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Straipsnis skirtas Tyagino tvirtovės tyrimų rezultatams apžvelgti. Tvirtovė Bolšoje Gorodišče salos teritorijoje XIV a. pabaigoje – XV a. pradžioje buvo pastatyta Lietuvos kunigaikščio Vytauto Didžiojo įsakymu. Archeologinė medžiaga suteikė vertingos informacijos apie saloje esančio paminklų komplekso sinkretizmą, tvirtovės tipologiją, išplanavimą ir dydį. Tai yra viena ankstyviausių akmeninių pilių-tvirtovių šiaurinėje Juodosios jūros pakrantėje, kuri sudarė dalį Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės pietinės sienos gynybinės linijos. Tvirtovės gynybinę sistemą sudarė architektūrinių elementų sintezė – nuo medinių inžinerinių konstrukcijų, žinomų nuo senosios Rusios laikų, iki Europai naujų fortifikacijos elementų kaip akmeninės sienos ir kontraforsai. Tvirtovės ginkluotę sudarė artilerija ir kovos ginklai, kurių pagrindinė rūšis buvo Lietuvoje plačiai paplitę arbaletai. Tyagino tvirtovė buvo įsikūrusi prekybos kelių kryžkelėje, skiriančioje Rytus ir Vakarus, papročių sankirtoje. Radiniai liudija lietuvių kultūros buvimą, Genujos įtaką, kontaktus su Krymu, taip pat prekybinius ir ekonominius ryšius su Lenkija. Paminklas, be abejonės, yra neatsiejama Lietuvos ir Ukrainos kultūros paveldo dalis. Reikšminiai žodžiai: tvirtovė, kultūrinis paveldas, Lietuva, Ukraina. The article is devoted to the results of the research of the fortress Tyagin, built by the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas on the territory of the island Bolshoye Gorodishche in the late 14th to early 15th century. The archaeological materials provided valuable information about the syncretism of the complex of monuments on the island, the typology, layout and size of the fortress. It was one of the earliest stone castle-type fortresses on the northern Black Sea coast, a part of the defensive line of the southern borders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The fortress’ defensive system included a synthesis of defensive architectural elements, ranging from timber-engineered structures known from Old Russian times to stone walls and buttresses of a new level of fortification in Europe. The fortress was armed with artillery and edged weapons, the main type being crossbows, which were widespread in Lithuania. The fortress of Tyagin was situated at the crossroads of trade routes between the East and the West, at the crossroads of the custom. The artifacts testify to the presence of Lithuanian cultural objects, Genoese influence, contact with Crimea, and trade and economic relations with Poland. The monument is an integral part of the cultural heritage of Lithuania and Ukraine. Keywords: fortress, cultural heritage, Lithuania, Ukraine.

Straipsnyje aptariami Didžiojo Šiaurės karo (1700–1721) įvykiai, susiję su Kuršo kunigaikštyste. Daugiausia dėmesio skirta karo veiksmams konkrečiame regione – Kuršo kunigaikštystės ir Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės pasienyje, vykusiems nuo švedų įžengimo į Kuršo kunigaikštystę 1701 m. vasarą iki 1703 m. pavasario, kai iš Kuršo išvyko švedų gubernatorius Karolis Magnusas Stiuartas (Karl Magnus Stuart). Rengiant straipsnį daugiausia remtasi Latvijos valstybiniame istorijos archyve saugomais istorijos šaltiniais. Raktiniai žodžiai: Kuršo kunigaikštystė, Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė, Žemaitija, Didysis Šiaurės karas, Karolis XII, Augustas II, Ferdinandas Ketleris. The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was one of the most significant events that impacted the history of the Baltic region and opened the Baltic lands for the strengthened Russian Empire. Due to this war, state dependency of part of the territory of Latvia (Vidzeme) and the whole of Estonia changed in the early eighteenth century. Directly and indirectly, the war had an impact on the whole region of the Baltic countries. The political consequences of the war have constantly attracted interest of historians, but studies on the military actions in this region as such are comparatively scarce. Although the public seems to be well informed about isolated facts and battles, there is a shortage of generalised works. Early in the Great Northern War, the Duchy of Courland became a bridgehead for Saxon offensive and a military base for both Saxony and August II, the ruler of Poland and Lithuania. This article discusses the events of the Great Northern War that are, in one way or another, related with the Duchy of Courland. The main attention is given to the military actions in a particular region, the border area between