Search

Buddhism provides the vocabulary for film auteur Pema Tseden to express a psychological dimension in his Amdo‐Tibetan stories. Drawing on the Tibetan Buddhist concept of bardo, the transitional space between sleep and waking, or death and rebirth, his works encapsulate surrealist flow of consciousness of the characters as they are torn between religious principles, modern imperatives, and conscience. Specifically, Balloon exposes an Amdo woman's choice between having an abortion in compliance with China's 1990s birth control policy or enabling the prophesized rebirth of a family forebear. The film extends Pema Tseden's earlier experiment in Jinpa, which enacts an intrapsychic dialogue in a dream, by using a religiously inflected visualization of the state of mind in the threshold between death and the next life. Balloon's passionate reenactment of a luminous afterlife landscape and its reflexive and even questioning attitudes toward the concept of reincarnation create an intriguing tension. Its central imagery, the inflated condom balloon, is a "semi‐transparent envelope," to borrow British novelist Virginia Woolf's phrase, which suggests the inscrutability of the characters' internal experiences. The balloon is also a "semi‐transparent filter" of the director's ambiguous affects, encapsulating cultural intimacy and cultural contemplation within a non‐dual framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Set in the early twentieth century, this article maps the parallel histories of two popular contraceptive pessaries: 'Wife's Friend' in Britain and 'Lady's Friend' in China. Despite their limited efficacy, both products became commercially successful in their respective markets. Drawing on news articles and opinion columns, this article investigates how these two similar products were marketed to different demographics and adapted to meet the needs of local consumers, highlighting the ways in which medicines take on new meanings in different social and historical contexts. At the same time, the case of 'Wife's Friend' and 'Lady's Friend' pessaries also exposes the blurriness between the categories of Western and Traditional Chinese Medicine and the shortcomings of both types of medicine in the early twentieth century. Ultimately, this research shows that interrogating medicine from a comparative transnational perspective can yield new insights into the relationship between commercialisation, modernity and perceptions of health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We paint a detailed picture of whether the trade-off between human capital and fertility decisions was shaped in a pre-industrial society during the Qing dynasty. Using data from the China Multi-Generational Panel Dataset-Liaoning (CMGPD-LN), we investigate 16,328 adult males born between 1760 and 1880 in Northeast China. We control for birth-order effects and for a rich set of individual-, parental-, household-, and village-level characteristics in regression analyses on individuals from different household categories (elite vs. non-elite households). Our findings suggest that sibship size, as instrumented by twins at last birth, starts to have a substantial negative effect on the probability of receiving an education, indicating the emergence of a child quantity-quality trade-off for large parts of the population belonging to the Eight Banner System in Liaoning around the mid-Qing dynasty. Our results provide supportive evidence for the unified growth theory, showing that the decreased fertility rates in pre-transition China could be a result of rational behaviors perpetuated by households in response to higher educational returns and accessibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The Yangtze vole (Microtus fortis) is a small herbivorous rodent that usually causes damage to crops and forests in China. Various measures were used to control their population including chemical rodenticides. However, rodenticides may cause secondary damage to the environment and the ecosystem. Therefore, the development of new rodent sterilants is urgent. Considering that some compounds of paper mulberry leaves have been verified that can inhibit the biosynthesis of sexual hormone, we aimed to explore the antifertility effect of paper mulberry leaves on M. fortis. Methods: In this study, voles were divided into three groups including a male group, a female group, and a breeding group, and paper mulberry leaves were added into basal fodder of voles maintained in laboratory, of which the proportion of leaf weight was 50%. In each group, voles were fed with mixed fodder as treatment (BP) and voles were fed with basal fodder as contrast (CK). Results and discussion: After feeding for more than 1 month, the results indicated that paper mulberry leaves attracted voles to feed, but inhibited their growth and reproduction. Since the second week, food intakes of BP have been significantly higher than CK (p< 0.05). However, weights of voles in male and female groups were 72.283 ± 7.394 g and 49.717 ± 2.278 g in the fifth week, and both were significantly reduced compared with their original weight (p< 0.05). Meanwhile, testicular volumes of male voles fed with BP were significantly smaller than CK (former: 318.000 ± 44.654 mm3, latter: 459.339 ± 108.755 mm3); the testosterone level, sperm number, and vitality of BP were obviously weaker than CK. Female uteruses and oophoron of BP grew slower, and the organ coefficients of uterus and oophoron fed BP were both significantly lower than CK (p< 0.05). The first reproduction of BP couple voles spent 45 days, while CK spent only 21 days. These results suggest that paper mulberry leaves could be the potential resource to produce sterilants to control rodent populations by delaying their sexual growth and reproduction. If it was practical, the apparent advantages of paper mulberry are that it is an abundant resource and the inhibitory effect could be effective in both male and female individuals. Our conclusion also supports the transformation of rodent management from lethal management to fertility control, which would be more ecologically friendly to agriculture and the ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An interview with Sarah Mellors Rodriguez,is presented, discussing her monograph "Reproductive Realities in Modern China: Birth Control and Abortion, 1911–2021." The book delves into the everyday reproductive experiences of Chinese people, particularly working-class women. He also discusses feminist methodology, combining state archival research with oral history interviews, aims to highlight the lived experiences of individuals, challenging top-down policy-based analyses.

