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Objective: To compare the exercise intensity of walking football (WF) with walking (WA) and to describe specific movement characteristics of WF., Design: Cross-sectional study., Setting: Sports facilities Saarland University, Germany., Patients: Eighteen patients with cardiovascular risk factors CVRFs and diseases (13 men and 5 women, age: 69 ± 10 years)., Independent Variables: Patients completed a WF match and WA session of 2 x 10 min each. Video analysis was used to characterize movements during WF., Main Outcome Measures: Rate of perceived exertion (RPE, Borg Scale 6-20), % maximum heart rate (HR max ), musculoskeletal pain on a visual analog scale (VAS, 1-100 mm) before and up to 72 hours after exercise, and movement patterns during WF., Results: The mean RPE during WF (12.1 ± 2.7) and WA (11.9 ± 3.0) did not differ ( P = 0.63). The mean HR during WF (79 ± 12% of HR max ) was higher than during WA (71% ± 11%; P < 0.01). The HR variability coefficient of variation during WF (10.3% ± 5.8%) and WA (7.1 ± 5.5%) did not differ ( P = 0.13). There was no influence of exercise mode (WF vs WA) on musculoskeletal pain perception ( P = 0.96 for interaction). Injury-inciting activities such as lunges (median: 0.5 [interquartile range (IQR) 0-1.3]) and goal kicks (median: 4 [IQR: 1.8-5.3]) occurred rarely during WF., Conclusions: Walking football might represent an alternative to WA for health prevention programs in patients with CVRF and diseases as it is characterized by a manageable cardiocirculatory strain, moderate RPE, low pain induction, and a low number of injury-inciting activities., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Data-driven match analysis in soccer is a growing discipline in both research and practice. However, public data is scarce, which raises the barrier for entering this field and decreases reproducibility of methods and results. To bridge this gap, this paper presents a dataset of official match information, event, and position data from seven matches of the German Bundesliga's first and second division. The match information contains meta data about the matches and their participants. The event data contain timestamps along with descriptions of discrete events, like passes, shots, or fouls. The position data contain the x/y-coordinates of every player and the ball. By integrating multiple data modalities - i.e., event logs with timestamps, and x-y coordinates of player and ball positions - the dataset offers a multidimensional view of match dynamics. This dataset supports the validation of existing analytical techniques and facilitates the development of new methodologies in sports analytics. With availability under CC-BY 4.0, it promotes transparency, reproducibility, and the idea of open science in match analysis research., Competing Interests: Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2025. The Author(s).)

Sport research highlights the significance of supportive relationships and a psychologically safe environment for promoting desirable talent development outcomes associated with young athletes' performance, wellbeing, and personal development. Against this background, this study aimed to investigate youth football players' perceived availability of different kinds of social support from various stakeholders along the talent pathway in German elite youth academies (1). It further sought to examine the link of such social support perceptions to wellbeing, sport commitment and individual performance satisfaction as relevant development outcomes (2). Finally, the study examined potential mechanism underlying these associations by considering psychological safety as a potential mediator (3). For this purpose, N = 271 youth academy players participating in teams of under-13s, under-15s, and under-17/19s age groups completed a multi-section online survey including the PASS-Q, PsySafety-Check, and WHO-5 as well as subscales of the ASQ (i.e., individual performance satisfaction) and YSCS (i.e., sport commitment). Multivariate analyses indicated significant differences in players' perceptions of social support depending on its kind and provider as well as on players' age group. Further, path models highlighted the importance of emotional and esteem support provided by coaches and management for players' talent development outcomes. However, psychological safety seemed to only play a minor role within those associations, partially mediating the effects of emotional support. Overall, these findings encourage a critical reflection of youth players' social support needs and opportunities to optimally address those within elite youth academies as prominent talent development environments in football., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Empirical studies show that first- and second-generation immigrants are less likely to be members of sports clubs than their non-immigrant peers. Common explanations are cultural differences and socioeconomic disadvantages. However, lower participation rates in amateur sport could be at least partly due to ethnic discrimination. Are minority ethnic groups granted the same right to belong as their non-immigrant peers? To answer this question, this paper uses publicly available data from a field experiment in which mock applications were sent out to over 1,600 football clubs in Germany. Having a foreign-sounding name significantly reduces the likelihood of being invited to participate. The paper concludes that amateur football clubs are not as permeable as they are often perceived to be. It claims that traditional explanations for lower participation rates of immigrants need to be revisited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the emergence of public debates about the obligation of athletes with transnational heritage to perform the national anthem. While the sporting national anthem has a contentious history in Germany, the question of the obligation to sing only emerged in 2010, once Germany’s men’s national football team began to reflect the true diversity of the citizenry. As some players chose to pray or silently focus and reflect during those crucial moments before the match, commentators began to raise questions about their commitment and true loyalties. Discourse around national sports reflects and reconstructs national politics of culture, race, and citizenship. It both symbolizes the optimism of national communities and reveals the fragility of support for celebrated “role models of integration.” Every time the anthem plays and the cameras pan player’s faces, the audience is invited to scrutinize and interpret their emotions and motivations. Beyond the right to judge, media discourse has established the public’s entitlement to command (minoritized) players’ bodies. This study analyzes the asymmetrical power of competing narrations by the mainstream media and players themselves. However, while players’ voices were elicited only to be dismissed, the persistent non-performance of the anthem exerted its own counterhegemonic effect. Athletes’ assertion of control over their bodies and voices became an act of resistance. While this debate demonstrates the depth of racist logics underlying the self-declared positivity of “soccer patriotism,” it also reveals how small counterhegemonic acts can shatter that benign façade by making racism visible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explored the cultural and career transition experiences of two elite West African footballers in Germany using the approach of interpretive biography. By analysing data collected through semi--structured interviews, the players' narratives revealed a range of experiences emerging at different temporal points or life domains. The experiences included the psychosocial states of pre-transition, the challenges associated with language and weather, the increased demands of professionalism, the challenge of adapting to a new environment and routines of daily life, the superficiality of relationships and the attendant loneliness. It however, advanced literature by demonstrating how an African footballer in Europe may locate self and progress career within the European football economy and how a high-status African migrant athlete may use his social position to characterise self in a certain manner so as to exercise the right to belong. