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CMOS image sensors in optical payloads are susceptible to single-event effects when irradiated by high-energy protons from the spatial radiation environment. Single-event transients in images primarily manifest as bright spots, and the characteristics of transient bright spots generated under different incident conditions exhibit some differences. In this study, we conducted proton irradiation experiments on CMOS image sensors at different energy levels and incident angles. The characteristics of single-event transient bright spots generated under various incident conditions were extracted and analysed in detail. Furthermore, the abnormal phenomena of different functional modules of CMOS image sensors observed during proton irradiation experiments were investigated. The results of this study establish the foundation for classifying the detected targets and transient bright spots, indicating that the validation of CMOS image sensor radiation reliability should account for functional abnormalities resulting from high-energy proton irradiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the physical mechanism of the proton single event effects (SEEs), a new analytical model is proposed to predict the proton SEE cross sections of electronic devices from the heavy ion data. The experimental data of five SRAMs from our experiments and the literature are used to test the new model, and the predicted results agree well with them. The existing models only apply to the devices with low LET threshold whose proton SEE cross sections are dominated by the p + Si reactions, and cannot predict the angular effects. Compared to them, our model applies to the devices with from low to high LET threshold whose proton SEE cross sections are dominated by the proton interactions with silicon and/or high-Z materials, and can also predict the angular effects. Moreover, for two SRAMs with low LET threshold, our model performs much better than two classic models, the BGR and microdosimetry models, in predicting their proton SEE cross sections at normal incidence. A new physical concept called the indirect ionization power of protons, which is very helpful for understanding the proton SEE mechanism, is put forward and used in our model. It is expected that the new model will be widely used in studying the proton SEE mechanism, predicting the proton SEE cross sections and on-orbit error rates of electronic devices in space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the Dosimetry Inter-comparison and Miniaturization Experiment (DIME) approach is to compare different miniature electronic dosimeters for monitoring exposure to ionizing radiation primarily in terms of potential degradation due to total ionizing dose (TID) and the threat of single event effects (SEEs). As the title implies, DIME is divided in two parts: DIME-1 is a passive board that is turned on only to read the cumulative dose and DIME-2 is an active board that requires continuous power to monitor the radiation-induced energy depositions that can lead to SEE. This article describes the details of the operation of DIME-2 and the results of the flight on the Demonstration and Science Experiments (DSX) satellite which orbited the Earth in an elliptical middle earth orbit (MEO) orbit that extended from 6000 to 12 000 km at an inclination of 42° thereby crossing the entire slot region between the inner and outer electron belts. Measurements made every 15 min consistently showed a large peak in the energy depositions at perigee and a small one near apogee with fewer events in the slot region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A silicon detector with a fast electronics chain is used for the dosimetry of protons in the range 0.5–5 MeV at the Centro Nacional de Aceleradores (CNA) 3 MV Tandem laboratory in Seville, Spain. In this configuration, measurements can be performed in pulsed mode, using a digitizer to record event-by-event proton energy depositions. The distributions of deposited energy were obtained thanks to a calibration with an alpha source. Measurements of flux and deposited energy are used to enable single event effect (SEE) testing on selected static random access memories (SRAMs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple method for the prediction of the heavy ion-induced single event effect cross-section based on proton experimental data has been proposed, which is convenient for flip chips. The method relies on the effective LET spectrum of protons in the sensitive layer of microelectronic devices. Two chips using different packaging technologies are selected to verify this method, and the results obtained by our method are consistent with the heavy ion experimental data. The principle of this method has been analyzed in depth, and the limitations are also given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single Event Upset (SEU) critical charge and sensitive volume depth of 65-nm CMOS bulk SRAM are predicted through energy deposition analysis of low energy protons. The deposited energy distributions of protons calculated by GEANT4 are incorporated into the three-dimensional device simulator to perform the Single Event Effects (SEE) simulation. Based on the analysis of the relationship between the energy deposition distributions and the single event responses, the deposited energy is correlated with the SEU critical charge, and valuable information of the upset sensitive volume depth is provided. Our prediction method is validated by the results of SPICE simulation method as well as experimental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We