Finally, the third part focuses on China's and India's actions in the field of population control and utilizes Nehru Papers, newspaper articles from I Renmin ribao i (People's Daily) and the I Times of India i and other sources primary and secondary to excavate information on China-India comparative contraception policies. The 1877 famines in China and India, according to Matthew Connelly, launched the population control movement in Europe and the US.[8] How exactly this Western comparative lens colored China-India contact in the 1950s begs further research as well.[9] This article consists of three parts. One of the items on the agenda of the first independent government of India was the reforming of women's rights, particularly with the goal of raising female literacy levels and encouraging participation in the workforce.[18] As diplomatic relations between India and China became closer, Indian government officials paid particular attention to the roles women assumed in the People's Republic of China (PRC). "Our Women Should Certainly Emulate": China-India Gendered Exchanges. [Extracted from the article]

Copyright of West China Journal of Stomatology is the property of Sichuan University, West China College of Stomatology and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper examines China's long-term growth prospects and the potential drivers of future growth, based on cross-country productivity convergence and China's featured demographic evolution. In a nonlinear open economy catch-up growth model, per capital GDP growth of the followers depend on that of the leading economy and time varying convergence of the relative per capita GDP. Comparable open economies of China are identified in terms of relative per capita GDP and the historical data of which are used to project China's trajectory of productivity convergence and then the growth of per capita GDP. Projection shows China's future GDP growth will gradually descend from 6.6–6.7% (2016–2020) to 2.6–2.7% (2046–2050) in low variant. Predictions under medium and high variants are provided as well. The importance of further opening-up domestic markets, elimination of birth control policies and accumulation of human capital in the process of promoting urbanization are highlighted and have significant implications for the economic restructuring and transformation of China. Abbreviations: ICRG: International Country Risk Guide; IMF: International Monetary Fund [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China officially ended its one-child policy effective from 1 January 2016. Yet the effects of the relaxation of birth control policy have been limited thus far. Largely relying upon policy incentives, China's policymakers also face pressure to take more direct measures to boost fertility rate. Whether the Chinese government is able to balance the needs of the nation and the citizens' private rights remains a big question mark. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the early People's Republic of China (PRC), Communist officials initially placed strict constraints on birth control use, encouraging high fertility rates. However, in an effort to enhance agricultural and industrial productivity, such restrictions were gradually repealed and by the 1970s, aggressive promotion of family planning had become the norm. Drawing on both archival and oral history, this article considers the lived experience of birth control use from the founding of the People's Republic until 1958, a period that is often overlooked in studies of reproduction and contraception in modern China, but that had important implications for later trends. Despite claims that discussion of sexuality was suppressed in the PRC and an early ban on certain publications related to sexual hygiene, a considerable amount of literature on sex and birth control was published in major cities in the 1950s. Narratives on sex and birth control in women's magazines and sex handbooks, however, varied widely and access to birth control and surgeries, such as abortions and sterilizations, differed dramatically according to location, class, and education level. This essay probes the circumstances under which women or couples practiced birth control while demonstrating the diversity of contraceptive discourses and practices in the early People's Republic. Though underexplored, the early years of the PRC remain critical to histories of reproduction in China because many of the gender dynamics, socioeconomic pressures, and cultural preferences that informed contraceptive practices in the 1950s continued to do so for decades to come. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a documentary, statistical and discourse analysis, plus 30 years of interviewing in China, this article investigates the demo-political background of China's return to a two-child policy in 2015. It pinpoints the contested core issues that fueled a bitter polemic on the future course of Chinese birth policy and continue to fester in ongoing controversies. The article briefly reviews earlier challenges to China's controversial one-child policy since its inception in 1979/80, details the conflicts and mechanisms shaping the birth planning regime since 2000, and examines the role played by academic counseling, bureaucratic infighting, lobbying and civil society in the about-turn. Comparing birth planning to other policy arenas, it concludes with a discussion of societal and think-tank impact on Chinese political decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a detailed discussion about the technique and methodologies of the Chinese people regarding birth and fertility control. It mentions that one-third of the women of child-bearing age may be practicing birth control. Although Chinese people are having great implementation regarding family planning, they have little knowledge about modern forms of contraception. It explains that the literature on contraceptive practice in China was mostly given by China-watchers based from their traditional methods of contraception.