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has decelerated substantial parts of economic and human interaction. This paper estimates football matches' contribution to the spread of COVID-19 during Germany's second infection wave in summer and autumn 2020. Exploiting the exogenous fixture schedules of matches across German counties in an event study design, we estimate that one additional match in a county on average raises daily cases by between 0.34 to 0.71 cases per 100,000 inhabitants after three weeks. Hence, this implies an increase of the seven-day incidence per 100,000 inhabitants by around three to seven percent. We do not find qualitatively different results for a subsample of German top league matches with the strictest hygiene regulations or matches with higher occupancy levels. Notably, the found effect is mediated by the incidence level at the day of the match with very few infections for matches at a seven-day incidence below 25. Using mobile phone data, we identify strong increases in the local mobility as an underlying mechanism. We finally show that the ban of away fans successfully limited the spread of COVID-19 beyond county borders. Our results alert that even outdoor mass gatherings can remarkably cause infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This paper concludes that a number of different discourses marked the coverage of Danish–German sports collaboration during the Second World War in German newspapers, sports magazines and newsreels. From the outbreak of the Second World War to the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the discourses cover neutrality and friendship with Germany. After the invasion of Denmark, a discourse of Nordic sentiments became very important in the communications of the press, with Danish athletes portrayed as Nordic citizens, which some circles of German society could interpret as a euphemism for the Nazi idea of a strong Aryan Scandinavia. During the autumn of 1941, the rising strain on Germany’s resources made the sports media a supplier of success. The discourse of a strong Germany replaced the previous discourses. As German–Danish sporting events ceased in 1942, Danish sport alone would still make occasional appearances in the German media until 1944, providing a German audience with entertainment and distraction. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

German society and even German soccer have become more acceptant of the idea of inclusive masculinities. Hyper-masculinity is no longer the only paradigm dominating discourses on soccer. Other forms of masculinities have become more accepted in the German public and its soccer community. Nevertheless, two major aspects of homophobia remain part of the German soccer scene. First, homophobic epithets and chants continue to represent a major ingredient of the climate in soccer stadiums. Second, there is the absence of openly homosexual top-level soccer players. So far, no active players in top division German soccer have come out as gay. What explains this contrast between the acceptance of inclusive masculinities and the continued homophobia of the game? This paper analyses discourses on masculinity, homosexuality and homophobia in German professional soccer to address this puzzle. I argue that the increasing commercialization of the game and the efforts of preserving the tradition of the game tend to pull in the same direction and, therefore, reinforce each other. There simply are no large constituencies and advocacy groups that would have strong interests in eradicating homophobia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to extend the contemporary athlete activism literature by (a) exploring athlete activism beyond a strictly North American context and (b) examining how athlete activism at an organizational/institutional level (i.e., sport organization) may be framed differently than activist efforts at an individual level (i.e., athlete). By examining two examples of activism in German soccer, we show that the framing of both athlete-enacted and organization-enacted examples of activism highlighted the importance of speaking up when human rights are violated, called for the display of solidarity, and discussed the broader political implications for such protests. Additionally, framing of both examples of activism included voices of criticism regarding the sport organizations governing global sport. As calls for accountability of sport organizations suppressing athlete expression are becoming increasingly common in global sport, this study adds to a shifting focus of activism research targeting the sport institutions that often perpetuate the various injustices individual athletes call attention to. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we use a novel panel data set from the German premier soccer league (Bundesliga) as a case to show how variations in managerial compensation impact positively upon organizational (team) success. Using stochastic frontier analysis, we find that a team that hires a better quality coach can expect to achieve a higher league points total by reducing technical inefficiency. However, our results also suggest that the market for head coaches may be allocatively inefficient in that coaches are paid below their marginal revenue products. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although people may make sense of concepts like 'talent' and get influenced through discourses reinforced in the media, not much research has investigated the construction of 'talent' in the media or in relation to football, yet. By applying Laclau and Mouffe's discourse-theoretical analysis and aspects of quantitative content analysis to forty-four news articles, this study compares how German and Swedish media construct and reinforce discourses of 'talent' in football. The findings suggest that cross-cultural media share common reference points in shaping discourses on 'football talent'. However, these nodal points are allocated and formed in distinct ways within each country, thus constituting floating signifiers. The study unveils that 'talent' constitutes an empty concept within and across specific cultural settings. Nonetheless, the conceptual notions surrounding talent seems more uniform in Swedish media compared to Germany. Moreover, gender disparities in the context of 'football talent' discourses predominantly link talent with male football players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International football is a field for national identity performances in which narratives of national belonging are articulated. Games of belonging capture discourses on and debates over national belonging. Up-and-coming national football team diversity, and its public promotion, was expected to facilitate boundary blurring in the politics of belonging; however, it caused highly contentious debates revolving around the question of who belongs to Germany and Turkey and who does not. For this reason, we ask how (ethnoculturally) diverse national football teams challenge established narratives of national belonging and, thereby, trigger debates over national belonging across time and space. We compared the media discourse on national team diversity in Germany and Turkey with a special focus on players who disrupt conceptions of ethnic and cultural homogeneity, namely Mesut Özil and Nuri Şahin. Our study illustrates that upcoming international football events constitute games of belonging. Actors