in drug prevalence, attitudes, and behaviors among American high school students. Data are reported in graphs and statistical tables for eighth, tenth, and twelfth grade students. An introduction to the survey, overview of key findings, research design and procedures, and discussions of reliability and validity issues are provided. Prevalence data for 1997 is presented and subgroup differences in gender, college plans, regions, population density, parental education, and racial or ethnic differences are compared. Data on trends are presented and the subgroups are compared. Chapters include: "Use at Earlier Grade Levels,""Degree and Duration of Drug Highs,""Attitudes and Beliefs about Drugs," and "The Social Milieu." The use of nonprescription stimulants and daily use of marijuana are included under "Other Findings." Appendixes are: (1) "Prevalence and Trend Estimates Adjusted for Absentees and Dropouts"; (2) "Definition of Background and Demographic Subgroups"; (3) "Estimation of Sampling Errors; Supplemental Tables for Secondary School Students: Trends by Subgroup"; (4) "Trends in Prevalence Rates for Specific Drugs within General Classes, Tabular Data for 1996." (EMK)

The data for this report were obtained from the Monitoring the Future study. Surveys from eighth, tenth, and twelfth grade respondents were used to examine adolescents' reasons for use, abstention, and quitting illicit drug use. Many reasons were found for drug use. Abstainers provided more reasons for their abstention than quitters gave for their quitting. The stages of drug involvement are explained and the connections between drug use and crime are discussed. A theory of drug epidemics is introduced. This theory proposes the following phases: the growth phase (awareness, access, motivation to use, reassurance about the safety of the drug, willingness to violate laws and predominant social norms); the maintenance phase; the growth phase; and the relapse phase. This report concludes by offering that society's ability to control the relapse and to reduce the standing addict population will depend greatly on our understanding of the dynamic nature of the process, of the limitations of traditional supply reduction strategies, and on the importance of demand and demand reduction to the dynamics of such epidemics. Beliefs, attitudes, and norms regarding drugs are critical deterrents to use in the general population. For addicts, more substantial changes are clearly needed to change behavior, primarily in the form of effective treatment and rehabilitation. (Contains 2 tables, 8 figures, and 12 references.) (MKA)

Moving from high school into young adulthood is a critical developmental transition, a time of both continuity and discontinuity in health and well-being. How well one negotiates this transition, as evidenced by one's course of well-being and substance use, depends in part on historical cohort, gender, and life-path. Using U.S. national panel data from 17 consecutive cohorts from the Monitoring the Future study, this paper examines age-related change in well-being and substance use during the first four years following high school. It examines whether the changes varied as a function of cohort group, gender, and life-path group. Findings show that well-being and substance use increased during the transition to young adulthood. Although there were no overall differences in well-being among the three cohort groups, findings show that the course of self-efficacy and fatalism during the transition differed somewhat among the cohorts. Men reported higher levels of well-being and substance use, except for cigarettes, than women. Overall differences in well-being and substance use were found across the life-paths. Limitations of the study and future directions for research are also discussed. (Contains 9 tables, 21 figures, and 68 references.) (MKA)

This report asserts that in spite of increases in efforts by universities to recruit and hire women, progress in increasing women's representation among tenured faculty continues to be slow. To increase understanding of the complex factors that influence retention of women faculty, qualitative interviews were conducted with women who voluntarily left their untenured and tenured faculty positions at one research university. Informants included 8 former tenured faculty members and 13 former untenured faculty representing 6 of the colleges and schools at 1 university. Interviews were conducted by telephone, tape recorded, and transcribed for analysis. The reasons informants left university employment were not clear-cut and varied greatly, showing that influences on their decisions were multiple and interconnected. The key reasons cited included these benefits/opportunities that were denied them at the university in question and that may have been offered at a new position: (1) respect shown by colleagues; (2) opportunity for personal growth and contribution; (3) opportunities for promotion; (4) support of resources, including salary; (5) assistance in finding employment for spouses and partners; (6) assistance with dependent care responsibilities; and (7) fit with the institutions values about the kind of research they should conduct. (Contains 27 references.) (SLD)

This paper tests three explanations for the high educational expectations of Asian American high school students living in the United States: (1) favorable socioeconomic and background characteristics; (2) demonstrated academic ability; and (3) cultural values conducive to education. The focus is on differences in the relevance of these explanations across Asian American ethnic groups. Data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), for 1988 through 1992, were used with five multivariate regression models to explain differences in educational expectations between Asian American ethnic groups and Whites, both for the base year and for changes over time. Much diversity is found in the forces that shape educational expectations and effect changes in them across Asian American ethnic groups. The educational expectations of groups that are well assimilated into U.S. society are principally influenced by socioeconomic and demographic factors, while parental expectations explain much of children's high educational expectations for recent immigrant refugees. Appendixes contain charts of estimated coefficients of linear regressions models predicting educational expectations for the first and second follow-ups of the NELS:88. (Contains 5 tables and 56 references.) (SLD)

This report discusses the University of Michigan's Monitoring the Future Project in relation to trends in military propensity and the relationship between propensity and enlistment. The findings show that the military propensities of most young people are firmly formed by the end of high school, especially among men. Substantial majorities of these young men expecting "definitely" to serve actually do so, usually enlisting within the first year or two after graduation. Young women are less likely than young men to say they want to enter military service, less likely to expect to enter, and less likely to enlist. Higher proportions of Blacks enter the military than Whites or Hispanics. During the time covered by the study there were shifts in the proportions of high school seniors expecting to enter military service, as well as in proportions planning for and entering college. Implications for future research are discussed. Appendix I provides measures; Appendix II provides data adjustments; and Appendix III discusses changes in the propensity-enlistment relationship over time. (Contains 18 tables, 16 figures and 12 references.) (MKA)

This study examined the specific words that college faculty in different disciplines use to convey goals for students using data from 1986-87 interviews with 62 faculty members teaching introductory colleges and a 1988-89 survey of 2105 faculty which established a listing of over 6000 goal statements. Goal statements were examined in order to understand the nuances of meaning behind phrases such as "effective thinking,""creative thinking" and "critical thinking" and to discover how disciplinary interpretations of such language differed. Study findings suggest that faculty do not consider effective thinking goals in isolation from other goals but express them in conjunction with other long-range goals such as basic skills acquisition, intellectual development, knowledge acquisition, future preparation, and personal development. Although effective thinking was usually broken into logical/deductive reasoning, critical/analytic thinking and problem-solving skills, these skills were so closely linked as to suggest that they were similar processes spoken of in different ways in different disciplines. Results suggest that, with faculty understanding of diverse perceptions of and approaches to thinking skills, a more successful general education program may be achieved. (Contains 39 references.) (PRW)