The article discusses the impact of the population control program of the Chinese government in reducing the increasing population rate in China. It has been noted that these efforts are considered to be moderately successful in reducing the birth rate of the country based on the data obtained. Despite the inadequacy of the gathered data, it has been speculated that the Chinese government's plan to invest in financial to improve the public health system and human resources will be an effective way in controlling the birth rate of the country.

The article discusses the demographic projection exercise and the one-child policy in China. Topics include the implication of demographic projection, the calculation of births averted in the country based on population estimate, and the effect of the birth control program in the fertility decline. The lessons learned from the Chinese one-child policy is also mentioned.

The educational inclusion of rural–urban migrant children in Chinese urban schools has been promoted in the past decades. This paper provides a contextualized interpretation of recent policy developments governing large Chinese cities and evaluates its impact upon the status of migrant children's education. Drawing on data collected from 1,331 migrant children in urban inclusive schools, this study compared current migrant children's family backgrounds and psychological sense of belonging at school in relation to educational outcomes at the primary education level. Results showed that migrant children's socioeconomic status (SES) levels were slightly higher than their counterparts in inclusive schools and a salient SES stratification of migrant students was found. This correlates with students’ reports of fewer incidences of discrimination than hypothesized. Furthermore, capital in migrant families was positively associated with the psychological sense of belonging and academic achievement. These results reveal a significant change to migrant students’ SES as a result of the recent population control policy pertaining to China's large cities since 2014. Implications for research and educational practice, especially with at‐risk migrant students of low‐SES, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The one-child fertility policy introduced in the 1970s to control the population in China, has changed the population structure in the preceding decades. As one of the significant effects, such problems as population ageing become more serious nowadays, bringing the active reforms of the fertility policy. Because of the regional diversity, every province has its own unique necessity for reform of fertility policy in China. In order to understand the provincial differences about the reform necessity, we build original formulas to quantity the reform necessity, and then utilize the k-means cluster method to divide 31 Chinese provinces into four categories. The results show that serious regional disparities indeed exist among provinces, some of which such as Shanghai and Beijing are urgent to reform fertility policy now, but some of which such as Guangxi are just opposite. Meanwhile, neighboring provinces are always clustered into the same category, indicating that the space aggregation is obvious. Besides the geographic element, such factors as economy also lead to the aggregation effect. Furthermore, most provinces have similar classification results under two different circumstances: combining all various indicators and considering only demographic indicators, presenting the coordinate development among population, economy and society in China. However, sixty percent of all provinces in China can't clearly understand their necessities for reform of fertility policy through a straightforward diagnosis. Therefore, some target measures are proposed as important suggestions for tracking fertility policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the creation and ramifications of a stratified reproductive system under China's state control of reproduction. Within this system, an emerging group of "new rich" are able to circumvent birth regulations and have unplanned births because of their financial capabilities and social networks. While China's birth-planning policy is meant to be enforced equally for all couples, the unequal access to wealth and bureaucratic power as a result of China's widening social polarization has created disparate reproductive rights and experiences. This article identifies three ways in which reproductive privileges are created. It further explores how a stratified reproductive system under state population control reinforces social polarization. While many socially marginalized couples are unable to register their unplanned children for citizenship status and social benefits, the new rich are able to legitimate their births and transfer their privilege and status to their children, thus reproducing a new generation of elites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We thank Yong Cai for his comments and insights regarding our piece on the “missing girls.” We also recognize and appreciate his expertise in the field of population studies. In short, we agree that we have overestimated