from the media, football associations, and politics largely demanded unilateral national belonging from the disrupters, Özil and Şahin. Both players' reactions, however, draw on conceptions of (trans-)national belonging which challenge and conflict with established narratives of (ethno-)national belonging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germany sent its most ethnically diverse team ever to Poland and Ukraine to compete in Euro 2012. Over the last six years, the Germany manager, Joachim Löw, has not only revitalized and rejuvenated his squad but also included a considerable number of players with foreign roots and from ethnic minorities. This ethnic and cultural diversity of the current German national side is the result of some major policy changes in the country at the turn of the millennium that made it easier for immigrants and their offspring to gain citizenship. In comparison with other European nations, it is not a reflection of a colonial history but a model of contemporary German society. This paper argues that the above-mentioned changes on the pitch are also reflected off it. Both the 2006 and 2010 Soccer World Cups and Euro 2012 turned into widespread and colourful celebrations of a new, modern sense of Germanness underpinned by a non-threatening and playful patriotism. The creativity, diversity, youth, style and flair of both the German team and its supporters presented the country as a confident and more embracing place than ever before. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes emergency medical preparedness during FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) World Cup matches in Frankfurt, Germany, in 2006. The methods employed were document analysis and personal observation of games over five days in June-July 2006. The medical authorities in Frankfurt drew on a wide range of scientific literature and experiences to elaborate a National Concept. They paid attention to different models of handling mass catastrophes in shaping the final version of the document. The participation of designated authorities, associations, and volunteer organisations was coordinated sufficiently and the games in Frankfurt proceeded without great incident, even though more than 300,000 people in total attended. The adopted emergency medical procedure was appropriate for a mass gathering event. Official and volunteer organisations collaborated precisely in emergency preparedness. While one uniform concept for all mass gatherings events cannot be developed, case reports and experiences are useful tools.

This paper follows the political evaluations conducted within British official circles concerning the 1935 England‐Germany football match, revealing the difficulties faced by those authorities in dealing with both German foreign policy and domestic public opinion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article has been developed and updated from a paper delivered at the Grossbritannien-Zentrum, Humboldt University at Berlin, June 2000. Traditionally, sport has been marginalized, even treated as an irrelevance, in the study of International Relations (IR). The 2002 World Cup Finals raised yet again questions about the realism of continuing to write sport out of IR, and particularly to ignore its impact upon such relationships as those between Britain and Germany. Football's role in mirroring, influencing and articulating British perceptions of Germany, at least at the popular and media level, is presented as a case-study, since the football field proved another important British_German battleground throughout the twentieth century. This trend continues. Already, three high profile football internationals played during 2000–1 as well as rivalry to host the 2006 World Cup tournament have illuminated the problematic state of the British-German relationship, particularly the fact that history, most notably world war imagery, imparts en enduring extra-sporting sub-text for any England-Germany footballing encounter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents some results using the sport-economic simulation model SPORT. This model is based on a sport-specific input-output table for the year 1993, which has been integrated into the German INFORGE model. The performance of this model founded on the INFORUM philosophy. The results illustrate the importance of modelling sport-economic activities in deep detail, especially the integration of the system of national accounts. In addition, the results also show that it is possible to calculate the macroeconomic effects of the soccer World Cup, which may perhaps be hosted by Germany in 2006, with regard to the different financing of necessary extensions of public sports infrasfructure. Under favourable conditions-independent of the type of financing of these necessary investments-the staging of the soccer World Cup positively influences income and employment. Such calculations allow the decision-maker to estimate the opportunity costs of their decisions and can be the basis for an extended cost-benefit analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing literature on talent development predominantly focuses on male athletes, with limited representation of female athletes. This study aims to address this gap by examining the long-term development of female football players in an elite club. Routine lab-based assessments were conducted on 238 athletes across six teams for 7 years to determine how physical, perceptual-cognitive, and skill performance predictors fluctuated with player age and developmental stage (sampling 9−11y, specializing 12−14y, investment 15−18y, and performance +18y). The developmental stage was a significant predictor of improved performance for each talent indicator (p <.001), with each consecutive stage significantly outperforming the previous stage in all domains with moderate to large effect sizes (0.07–0.40 ηp2). Improvement rate was higher in young adolescence (<15) and slower approaching adulthood (>18y). Playing position influenced performance scores on several physical and technical skill predictors (p ≤.001), but not perceptual-cognitive ones (p ≥.11). Players progressed continuously from the sampling to the performance stage, contradicting previously reported plateaus observed when athletes reached the investment stage. Benchmark data are provided across age and playing position to better understand what is required for successful participation at an elite level at varying age groups in female soccer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The VAR has introduced a new element to football. Before, a decision to award a penalty kick could not be reversed. The player taking the penalty could take it relatively quickly after the referee called the foul. After the introduction of the VAR, every penalty kick decision is replayed by the VAR and also quite often reviewed on-field. As a consequence, time between the initial decision by the referee and the actual penalty kick has increased substantially. We examined the influence of the time-interval duration between the foul and the actual penalty kick on the conversion probability using a logit model. Also, we assessed the consequences of a VAR intervention, if any. We used data on all 2888 penalties awarded in top leagues in England, Spain, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and the UEFA Champions League, over the course of five seasons (2015/2016–2019/2020). We found that the duration between the foul and the moment the penalty is taken does not impact the conversion probability. However, whether or not the VAR intervenes with the referee's decision has a negative effect on the conversion probability of penalty kicks. Football teams and coaches should incorporate this element of uncertainty in training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Concerns about short‐ and long‐term consequences of repetitive