perform Monte Carlo (MC) simulations to describe heavy ion (HI) nuclear interactions in a broad energy range (4 MeV/n–150 GeV/n), focusing on the single event effect (SEE) sub-linear energy transfer (LET) impact. Previously retrieved single event latch-up (SEL) experimental data have indicated that standard energy ions (~10 MeV/n) can produce high-LET secondaries through fusion reactions which are expected to strongly influence the SEE cross section in the sub-LET region. Alternatively, interactions of higher energy ions (>100 MeV/n) yield secondaries of a similar LET distribution as from the projectile, for projectile-like fragments, and high-energy proton reactions, for target-like fragments. Hence, the factor of relevance to the sub-LET SEE cross section is correlated to low-energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neutron radiation on advanced integrated circuits (ICs) is becoming important for their reliable operation. However, a neutron test on ICs is expensive and time-consuming. In this work, we employ Monte Carlo simulation to examine if a proton test can replace or even accelerate the neutron test, and we found that 200 MeV protons are the closest to resembling neutron radiation with five main differences. This 200 MeV concur with the suggestion from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, Washington, DC, USA). However, the impacts of the five differences on single event effects (SEEs) require future work for examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the radiation-induced dose and single-event effects (SEEs) on a color CMOS camera designed for space missions. The $\gamma $ -ray and proton tests are used to evaluate the tolerance against cumulative dose effects. The dark current of the image sensor is the main parameter impacted by dose effects. Heavy ions testing is performed to evaluate SEEs. single-event upset, single-event functional interrupt, and single-event latchup have been observed and mitigation techniques were proposed for specific space missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neutron-induced single event upsets (SEUs) have become a significant reliability concern for advanced electronics. Ever-shrinking device sizes and the introduction of new elements in state-of-the-art integrated circuits (ICs) have increased device neutron SEU susceptibility. Various elements found in ICs each have a role in producing SEUs from low-energy neutrons (sub-10 MeV). This paper explores the role these elements play in a case study of a state-of-the-art 3-D NAND flash. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional heavy-ion testing for single-event effects is carried out in cyclotron facilities with energies around 10 MeV/n. Despite their capability of providing a broad range of linear energy transfer (LET) values, the main limitations are related to the need of testing in a vacuum and with the sensitive region of the components accessible to the low range ions. In this paper, we explore the use of ultrahigh energy (UHE) (5–150 GeV/n) ions in the CERN accelerator complex for radiation effects on electronics testing. At these energies, we show, both through simulations and experimental data, the significant impact of the ion energy on the ionization track structure and associated volume-restricted LET value, highlighting the possible limitations for radiation hardness assurance for high-energy accelerator applications. In addition, we show that from a nuclear interaction perspective, UHE ions behave similar to protons independently of their significantly larger mass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The JESD89 test standard defines how terrestrial neutron testing is conducted. The test standard covers a number of different types of radiation used for testing, including protons, neutrons, and alphas, and different types of testing, including life testing and accelerated testing. Broad-spectrum neutron testing is the most common type of accelerated radiation testing for the terrestrial radiation environment. Unlike most test standards, the JESD89 defines the minimum energy for determining the cumulative fluence for the deployed and test environment. Currently, the minimum energy is set at 10 MeV. As the test standard is currently being rewritten, changing the minimum energy to 1 MeV is being explored, because it is believed that the onset to neutron-induced single-event effects (SEEs) is less than 10 MeV. There are three separate problems with lowering the minimum energy: determining whether electronics have a sensitivity to neutron-induced SEEs below 10 MeV, determining whether the test spectra match the terrestrial environment in the 1–10-MeV range, and the measurement error caused by not including the fluence from 1 to 10 MeV. In this paper, we present information on these factors and whether the minimum energy should be lowered to 1 MeV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, possible mechanisms by which electrons can induce single-event latchups in electronics are discussed. The energy deposition and the nuclear fragments created by electrons in silicon are analyzed in this context. The cross section enhancement effect in the presence of high-Z materials is discussed. First experimental results of electron-induced latchups are shown in static random access memory devices with low linear energy transfer thresholds. The radiation hardness assurance implications and future work are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An array of 30 16-Mbit static random access memories manufactured using 65-nm technology has been designed