the number of nominally missing girls and that the number of hidden or recovered girls may be closer to 10 million or half of the truly missing girls rather than 15 million. Of course, the number of truly missing girls is inconclusive due to the lack of direct measures and the reliance on proxy measures such as previous census data, surveys and state education data. Given the absence of direct measures for the truly missing, scholars also rely on assumptions of villager behaviour and local policy implementation, such as the continued prevalence of son preference as well as the implementation of birth control measures across rural China. Our aim for the “missing girls” article is not to solely challenge the numbers (because we realize the margin of error is in the millions), but we want to challenge the social and political assumptions behind the truly missing. Therefore, we believe the debate over the general estimates of the truly missing is real and should continue. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

During her first and only successful lecture tour in China in 1922, Margaret Sanger set out to enlighten Chinese audiences by sharing information from the West about the modern, scientific practice of birth control. But the lines of communication were not so transparent, and her Chinese interlocutors were not only passive recipients in the process. This article highlights how gender and class identities critically affected the translation of Sanger's message about birth control, through an analysis of Sanger's autobiographical writings and coverage of her visit in Chinese periodicals. Although Sanger was keen to limit the fertility of lower-class Chinese women, for the most part her contraceptive message resonated among educated, middle-class Chinese men. Focusing on the influence of these varied gender and class identities allows us to delimit the boundaries of birth control discourse for educated Chinese women, who are otherwise largely absent from the historical record. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China launched an unprecedented program to control its population in 1971. Experts have dismissed the official estimate of 400 million births averted by this program as greatly exaggerated yet neglect to provide their own estimates. Counterfactual projections based on fertility declines in other countries suggest that China's program-averted population numbered 360-520 million as of 2015. The low end of this range is based on Vietnam-China's best national comparator, with a two-child program of its own-and the high end is based on a 16-country comparator selected, ironically, by critics of the official estimate. The latter comparator further implies that China's one-child program itself averted a population of 400 million by 2015, three-quarters of the total averted population. All such estimates are projected to double by 2060, due mostly to counterfactual population momentum. These and other findings presented herein affirm the astonishing impact of China's draconian policy choices and challenge the current consensus that rapid socioeconomic progress drove China's fertility well below two children per family. International comparisons of fertility and income suggest instead that China's very low fertility arrived two or three decades too soon. If China had not harshly enforced a norm of 1.5-children during the last quarter century, most mothers would have had two children, one-half birth higher than observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the impact of losing a child, especially losing all children (including losing the only child), on the mental health, happiness and loneliness of parents. The Chinese government has implemented strict restrictions on the number of births for each family since the 1970s, resulting in the creation of millions of only-child families. Using the 2011 baseline data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, we find that the bereavement of a child is associated with lower levels of mental health and happiness and higher levels of loneliness for the parents, even after we adjust for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. The effects are significantly stronger for losing all the children. Results have strong implications for the population-control, elderly-care and mental-care policies especially in China and developing countries, where the social security system is not yet sound. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Empirical research on the effect of family size on child education is complicated by the endogeneity of family size. This study exploits plausibly exogenous changes in family size caused by China's population control policy to estimate the causal relationship between family size and child education outcomes. The results show that, compared to an only child, a person with an additional sibling will have an approximate seventeen percentage points lower likelihood of completing middle school in China. Separate regressions across individual characteristics reveal that much of this negative effect appears to be driven by the cohorts born in earlier years after the policy, and children with the highest birth order within a family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the negative effect of Zika virus transmission in the universal two-child policy in China. The author discusses the rapidly aging population in the country, the risk of developing microcephaly of central nervous system (CNS) malformations on people with Zika virus infection, and the technical guidance on how to handle the Zika virus epidemic.