heading contributed to heading restrictions in youth football in some countries. This prospective longitudinal cohort study aims to describe heading exposure in children's and youth football over two seasons using standardized video analysis. Methods: All matches and training sessions of a male Under‐11 (n = 29), Under‐15 (n = 28), Under‐19 (n = 38), and female Under‐17 (n = 39) team were videotaped during the seasons 2019–2020 and 2020–2021. Heading frequencies and characteristics were analyzed. Individual heading exposure is presented as average incidence rates (IR) per 1000 match/training hours. Results: In 275 matches and 673 training sessions, 22 921 headers were observed. Heading IR per player in matches was 1256 (Under‐11 m), 1608 (Under‐15 m), 1050 (Under‐17 f), and 1966 (Under‐19 m). In training sessions, IR per player was 739 (Under‐11 m), 2206 (Under‐15 m), 1661 (Under‐17 f), and 1419 (Under‐19 m). Five Under‐15 males headed the ball five to eight times per training on average. Most headers were performed without heading duels. Flight distance was predominantly 5–20 m (54%) in matches and <5 m (65%) in training. While head impact location most frequently was at frontal areas, one‐third of all headers in Under‐11 in matches hit temporal, parietal, and occipital parts of the head. Conclusion: Heading incidence was low in the youngest age group, whereas (predominantly five) Under‐15 males showed very high heading exposures in training. In assessment and regulation of heading burden, training sessions and individual heading behavior should specifically be addressed. Recommendations for heading the ball in practice should account for individual and age‐related differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyse the competitive effects of the centralised sale of football media rights in Europe, focusing on the "Big Five" countries (England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain). Contrary to the findings of European competition authorities, we consider that there are arguments in favour of the relevant market for domestic media rights being club- or even match-specific. This raises the question of what competition is restricted by the centralised sale if the rights on offer have limited or no substitutability. We conclude that the centralised sale of media rights is unlikely to be anticompetitive and may have procompetitive effects if the media rights of different clubs are complementary instead of substitutable. In addition, there may be efficiency gains from the bundling of media rights. Under a club or match-specific market definition, a no-single-buyer rule likely reduces the benefits from the centralised sale and may harm consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess the players' risk of a subsequent injury after sustaining concussive injuries and their return-to-competition in German professional men's football. A prospective injury database in the 1st Bundesliga was created encompassing 7 seasons (2014/15–2020/21). Cox proportional hazard model analyzed whether a concussive injury increased the risk of a subsequent injury in the first year after the index injury. 6,651 injuries were reported (n=182 concussive injuries). The incidence rate was 0.15 (95% CI 0.13–0.17) per 1000 football hours. A concussive injury was associated with only a slightly numerical higher risk of 7% (HR=1.07, 95% CI 0.78–1.47) in the subsequent year after the injury compared to a randomly selected non-concussive injury, but the effect was not significant. The risk was higher after 6–12 months post-SRC reaching 70% (HR=1.70, 95% CI 1.15–2.52). For 0–3 months (HR=0.76, 95% CI 0.48–1.20) and 3–6 months (HR=0.97, 95% CI 0.62–1.50) the injury risk was lower. The present data do not confirm previously published investigations about an increased injury risk after SRC. Contrasting effects of lower hazard ratios were found early after SRC, followed by an increase after 6–12 months. Further research should look into compliance rates with regards to return-to-competition protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If a sports competition is broadcasted live, consumers may opt for substituting gate attendance with watching that game live on TV (or online). This might be worrisome for teams, particularly those in lower divisions, whose game day revenues typically exceed broadcasting revenues. So far, however, the literature testing this claim empirically is inconclusive. We examine whether (at least parts of) this confusion might be traced back to shortcomings in the econometric modelling process. We use attendance data for 1,138 games in German third division football from the 2015/16 to 2017/18 seasons and compare results for our demand equations between ordinary least squares (OLS) and endogenous treatment regressions (ETR). ETRs explicitly account for any selection bias, that is, the broadcasters' preference to select the most attractive games for live broadcasting (which are expected to also attract comparably larger gate attendances). While OLS models reveal a significant positive impact of live broadcasts on gate attendance, this effect reverses when estimating ETRs. Even though there is suggestive evidence for postponing ticket demand to some extent to later games, the overall negative effect remains robust and large. Our findings highlight the relevance of controlling for the selection bias when analysing the impact of live broadcasting on stadium attendance. From a managerial point of view, our findings suggest that increasing the number of games broadcasted live in German third division football might not be advisable, since additional broadcasting revenues may not exceed predicted losses in ticket revenues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keiner, M, Kadlubowski, B, Sander, A, Hartmann, H, and Wirth, K. Effects of 10 months of speed, functional, and traditional strength training on strength, linear sprint, change of direction, and jump performance in trained adolescent soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2236–2246, 2022—The current study aimed to compare the effects of plyometric and sprint vs. functional vs. strength training on linear sprint (LS 20 m), change of direction (COD; i.e., turning right and left), jump (squat jump [SJ]), and maximum strength (1 repetition maximum [1RM] for a squat) performance in elite adolescent soccer players. A longitudinal design was chosen, and 48 elite male youth were recruited. The athletes were divided into 4 groups (a traditional strength training group [STG], a plyometric and sprint training group [PSTG], a functional training group [FTG], and a control group [CG]). The intervention groups trained for 10 months with additional sessions added to their regular soccer training (4–5 sessions per week); the additional training (2 sessions a week [each about 60 minutes]) consisted of plyometric and sprint training, functional training, and traditional strength training for the PSTG, FTG, and STG, respectively. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance with repeated measurements. The effect sizes were calculated using Hedges g. This study showed significantly superior performance increases with traditional strength training compared with sprint and jump training and functional training for maximum strength (compared with all other groups g = 0.98–1.61), SJ (g = 0.52–0.87 compared with FGT and CG; not significantly different from PSTG), COD (direction of rotation right: compared with all other groups g = 1.58–2.12; direction of rotation left: no significant differences), and 20-m LS (compared with all other groups g = 0.86–1.39) performance over time. Traditional strength training is recommended to increase strength and speed-strength variables and should therefore be given high priority in athletic training programs for elite youth soccer players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent transfers of Christiano Ronaldo from Manchester United, and of Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite (Kaká) from Associazione Calcio Milan to Real Madrid-as well as the increasing financial problems of many of the top teams in the big five European leagues—have again increased the public's attention for the global football players' labor market. Therefore, the paper addresses two important, and highly contested, issues: player remuneration and contract duration (players are usually considered as overpaid and poorly motivated. Using two different unbalanced panels from the German Bundesliga league that cover six and 13 consecutive seasons respectively (1997-98 to 2002-03 and 1995-96 to 2007-08), I show, first, that the variance in player salaries can be explained, to a large extent, by the variance in individual performance. That is, salaries can be explained by career games played and games played last season, previous and recent international appearances, and goals scored. Moreover, player position, leadership skills, and region of birth clearly matter as well. The impact of these characteristics varies across the salary distribution. Second, I find robust evidence that player performance—measured primarily, but not exclusively, by a subjective overall player rating from Kicker, a highly respected soccer magazine—significantly increases in the last year of the contract. In addition, the variance in player performance is significantly lower in the last year of the contract. These findings suggest that moral hazard is a widespread phenomenon, even in professional soccer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the mid-1990s EU institutions and EU policy-making outcomes have had a considerably more noticeable bearing on the regulation and subsequent development of sport than in the first four decades of European integration. While the developments at European level are relatively well documented, the actual impact of EU law and policy-making on the domestic arena has so far largely escaped thorough academic attention. This essay will give a brief overview of the increased attention that sport has received in EU politics and policy, before embarking on an analysis regarding the result this may have for domestic sport. Our empirical focus is on German football, particularly on three sub-cases: (I) the nationality issue related to the Bosman ruling, (II) the transfer rules resulting from Bosman, and (III) the issue of broadcasting rights. Our (comparative) empirical analysis suggests that domestic level actors can influence the impact of EU level decisions to (quite) some extent. Hence, outcomes depend both on the strength of EU level pressures for domestic change and on domestic level counter-reactions. We argue that the interplay of these levels has led to different outcomes: 'system transformation' (Case I), 'heavy adjustment' (Case II) and 'partial adjustment' (Case III). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For performance and injury prevention in sport, core strength and endurance are focused prerequisites. Therefore we evaluated characteristics of trunk muscle activation and performance during strength-endurance related trunk field tests. Strength-endurance ability, as total time to failure, and activation of trunk muscles was measured in 39 football players of the highest German female football league (Bundesliga) (N = 18, age: 20.7 y [SD 4.4]) and the highest national male under-19 league (N = 21, age: 17.9 y [0.7]) in prone plank, side plank, and dorsal position. Maximal isometric force was assessed during trunk extension and flexion, rotation, and lateral flexion to normalize EMG and to compare with the results of strength-endurance tests. For all positions of endurance strength tests, a continuous increase in normalized EMG activation was observed (P < .001). Muscle activation of the rectus abdominis and external oblique in prone plank position exceeded the maximal voluntary isometric contraction activation, with a significantly higher activation in females (P = .02). We conclude, that in the applied strength-endurance testing, the activation of trunk muscles was high, especially in females. As high trunk muscle activation can infer fatigue, limb strength can limit performance in prone and side plank position, particularly during high trunk muscle activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The impact of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) on the performance and career of professional soccer players has not been extensively investigated. Purpose: To evaluate in professional European soccer players (1) the ACL injury incidence, (2) the return-to-play (RTP) rate and time after ACLR, (3) career survival and athlete performance in the first 3 postoperative seasons after RTP, (4) factors likely related to different outcomes after ACLR, and (5) any related differences between the top 8 European soccer leagues. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Included were professional soccer players in the top 8 European Soccer leagues (Serie A [Italy], Premier League [England], Ligue 1 [France], LaLiga [Spain], Bundesliga [Germany], Jupiler Pro League [Belgium], Liga NOS [Portugal], and Premier Liga [Russia]) who sustained an ACL injury during seasons 2014 to 2015, 2015 to 2016, and 2016 to 2017. Data were retrieved from publicly available online sources. Outcomes were evaluated based on player age (<25 years, 25-30 years, and >30 years), position (goalkeeper, defender, midfielder, and forward), affected side (dominant vs nondominant), and league. Results: Overall, 195 players sustained an ACL injury, for a mean annual ACL injury incidence of 1.42%. The RTP rate was 95%, with a mean RTP time of 248 ± 136 days. Within the third postoperative season, 66 players (36%) competed in a lower level national league, and 25 (13.6%) ended their careers; a significant reduction in the mean minutes played per season was found in all 3 postoperative seasons. Player age correlated significantly with reduction in performance or recovery from an ACL injury. No significant correlation was found between postoperative player performance and affected side, position, league, or time to RTP. Conclusion: A substantial ACL injury incidence was found in top European elite soccer players; however, a high RTP rate in a reasonable time was seen after ACLR. Nevertheless, professional soccer players experienced a short-term decline in their performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the influence of corona-specific training and playing conditions - especially empty stadiums - on match performance, contact behavior, and home advantage in the Bundesliga (BL) and Bundesliga 2 (BL2). We analyzed the 2017/18, 2018/19, and 2019/20 seasons and compared matches in rounds 26–34 before shutdown with "ghost" matches after restart. Results show increased running activity for high intensity distance: (+ 6.1%) and total distance covered (+ 4.3%). In BL2 in particular there were also changes in tactical aspects of the game (time in last third: –6.3%, pressure on pass receiver: –8.6%, success of attacking duels: –7.9%, share of long passes completed: + 15.6%, outplayed opponents per pass: –14.7%). Contact time to other players (< 2 m distance) was 15:35 mins per match. After restart, contact was reduced, especially when the ball was not in the last third (–11.2%). Away wins increased by +44.2% in BL and the home-away difference in yellow cards changed in favor of the away team (+31.2%) in BL2. We conclude that empty stadiums have reduced home advantage and decreased referee bias when awarding yellow cards. Player behavior might have been affected by tactical demands and/or conscious or unconscious self-protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To define based on expert opinion and practical experience using a systematic and scientific approach, (1) the