to characterize the proton and neutron beams used for radiation testing at TRIUMF. Measurements include single-event upset cross sections, beam profiles, collimator design, and shielding effects. The sensitivity of this dosimeter allows for quick measurements of these parameters, which are of interest in radiation test measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data Device Corporation’s SCS750 single-board computers (SBCs) have been operating without interruption onboard the Gaia satellite since its launch in 2014. The uninterrupted operation is possible because of several hardening techniques that allow the SBC to correct single-event upsets (SEUs) in the constituent components. We present on-orbit SEU data for the SBCs. All errors analyzed here were corrected by the SBC and had no effect on mission operation. We analyze the data to determine the accuracy of current models, as well as the effects of the space weather environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The usage of static random access memory-based field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) on high-energy physics detectors is mostly limited by the sensitivity of devices to radiation-induced upsets in their configuration. In this paper, we describe a scrubber core designed for Xilinx FPGAs, based on configuration redundancy. When no upsets happen in homologous redundant bits and the scrubber is functional, the adopted redundancy makes it possible to correct all the errors. In fact, the scrubber corrects its own configuration and the one pertaining to a given user design. We discuss the architecture and two implementations of the scrubber, corresponding to different flavors of triple modular redundancy. We report results from proton irradiation tests, which prove that our core can extend the lifetime of a benchmark circuit up to 290%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a monitor circuit designed for the detection of extra combinational delays in a high-frequency SRAM-based field-programmable gate array (FPGA). Since in most of the SRAM-based FPGAs, more than 90% of the configuration bits control the routing resources, systems designed on FPGA are particularly vulnerable to interconnection delay changes (DCs) caused by single-event upset (SEU) affecting the configuration memory. The proposed monitor is part of a mitigation technique dedicated to protect the circuit routing delay integrity while the system is being exposed to SEUs generated by radiation. Experimental results show that the probability of DC occurrence can increase when the number of DCs affecting a node increases. Indeed, this increase depends on the configurable interconnection network and design placement in FPGA. Delay measurements using the proposed monitor revealed the existence of single DCs ranging from 29 to 151 ps. Also, cumulative DCs in the range of 279–309 ps being the results of an extra interconnection network added by SEUs have been detected. Measured delay values are in good agreement with those observed experimentally under proton radiation and also circuit-level simulations and emulations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Three hundred commercial off-the-shelf ADSP-2187L chips on AMS-02 have been operating without major problems on the International Space Station since launch. The conversion rates from the single event upset (SEU) to single event function interrupt varied with the operation methods. The correlation between the on-orbit SEU and radiation environments during the 24th solar cycle was studied. The on-orbit SEU rate was much lower than expected. Possible reasons for the higher predicted SEU rate were discussed and thought to be the different circuit operations of the ground test method and the on-orbit one in the sensitive linear energy transfer range. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We describe an approach to calibrate Single Event Effect (SEE)-based detectors in monoenergetic fields and apply the resulting semi-empiric responses to more general mixed-field cases in which a broad variety of particle species and energy spectra are present. The calibration of the response functions is based both on experimental proton (30–200 MeV) and neutron (5–300 MeV) data and considerations derived from Monte Carlo simulations using the FLUKA Monte Carlo code. The application environments include the quasi-monoenergetic neutrons at RCNP, the atmospheric-like VESUVIO spallation spectrum and the CHARM high-energy accelerator test facility. The agreement between the mixed-field response and that predicted through the mono-energetic calibration is within ±30% for the broad variety of cases considered and thus regarded as highly successful for mixed-field monitoring applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A power MOSFET demonstrated destructive single-event effect (SEE) during ion irradiation in a switching circuit. Further investigation showed that the inductive load causing a spike in the drain-to-source voltage ( V\text {DS} ) that exceeded the manufacturer’s rating for several nanoseconds was enough to allow single-event effect (SEB). These results indicate that SEB may occur in a very short window and flyback is critical for disciplined power supply design. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Near-threshold computing and scaling are combined to operate SRAMs in regions where they are close to being unstable. One consequence of this is an increase in single event upsets (SEUs), due to the minimal charge stored on nodes during reduced voltage operation. In this paper, both modeling and measurements [with heavy ions, MeV and low energy protons (LEPs)] are reported for a 32-nm silicon on insulator SRAM, over a range of 0.4–1.05 V. The results show that the SEU rate increases by 3X at low-supply voltages, where very LEPs are able to upset these devices. This can be a reliability concern when running SRAMs at near-threshold voltages in LEP space environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We introduce an approach aimed at prescreening COTS components according to their single-event effect (SEE) sensitivity for space missions in which a complete characterization of their individual response to protons and heavy ions is not feasible due to cost and time constraints. The method is applied to a set of SRAM memories for single-event upset (SEU) and single-event latchup (SEL) and the resulting expected SEE rates are compared with traditional approaches and in-flight data for a low-earth orbit polar and a geostationary orbit. Despite the limitations related to components with high-LET threshold and thick sensitive volumes, we conclude that the proposed method can be an efficient means of rejecting highly sensitive components or lots and performing the complete characterization only on passing devices. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A charge-steering based latch hardening technique with very low performance tradeoff and significant SEU hardness is presented. Mixed-mode 3D-TCAD simulations are used to illustrate the effect of charge steering in reducing the amount of collected charge at the critical sensitive nodes. Circuit simulations also highlight that the tradeoffs in terms of area, speed and power penalties are much lower compared to other hardening approaches, such as hysteresis and spatial-redundancy techniques. Alpha particle, heavy-ion, and proton test results for circuits designed in a 16 nm FinFET process indicate significant SEU hardness, comparable to DICE FF design, for low LET particles. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We develop metrics for assessing effectiveness of proton SEE data for bounding heavy-ion SEE susceptibility. The simplest metric is just the areal coverage for the test, which can be expressed as the area on the test part which is struck on average by a single ion. This simple quantity can yield important insights into the efficacy of a given SEE test. We also develop methods for bounding heavy-ion SEE rates with proton data for both nondestructive and destructive SEE modes and for identifying the SEE response characteristics that render such bounding methods ineffective. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We discuss upsets in erased floating gate cells, due to large threshold voltage shifts, using statistical distributions collected on a large number of memory cells. The spread in the neutral threshold voltage appears to be too low to quantitatively explain the experimental observations in terms of simple charge loss, at least in SLC devices. The possibility that memories exposed to high energy protons and heavy ions exhibit negative charge transfer between programmed and erased cells is investigated, although the analysis does not provide conclusive support to this hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Floating gate cells in advanced NAND Flash memories, with single-level and multi-level cell architecture, were exposed to low-energy proton beams. The first experimental evidence of single event upsets by proton direct ionization in floating gate cells is reported. The dependence of the error rate versus proton energy is analyzed in a wide energy range. Proton direct ionization events are studied and energy loss in the overlayers is discussed. The threshold LET for floating gate errors in multi-level and single-level cell devices is modeled and technology scaling trends are analyzed, also discussing the impact of the particle track size. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

New mechanisms of radiation sensitivity, such as low-energy proton SEU, potentially hinder the ability to define part-level failure rates and perform worst-case analysis. Ground-based radiation testing demonstrates sensitivity and is useful for understanding mechanisms, but alone is not enough to quantify error rates. If radiation-induced error rates cannot be obtained through direct integration of the part response with the space environment, validated models must be developed. Models for SEU rate predictions for memories sensitive to low-energy protons have been proposed in a number of recent publications. In this paper, we use a CubeSat platform and crowd-sourced monitoring by the worldwide amateur radio community to measure the on-orbit response of a memory useful for evaluation of these models. We find that even for memories with no discernible proton SEU threshold, classical models for proton rate prediction perform well. This illustrates the capability of small satellite missions to complement ground based tests. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We apply a Monte Carlo based integral rectangular parallel-piped (IRRP) approach to evaluate the impact of heavy ion reaction products on the Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) Single Event Effect (SEE) rate, concluding that owing to their similar high-energy (>100 MeV/n) SEE cross section and much larger abundance, protons are expected to be the dominating contributor. In addition, a broad set of components, ions and energies is used to explore the sub-LET threshold experimental region for standard ground-level heavy ion test energies, identifying an overall decreasing trend in the 10-80 MeV/n range due to the decreased contribution of complete and break-up fusion, and pointing out the limitations associated to the application of Monte Carlo SEE models in this energy interval. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A study of proton-induced destructive SEE (DSEE) from Au-plated lid fission fragments has been expanded. Seventeen additional lid materials (Z =26–83) are studied. Lead (Pb) produced a higher sensitivity than seen in previous work with gold (Au), raising new concerns of SEE enhancement due to die-proximate Pb-based solder in flip-chip package designs. New analysis has allowed generalized RHA rules to be developed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this work, the expected SEE rate in a generic model of a state-of-the-art SRAM memory was studied as a function of the critical charge in different radiation environments. The FLUKA Monte Carlo code was used to evaluate the SEE mono-energetic cross section for different particles as well as the SEE rate in different mixed field environments through an energy deposition analysis. Mono-energetic cross sections for protons and both positively and negatively charged muons were evaluated in the 0.1–1000 MeV energy range. The SEE rate was calculated for different mixed radiation field environments such as the terrestrial environment, commercial flight altitude, LHC critical areas for electronics and CERN’s CHARM test facility. Results show that direct ionization from charged particles becomes predominant between 0.2-1.1 fC compared to indirect neutron energy deposition. Finally the CHARM facility was demonstrated to be able to reproduce with a good approximation both the atmospheric and accelerator environments, particularly with regard to avionics, ground level applications and LHC. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The upper atmosphere is a transition region between the neutron-dominated aviation environment and satellite environment where primary protons and ions dominate. We report high altitude balloon measurements and model results characterising this radiation environment for single event effects (SEE) in avionics. Our data, from the RaySure solid-state radiation monitor, reveal markedly different altitude profiles for low linear energy transfer (LET) and high LET energy depositions. We use models to show that the difference is caused by the influence of primary cosmic ray particles, which induce counts in RaySure via both direct and indirect ionization. Using the new Model of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation Effects (MAIRE), we use particle fluxes and LET spectra to calculate single event upset (SEU) rates as a function of altitude from ground level to the edge of space at 100 km altitude. The results have implications for a variety of applications including high altitude space tourism flights, UAVs and missions to the Martian surface. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The experiments of single event transient (SET) effects on charge coupled devices (CCDs) irradiated by protons are presented. The radiation experiments have been carried out at the accelerator protons with the energy of 200 MeV and 60 MeV.The incident angles of the protons are at 30°and 90° to the plane of the CCDs to obtain the images induced by the perpendicularity and incline incident angles. The experimental results show that the typical characteristics of the SET effects on a CCD induced by protons are the generation of a large number of dark signal spikes (hot pixels) which are randomly distributed in the “pepper” images. The characteristics of SET effects are investigated by observing the same imaging area at different time during proton radiation to verify the transient effects. The experiment results also show that the number of dark signal spikes increases with increasing integration time during proton radiation. The CCDs were tested at on-line and off-line to distinguish the radiation damage induced by the SET effects or DD effects. The mechanisms of the dark signal spike generation induced by the SET effects and the DD effects are demonstrated respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Depending on the application, electronic systems and devices can be subjected to different radiation environments. According to the type of radiation encountered during operation, electronic components are simultaneously vulnerable to cumulative and single event effects. In addition, inelastic interactions of highly energetic particles with high-Z materials generate highly ionizing products. This can lead to catastrophic failures and therefore can have a significant impact on the reliability of electronic devices. For this reason, it is necessary to test electronic devices/systems in representative environments. For this purpose, a mixed field radiation test facility called CHARM has been established at CERN. Its radiation environment is not only representative of particle accelerators, but also of atmospheric, ground level and space applications. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Methodologies are proposed for in-depth statistical analysis of Single Event Upset data. The motivation for using these methodologies is to obtain precise information on the intrinsic defects and weaknesses of the tested devices, and to gain insight on their failure mechanisms, at no additional cost. The case study is a 65 nm SRAM irradiated with neutrons, protons and heavy ions. This publication is an extended version of a previous study [1]. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In linear devices, the strong impact of configuration on the SET characterization makes them very difficult to predict without using particle accelerators for each application. In this work, based on heavy ion data, we propose to simulate proton cross-sections using gateway tools such as SIMPA, PROFIT or the more recent METIS software we developed within Airbus Group. We review four linear devices and show more physically-motivated predictions for METIS than for the two former approaches. Especially, this engineering tool could be used in a reversed manner to determine the sensitive thickness based on the knowledge of both proton and heavy ion cross-sections. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Retention time and cell functionality degradation under proton irradiation is studied for SDRAM references that exhibit in-flight faulty behavior on satellites. Proton irradiation, with an adapted test protocol, allows to reproduce these effects and to gain a valuable insight on this phenomenon. Data acquired allow for a physical interpretation of the degradation, which results of one or more damage clusters created by a single particle. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The occurrence of single-event upsets (SEUs) in 90-nm SRAM integrated circuits irradiated by 1000-MeV protons has been investigated. The experimental data were analyzed and processed, and the results showed the possibility of multiple cell upsets in the integrated circuits studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents heavy-ion and proton radiation test results of a 90 nm COTS SRAM with stacked structure. Radiation tests were made using high penetration heavy-ion cocktails at the HIF (Belgium) and at RADEF (Finland) as well as low energy protons at RADEF. The heavy-ion SEU cross-section showed an unusual profile with a peak at the lowest LET (heavy-ion with the highest penetration range). The discrepancy is due to the fact that the SRAM is constituted of two vertically stacked dice. The impact of proton testing on the response of both stacked dice is presented. The results are discussed and the SEU cross-sections of the upper and lower layers are compared. The impact of the stacked structure on the proton SEE rate is investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper presents a single event burnout (SEB) sensitivity characterization for power MOSFETs, independent from tests, through a prediction model issued from TCAD analysis and the knowledge of device topology. The methodology is applied to a STRIPFET device and compared to proton data obtained at PSI, showing a good agreement in the order of magnitude of proton SEB cross section, and thus validating the prediction model as an alternative device characterization with respect to SEB. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Proton single event dielectric rupture was observed in Analog Devices OP470 devices only when the package included gold flashing facing the die on the inner surface of the metal lid. The supply voltage was also a factor. Analysis shows that proton on gold fission fragments have the linear energy transfer and range to cause this effect. The physics of proton on gold reactions and radiation hardness assurance implications are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Circuit parameters and configuration are very important when studying the synergistic effects total dose/SET. We explore a method combining dynamic parameter measurement and spectrum analysis which lead to a better understanding of this complex phenomenon. In this paper symbolic circuit analysis is used to obtain the relationship between input, output and noise injection due to photocurrent generation in the form of a rational function using symbolic variables in the complex frequency domain. This simulation technique was able to predict the impact of (i) total dose level, (ii) circuit parameters, and (iii) the injected energy on the ASET shapes. Basic mechanisms as field collapse and collection efficiency were also predicted and assessed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We report on radiation-induced soft error rate (SER) improvements in the 14-nm second generation \high- k + \metal gate bulk tri-gate technology. Upset rates of memory cells, sequential elements, and combinational logic were investigated for terrestrial radiation environments, including thermal and high-energy neutrons, high-energy protons, and alpha-particles. SER improvements up to \sim\!\! 23\times with respect to devices manufactured in a 32-nm planar technology are observed. The improvements are particularly pronounced in logic devices, where aggressive fin depopulation combined with scaling of relevant fin parameters results in a \sim\!\! 8\times reduction of upset rates relative to the first-generation tri-gate technology. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We examine use of proton single-event effect (SEE) data to constrain heavy-ion SEE susceptibility. We discuss limitations due to short-range proton recoils, especially for destructive SEE modes. We develop an equivalent linear energy transfer metric that reduces risk that proton data will significantly underestimate SEE susceptibility and suggest a probabilistic model for using proton data to constrain device-sensitive volumes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We present low-energy proton single-event upset (SEU) data on a 65 nm SOI SRAM whose substrate has been completely removed. Since the protons only had to penetrate a very thin buried oxide layer, these measurements were affected by far less energy loss, energy straggle, flux attrition, and angular scattering than previous datasets. The minimization of these common sources of experimental interference allows more direct interpretation of the data and deeper insight into SEU mechanisms. The results show a strong angular dependence, demonstrate that energy straggle, flux attrition, and angular scattering affect the measured SEU cross sections, and prove that proton direct ionization is the dominant mechanism for low-energy proton-induced SEUs in these circuits. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper investigates the impact of the radial ionization profile of proton on SEU sensitivity for nanoscale devices. Intrinsic radial track structures of energy deposition of protons (from 0.5 to 2 MeV) in a silicon box with 2~\mu\m of Si over-layer and a 100-nm silicon film were investigated. The orders of magnitude of the radial deposition is around 200 to 300 nm. Approaches based on punctual or average depositions induce a drift increasing for nanoscale volumes. Realistic energy deposition databases were developed thanks to GEANT4 and coupled with MUSCA SEP3 to perform SEU cross sections and SER estimations. Calculations applied to SOI and bulk technologies (65 and 45-nm) were conducted and compared with experimental results. Calculations are consistent with experiments, despite some drifts. Analyses demonstrate the necessity to consider the 3D morphology description in SEE modeling for nanoscale technologies, more particularly for SOI technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

With fabrication processes migrating from planar devices to FinFETs, the differences in physical structure necessitate evaluating the SEU mechanisms of FinFET-based circuits. Since FinFET-based bi-stable circuits have shown better stability at low supply voltages and hence improved power dissipation, it is also necessary to assess the SEU performance over a range of voltages. In this work, the SEU cross section of FinFET-based D-flip-flops was measured with alpha particles, protons, neutrons, and heavy-ions. Results show a strong exponential increase in the SEU rate with reduction in bias for low-LET particles. Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD) simulations show that the weak variation of collected charge with supply voltage, combined with the standard bias dependence of critical charge, is responsible for this trend. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Low- and high-energy proton experimental data and error rate predictions are presented for many bulk Si and SOI circuits from the 20-90 nm technology nodes to quantify how much low-energy protons (LEPs) can contribute to the total on-orbit single-event upset (SEU) rate. Every effort was made to predict LEP error rates that are conservatively high; even secondary protons generated in the spacecraft shielding have been included in the analysis. Across all the environments and circuits investigated, and when operating within 10% of the nominal operating voltage, LEPs were found to increase the total SEU rate to up to 4.3 times as high as it would have been in the absence of LEPs. Therefore, the best approach to account for LEP effects may be to calculate the total error rate from high-energy protons and heavy ions, and then multiply it by a safety margin of 5. If that error rate can be tolerated then our findings suggest that it is justified to waive LEP tests in certain situations. Trends were observed in the LEP angular responses of the circuits tested. Grazing angles were the worst case for the SOI circuits, whereas the worst-case angle was at or near normal incidence for the bulk circuits. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper reports on the calculation of proton SEU cross section from heavy-ion data using a number of different models. Model accuracy is checked using data on proton and heavy-ion cross sections from the published literature. The closed-form models developed with earlier semiconductor devices typically overestimated the proton cross section, and the difference increased with smaller feature sizes. The results emphasize that low LET heavy-ion data is crucial in determining the proton upset cross section. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper describes the ASIC Single Event Effects (SEE) Error Rate Tool (ASERT) methodology to estimate the error rates of complex System-on-Chip (SoC) devices. ASERT consists of a top-down analysis to divide the SoC into sensitive cell groups. The SEE error rate is estimated with a bottom-up calculation summing the contribution of all sensitive cell groups, including derating and utilization factors to account for the probability that a cell-level error has a SoC-level impact. The sensitive cell SEE rates are evaluated using test data from specially designed test structures. Standard rate estimation tools are augmented with novel rate estimation approaches for direct proton upsets and for spatial redundancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of high-Z metals on energy deposition in thin volumes due to direct ionization by ions in space environments is examined. The importance of energy loss straggling in small volumes typical of those found in advanced devices is also evaluated. It is found that direct ionization by protons over a large energy range may contribute significantly to error rates in advanced silicon on insulator devices due to energy loss straggling. This improves on conventional event rate analysis based on linear energy transfer, which does not describe the contributions of direct ionization by protons to the error rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]