China’s one-child policy, introduced in the late 1970s, has been in effect for over three decades. This article reviews China’s low fertility rate and the implementation of this stringent birth control policy in the context of low fertility. First, China’s fertility intention, behavior, and low fertility level trend are presented. Then, the official response to the low fertility level and the consequent misguided policy-making are investigated. Next, various obstacles to the abolishment of the strict birth control policy are discussed, including national leaders’ authority, related family planning regulations and laws, the inertia of this basic state policy under the auspices of the common good, the displacement of the family planning systems, and the necessity for social maintenance fees to keep grassroots governments in operation. After discussing the recent reform of this birth control policy in 2013 and the subsequent results, the incentives for a universal two-child policy are elucidated. These include the official acknowledgment of low fertility, the effect of birth control policy on fertility decline, the reactions of the general public, the attitudes of grassroots family planning cadres, the appeal from scholars, international experiences, the merging of population and family planning commissions, and national leaders’ attitudes. The paper concludes with an analysis of the cost of this birth control policy over the past decades. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on the evolution of China's policy on reproduction. Topics discussed include factors underlying the establishment of the reproduction system after 1949 in China; laws made for controlling childbirth; and development and implementation of the one-child policy. It also mentions 2016 amendment to the Population and Family Planning Law in China.

The one-child policy of China, which was initiated in 1980 and was reversed in 2015, has been conceived of as a decision made independently and arbitrarily or a product of impulsive decision making. Therefore, it has received a great deal of criticism from Western democracies. Of course, China faced internal problems related to population, such as the Great Famine of 1958-1961. This might be deemed the direct cause of the one-child policy. However, the more powerful factors were indirect and of foreign origin. China's one-child policy was deeply influenced by the West, especially by Western population science. Since the May 4th Movement in 1919, China has had a tendency to worship science because of the Chinese obsession with Western-style modernization. In other words, China's one-child policy is a product of blind imitation of Western population science. The action has resulted in serious negative consequences such as an imbalance of the sex ratio, elder-care problems, human rights violations, undermining of traditional values, and even endangering the regime. Those problems caused China to reverse its one-child policy. The authors believe that China should develop a postmodern population policy with Chinese character, based on organic thinking, which takes human feelings seriously and empowers people and allows them to act as subjects or agents in decisions about their families, including the size of their family and the selection of gender. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The aim of the study was to assess the efficacy and tolerability of the monthly vaginal ring (NuvaRing; 15 μg ethinylestradiol [EE] and 120 μg etonogestrel per day) compared with a monophasic (21/7) combined oral contraceptive (COC) containing 30 μg EE and 3 mg drospirenone in healthy Chinese women aged 18-40 years.Methods: This was a phase III, open-label, randomised multicentre trial conducted in China. Participants received NuvaRing or COC for 13 cycles (3 weeks of ring/pill treatment followed by a 1-week ring-free/pill-free period). Contraceptive efficacy was assessed by in-treatment pregnancies and expressed by the Pearl Index (PI; number of pregnancies/100 woman-years of use). Cycle control was assessed by unscheduled (breakthrough) and absence of scheduled (withdrawal) bleeding events. Safety and tolerability were assessed throughout the study.Results: Participants were randomised either to the NuvaRing (n = 732) or to the COC (n = 214); 588 (82.4%) and 182 (78.4%) participants, respectively, completed the study. There were 10 in-treatment pregnancies in the NuvaRing group (PI 1.92; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.92, 3.53) and five in the COC group (PI 3.12; 95% CI 1.01, 7.29). Breakthrough bleeding/spotting ranged from 18.6% (Cycle 1) to 4.2% (Cycle 11) for NuvaRing and from 21.6% (Cycle 1) to 7.9% (Cycle 11) for COC. Absence of withdrawal bleeding ranged from 8.6% (Cycle 1) to 3.0% (Cycle 11) for NuvaRing and from 14.6% (Cycle 1) to 6.4% (Cycle 5) for COC. For NuvaRing and COC, respectively, 26.6% and 25.0% of participants had treatment-related adverse events, and 7.0% and 9.1% discontinued the study as a result.Conclusions: Once-monthly NuvaRing is efficacious and safe for use in Chinese