perceived most effective exercise-based strategies to prevent muscle injury in elite footballers; and, (2) when and how these exercise programs are prescribed based on the number of days between games i.e. implementation strategy. Methods: A Delphi survey obtained opinions and assessed for agreement. Delphi respondents consisted of 21 experienced sports practitioners (12 ± 5.3 years in elite football and with an academic background) belonging to 18 teams from the Big-5 European football leagues; England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain. Three teams were represented collaboratively by two experts. The Delphi process involves sequential rounds each evolving based on the responses from the previous. The number of rounds is not pre-defined and continues until an agreement is either achieved or it is clear that no agreement will be reached. Frequency of responses was recorded where the agreement was sought (i.e. in closed questions) and an agreement was achieved if ≥ 13/18 (70%) respondents agreed. For open-ended questions, a qualitative content analysis was performed to identify recurring themes and when themes were specified by ≥ 13 (70%), these were also considered as reaching an agreement. Practitioners had the opportunity to raise concerns if they disagreed with the 'agreement from recurrent themes'. Results: There were four Delphi rounds (100% response for each round). Sprinting and High-Speed Running (HSR) focused exercises were agreed as most effective (perceived) to prevent muscle injuries. Eccentric exercise was perceived as the next most effective. It was agreed that sprinting and HSR be integrated into coaches training, and target 100% of players worst-case match scenario (e.g. volume, intensity) based on individual maximum speeds. Eccentric exercise was recommended to be implemented according to the context of the main football session and planned/actual sprinting and HSR content. It was agreed that eccentrics can be performed before or after training, context dependent. The day to perform specific sprinting and HSR or eccentric exercises depended on the proximity of previous and upcoming matches. Other exercises reaching agreement as 'somewhat effective' included concentric and isometric, horizontal and vertical plyometrics, coordination, core and dynamic flexibility in addition to core stability. No agreement was reached for multi-joint, resisted sprinting, kicking or agility exercises nor simultaneous single-leg strength and stability. Finally, no agreement was reached regarding programming variables e.g. sets, repetitions as deemed too contextual. Conclusion: Regarding exercise-based strategies, particular importance agreed by the Delphi expert group was to focus on sprinting, HSR and eccentric exercises, integrated with a variety of other exercise modes which also carry some level of effectiveness in a multidimensional programme. Context was agreed to be key and decision-making about when to undertake/ how to prescribe exercise strategies to be made according to the content of normal football training and the proximity of matches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyse unique injury data of the national statutory accident insurance for the two highest divisions in German male football (Bundesliga and 2. Bundesliga) over three consecutive seasons regarding inter-season, inter-division and inter-team differences.Methods: This was a prospective observational open cohort study over the seasons 2014/2015, 2015/2016 and 2016/2017. Every acute injury that was registered by clubs or physicians with the German statutory accident insurance for professional athletes (VBG) as part of occupational accident reporting and that led to time loss and/or to medical attention, was included.Results: The complete sample consisted of 1449 players. The study covered 2663.5 player seasons with an observed match exposure of 69,058 h and a projected training exposure of 529,136 h. In total, 7493 injuries were included. The overall incidence rate was 12.5 (± 0.28) injuries per 1000 exposure hours, which translated into match and training rates of 47.0 (± 1.62) and 8.02 (± 0.24) injuries per 1000 h, respectively.Conclusion: Findings of 2.7 injuries per player and season underline the need of effective preventive approaches. Higher injury incidences in seasons after international tournaments suggest an increasing risk of injury with increasing number of matches. However, large differences between the single teams from the same division indicate that a reduction in the injury burden is generally possible. Continuing the presented injury surveillance might be helpful to identify injury trends in the future and to evaluate the effectiveness of preventive approaches under real-life conditions.Level Of Evidence: Level  II. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we argue that potential inefficiencies on betting markets are more likely to exist at the very beginning of a season, when the available information on the teams’ playing strength is difficult to evaluate. This lack of reliable information should be particularly large in the case of recently promoted teams that have typically undergone major changes in the composition of their roster following their promotion. Without any information on the latter teams’ potential performance, they are particularly difficult to evaluate, which may eventually lead to inefficiencies and positive returns on investment in the betting market. We analyse odds from German first division Bundesliga soccer for the seasons from 2002/03 to 2015/16 to find betting market inefficiencies at the start of the season. As expected, betting on recently promoted team wins generates temporarily positive returns, especially for away games. These results suggest bookmakers to underestimate promoted teams’ ability to familiarize with the conditions in the new league, such as having to play in front of larger, often hostile crowds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historians of sport have paid little attention to the ways in which modern sports such as football were transferred from its place of origin to receiving cultures around the globe. While it is recognized that this ball game emerged in nineteenth-century English public schools, little is known about the transformations this game underwent in becoming modern-day German football and modern-day Argentine football. Applying the model of intercultural transfer, my contribution will investigate the process of the transfer of this ball game from English public schools to German and Argentine high schools. The emergence of football and its transfer across the world was carried out by teachers and students and it was part of educational reform since this game offered an alternative to the traditional ways of imposing discipline. Discipline did not come from an outside force such as the teacher but from the rules of the game. This game, further, encouraged team work in order to achieve victory and offered sons of middle-class families an introduction into the mechanisms of the capitalist market. The introduction of soccer into urbanizing cultures was also part of social hygiene debates and many of the protagonists of this game were also involved in social reform debates about improving the quality of living in modern cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2014, four months after he retired, Thomas Hitzlsperger became the first professional football player in Germany to announce that he is gay. Although homosexuality has become much more accepted in many areas of society, this does not include the world of professional sports. By contrast, homosexuality is hidden and excluded from both official and unofficial discourses. Thus, there was an overwhelming media response when Hitzlsperger announced his sexual orientation. This study analyzes the way that Germany’s two most read quality newspapers Süddeutsche Zeitung (SZ) and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) as well as ZEIT published the initial interview of his coming-out and commented on the outing. Using a qualitative content analysis, three main issues emerged from the data: the acceptance of a gay professional football player, homosexuality in football, and homosexuality in society. Newspapers reported in a consistently positive way about Hitzlsperger, but also discussed critically whether homophobia is mainly a problem of men’s football or still a widely held attitude in society. Despite more tolerance of gay people in general, football remains associated with hyper-masculinity since homophobic attitudes are resistant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport and sport consumption represent highly gendered spheres. Accordingly, sport spectatorship and fandom have been predominantly male. Recently, however, a trend towards a 'feminization of sport crowds' within European soccer has been detected. The piece of research presented here focuses on the concept's quantitative dimension and aims to provide empirical evidence on long-term trends in female sport consumption and team identification studying trends for the German national soccer team over a 12-year period. The results suggest that the feminization of soccer reflects not only inauthentic consumerism but also increased team identification. Moreover, consistent age effects might be interpreted as indicating that the detected trends relate to changes in gender roles attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the influence ambient temperature has on the distances covered by players in soccer matches. For this purpose, 1,211 games from the top German professional leagues were analyzed over the course of the seasons 2011/12 and 2012/13 using an optical tracking system. Data show (a) significant differences in the total distance covered (TDC, in meters per 10 minutes) between the 1. Bundesliga (M = 1,225) and 2. Bundesliga (M = 1,201) and (b) a significant decrease in TDC from neutral (-4 to 13° C, M = 1,229) to warm (≥14° C, M = 1,217) environments. The size of the temperature effect is greater in the 1. Bundesliga (d = 0.30 vs. d = 0.16), although these players presumably have a higher level of fitness. This suggests that better players reduce their exertion level to a greater extent, thus preserving their ability to undertake the high-intensity activities when called upon. No reduction in running performance due to cold (≤5° C) temperatures was observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined contributions of different types of sport activities to the development of elite youth soccer performance. Match-play performance of 44 German male players was assessed by expert coaches twice, 24 months apart (age 11.1–13.1 years), based on videotaped 5v5 matches. Player pairs were matched by identical age and initial performance at t1. Each player was assigned to a group of either "Strong" or "Weak Responders" based on a higher or lower subsequent performance improvement at t2 within each pair (mean Δperformance 29% vs. 7%). A questionnaire recorded current and earlier amounts of organised practice/training and non-organised sporting play, in soccer and other sports, respectively. Group comparison revealed that "Strong Responders" accumulated more non-organised soccer play and organised practice/training in other sports, but not more organised soccer practice/training. Subsequent multivariate analyses (multiple linear regression analyses (MLR)) highlighted that higher resultant match-play performance at t2 was accounted for R2adj = 0.65 by performance at t1, together with more non-organised soccer play and organised engagement in other sports, respectively, and greater current, but less earlier volume of organised soccer. The findings suggest that variable early sporting experience facilitates subsequent soccer performance development in German elite youth footballers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Super Bowl has played a central role in the diffusion of American football in Germany, as interviews with the ‘founding fathers’ of ‘gridiron’ football clubs and analysis of German media accounts reveal. American football and the Super Bowl have also played an important role in the construction of traditional GermanAmerikabilder– images, ideas, and symbols associated with America. German media rarely covered American football until the late 1970s. At that time, brief highlight shows of the Super Bowl on German television and broadcasts on the American Forces Network significantly contributed to the diffusion of American football and the emergence of an American football league in Germany in the late 1970s. In the process of covering the Super Bowl, German journalists reproduced Germany’s double-headedAmerikabild: America as a model of modernity on the one hand, and as a violent, cultureless society on the other. The press further invoked historical clashes between GermanKulturand the dreadedZivilisationof the West. This exploration of the social processes surrounding the reception of the Super Bowl in Germany employs the theories of cultural globalization, migration, and electronic mediation developed by the anthropologist Arjun Appadurai to explain the complexities of contemporary global cultural flows. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Enjoying a surge of national pride, the German media celebrated the 2010 German World Cup team's success in South Africa. A dominant theme in this coverage was the 'immigration background' of 11 of the 23 players on the team and their claim to German identity despite their ethnic diversity. Amid debate over the changing nature of German citizenship, the national team's 'multicultural kickers' became the focal point for those who wished to reframe German identity. This article examines German newspaper and magazine coverage of the national soccer team emphasizing the role that media played in constructing competing definitions of the German citizen and nation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the uncertainty of outcome in sport, predicting the outcome of sporting contests is a major topic in sport sciences. This study examines the accuracy of expert predictions in the German Bundesliga and compares their predictions to those of sports economists. Prior to the start of each season, a set of distinguished experts (head coaches and players) express their subjective evaluations of the teams in school grades. While experts may be driven by irrational sentiments and may therefore systematically over- or underestimate specific teams, sports economists use observable characteristics to predict season outcomes. The latter typically use team wage bills given the positive pay-performance relationship as well as other factors (average team age, tenure, appearances on national team, and attendance). Using data from 15 consecutive Bundesliga seasons, the predictive accuracy of expert evaluations and sports economists is analysed. The results of separate estimations show that relative grade and relative wage bill significantly affect relative points, while age, tenure, appearances, and attendance are insignificant. In a joint model, relative grade and relative wage bill are still statistically significant, suggesting that the two types of predictions are complements rather than substitutes. Consequently, football experts and sports economists seem to rely on completely different sources of information when making their predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the developmental sporting activities of 52 German football first Bundesliga professionals (including 18 senior national team members) and 50 fourth to sixth league amateur players. They reported their volumes of organised football practice/training, including its “microstructure” (proportions of physical conditioning, skill