women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is characterized by a low fertility intention, a strong preference for sons, as well as a stringent birth control policy. In this study, we used data from a Fertility Intention and Behavior Survey of 2101 questionnaires conducted in 2013 in Shaanxi Province of northwestern China, and event history analysis methods to examine the effect of fertility intention and preference for sons on the probability of having a second child. The results not only validate the correlation of fertility intention with having a second child empirically, even in the low fertility intention and stringent birth control context of China, but also show that women with a preference for sons were less likely to have a second child. Women with son preference turn to sex-selective abortion to ensure that their first child is a son, thus reducing the likelihood of a second child and decreasing the fertility rate. Our findings also shed light on China's potential fertility policy adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the effect of education on birth outcomes in China during the period of economic transition and large-scale changes in mass education and population control measures. Retrospective micro data from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey and discrete time event history analysis are used to examine the fertility history of several cohorts of women born between 1945 and 1968. We observed births at different parities, distinguishing the education effect across cohorts and rural/urban sectors. We found differences across cohorts consistent with unique features of the Chinese context, such as the radical egalitarian era of educational expansion, and the Reform Era. We also found that despite the increase in some education levels across cohorts (e.g., junior high school in rural areas), birth chances were more likely to be concentrated among less educated women, suggesting the impact of factors related to returns to education and hence the desire for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At its recent Fifth Plenary Session held in Beijing, the Eighteenth Central Committee of the Communist Party of China decided to abolish the one-child policy and allow all couples to have two children, thus closing an important chapter of China's social and demographic history. Recent fertility trends make it clear why it is urgent to abandon this policy. Census and survey data show that China's TFR had already fallen below replacement in 1991. Since the mid-1990s, TFRs in most years have been lower than 1.5 children per woman. Since 2010, even lower fertility rates have been recorded by the annual population change surveys. Since the mid-1990s, fertility decline has been increasingly driven by generalized ideational changes resulting from the social, economic, and cultural transformation of recent decades. In recent years many couples who were entitled to have a second child have chosen not to do so. For this reason, the termination of the one-child policy is unlikely to lead to a major upturn in fertility, but rather to the continuation of a low-fertility regime with more diverse fertility patterns across different sub-populations, a pattern that has been observed in many countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To explore knowledge and use of female condoms in China, and to compare four modes of failure between the Phoenurse female condom (PFC) and the second-generation Femidom female condom (FC2). Methods In a randomized, crossover trial, sexually active women aged 20–49 years who attended a family planning service in Qingdao, China, were recruited between April and October, 2013. A computer-generated randomized sequence was used to assign participants (1:1) to group A (used 10 PFCs followed by 10 FC2s) or group B (used 10 FC2s followed by 10 PFCs). Study investigators and participants were masked to allocation. Participants completed questionnaires at baseline and after using the two types of FCs. They also kept coital logs. Results At baseline, 30 (10.3%) of 290 participants understood female condoms, but only 1 (0.3%) had ever used one. Total failure rates were 3.6% (420/11 578) and 2.3% (265/11 594) for PFC and FC2, respectively ( P < 0.001). Slippage was the most common form of failure, affecting 6.9% of PFC uses and 5.0% of FC2 uses. Breakage, misdirection, and slippage were significantly more common with the PFC than with the FC2 ( P ≤ 0.002). Conclusion Understanding of female condoms is poor in China. Failure is more common with the PFC than with the FC2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses sexual and family norms during Popular Unity government in Chile and mentions political party of Chile Partido Comunista de Chile (PCCh). Topics discussed include communism in Chile, family relations and gender. Other topics such as birth control and social movements are also discussed.

Copyright of Economics & Management / Ekonomia i Zarzadzanie is the property of Bialystok University of Technology (Politechnika Bialostocka) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)