exercises and playing forms), non-organised leisure football play and engagement in other sports through their career, respectively. Analyses revealed that the Bundesliga professionals performed moderate amounts of organised football practice/training throughout their career. They accumulated 4264 (mean value) hours over ~16 years before debuting in 1st Bundesliga; senior National Team debut was preceded by 4532 hours (mean) over ~17 years. Within the “microstructure” of organised practice/training, the proportion of playing forms developed from ~52% (childhood) to ~45% (adolescence) and ~40% (adulthood) and physical conditioning from ~13% to ~14% and ~23%. Outside organised involvement, these players engaged in extensive non-organised leisure football play making ~68%, ~54% and ~9% of all football involvement. Subsuming organised and non-organised football, ~86% (childhood), ~73% (adolescence) and ~43% (adulthood) of all activity was game play (exclusive matchplay). National Team differed from amateurs in more non-organised leisure football in childhood, more engagement in other sports in adolescence, later specialisation, and in more organised football only at age 22+ years. Relative to numerous other studies, these players performed less organised practice, particularly less physical conditioning, but greater proportions of playing activities. The findings are discussed relative to the significance of playing forms and variable involvements and are reflected against the deliberate practice and Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP) frameworks. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Research question:Given growing skepticism regarding the future of women's soccer in Germany, research presented here aims to fill a gap in research and explores demand functions for the German women's top division, the Frauen-Bundesliga (FBL). Research methods:FBL attendance data for 1848 matches from the seasons 1998/1999 to 2011/2012 are analyzed by employing fixed effects panel regressions. Results and findings:Aggregate attendance has increased substantially over the period examined. However, there is no continuous growth of attendance at the club level. Consumers’ loyalty appears to play a dominant role for FBL attendance but consumer demand responds to the quality of the involved teams, the relevance of matches for championship outcomes as well as costs and weather conditions. Host site characteristics appear to play a minor role. Moreover, women's soccer might represent an inferior good. While national team performance does not affect league attendance, the more aggressive marketing strategy for the home World Cup in 2011 might have served to create a short-term boost in attendance. Implications:More aggressive marketing strategies might be able to increase attendance. However, given the dominant role of habit persistence for FBL attendance, such marketing strategies have to be accompanied by efforts of FBL teams to build and expand a sustainable fan base. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The influence of a potentially fouled player's vocalisations on the referee's decisions was investigated. Experienced soccer referees watched video clips of real-match situations that were presented either without sound or with sound where a player's vocalisations were clearly audible and made judgements regarding fouls, direction of play and personal penalties. The results revealed that players’ vocalisations had no impact on the foul decisions of the referees. However, once a referee made a foul decision, the player's vocalisations led to an increased number of personal penalties (increase in yellow cards) for the foul-causing player. In addition to crowd noise, a player's vocalisations during a foul are used as a proximal cue in the referee's decision-making process. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The warm-up programme “FIFA 11+” has been shown to reduce football injuries in different populations, but so far veteran players have not been investigated. Due to differences in age, skill level and gender, a simple transfer of these results to veteran football is not recommended. The purpose of this study was to investigate the preventive effects of the “FIFA 11+” in veteran football players. Twenty veteran football teams were recruited for a prospective 9-month (1 season) cluster-randomised trial. The intervention group (INT,n = 146; 45 ± 8 years) performed the “FIFA 11+” at the beginning of each training session, while the control group (CON,n = 119; 43 ± 6 years) followed its regular training routine. Player exposure hours and injuries were recorded according to an international consensus statement. No significant difference was found between INT and CON in overall injury incidence (incidence rate ratio [IRR]: 0.91 [0.64–1.48];P = 0.89). Only severe injuries reached statistical significance with higher incidence in CON (IRR: 0.46 [0.21–0.97],P = 0.04). Regular conduction (i.e. once a week) of the “FIFA 11+” did not prevent injuries in veteran footballers under real training and competition circumstances. The lack of preventive effects is likely due to the too low overall frequency of training sessions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent theoretical research has identified many ways how contracts can be used as rent-seeking devices vis-à-vis third parties, but there is no empirical evidence on this issue so far. To test some basic qualitative properties of this literature, we develop a theoretical and empirical framework in the context of European professional soccer where (incumbent) teams and players sign binding contracts which, however, are frequently renegotiated when other teams (entrants) want to hire the player. Because they weaken entrants in renegotiations, long-term contracts are useful rent-seeking devices for the contracting parties. However, they reduce the likelihood of (mutually beneficial) transfers, which generates a trade-off in the spirit of Aghion and Bolton (1987). Using a data set from the German 'Bundesliga,' our model predictions are broadly confirmed. ( JEL L14, J63, L40, L83) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored to which extent the development of German professional football players is based on early talent identification (TID) and long-term nurture in talent promotion (TP) programmes or on their emergence in the course of repeated procedures of player selection and de-selection in these programmes through childhood and youth. The annual turnover of squad members in national junior teams (2001–2013) and youth elite academies was calculated; national U-team members were followed up with regard to nominations through subsequent seasons and to their success level eventually achieved at senior age; and all current Bundesliga players were analysed retrospectively regarding their earlier involvement in TID/TP programmes. Analyses revealed that the mean annual turnover of squad members was 24.5% (youth academies) and 41.0% (national U-teams), respectively. At any age, the probability of persisting in the programme three years later was <50%. Among current Bundesliga players, the age of recruitment into the TID/TP programme was widely evenly distributed across childhood and youth, respectively. Accordingly, the number of (future) Bundesliga players who were involved in TID/TP was built up continuously through all age categories. The observations suggest that the collective of professional players emerged from repeated procedures of selection and de-selection through childhood and youth rather than from early selection and long-term continuous nurture in TID/TP programmes. The findings are discussed with regard to the uncertainty of TID and of interventions applied to the selected players, and they are related to the individualistic and collectivistic approach in TP. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]