the Duchy of Courland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Here, warfare continued almost uninterruptedly from the summer of 1701 to the end of 1709. This military theatre of the war, which had been a periphery of a very wide war, has attracted relatively less attention of the historians. The article focuses on the military actions in the region from the entrance of the Swedes into the Duchy of Courland in the summer of 1701 to the departure of the Swedish governor Karl Magnus Stuart from Courland in the spring of 1703. The article is mostly based on the sets of documents kept in the Latvian State Historical Archive. The Swedes occupied Courland in summer 1701. In July and August of that year, the units of the Swedish army entered the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the territory of Courland for the first time in this war. At the time, Lithuania, just like the whole of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was not yet officially engaged in the war against Sweden: the war was declared by August II, the ruler of Lithuania and Poland, as the prince-elector of his inherited Duchy of Saxony. For the Swedes, the excuse to seize the fortress of Biržai in Lithuania was the artillery and military gear of August II that the king used during the Riga offensive and the blockade of this port. Having confiscated the artillery and military gear, the Swedes returned to Courland. The excuse for the Swedes to enter Žemaitija (Samogitia), the northwestern province of Lithuania, was the appeal of Kazimierz Jan Sapieha, the palatine of Vilnius and the grand hetman of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (the chief of the army), addressed to Charles XII, King of Sweden, in which he asked the Swedes to protect the estates of Sapieha in Žemaitija from devastation by the adversaries of the Sapieha family, the so-called republicans of Lithuania. The feud between the faction of influential nobles of Lithuania, the Sapieha, and their adversaries, the so-called republicans of Lithuania, became a significant factor in the Great Northern War in the border area between Lithuania and Courland. The Sapieha, who had suffered a bitter defeat in their struggle against the republicans in the autumn of 1700, sought an alliance with Sweden. In 1702, this alliance became public. The republicans, who took command in Lithuania late in 1700, were supporting August II and his ally, Russia, in the fight against Sweden, although the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was still formally neutral in this war. In late 1701-early 1702, the main body of Swedish troops, led by Charles XII in person, entered Žemaitija from Courland. Through Lithuania, the king of Sweden marched to Poland, where the main theatre of military action of the Great Northern War moved and stayed for a long time. The border region between Courland and Lithuania became a peripheral albeit very significant theatre of warfare. From time to time, reinforcements were sent to the army of Charles XII from Courland through Lithuania. The republicans of Lithuania constantly attempted to disrupt Swedish communication between Courland and the army of Charles XII and arranged frequent sallies to the territory of Courland. Having established themselves in Courland and close to Riga, relatively sparse Swedish forces tried to maintain control over the Duch (new style). Here the Swedes beat Lithuanian republicans and their allies, Russians. For some time, the Swedish rule in Courland was ensured. Soon after the battle of Saločiai, the leadership of the Swedish administration and the army in the Duchy of Courland changed. In May, Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt, general major of infantry, took over the leadership here. It was the beginning of a new period of the Swedish occupation in the history of the Duchy of Courland. Unlike other territories occupied by the Swedes during this war, a permanent Swedish occupying administration with its special institutions was established in the Duchy of Courland. Its residents were burdened with exorbitant duties (contributions) to maintain the Swedish army. The Swedes attempted to collect contributions in the northern border regions of Lithuania, which their army used to invade, although for a short time. [...] Keywords: Duchy of Courland, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Žemaitija (Samogitia), Great Northern War, Charles XII, August II, Ferdinand Ketler.

The article presents an analysisof a significant aspect regarding problems with the coronation of Grand Duke Vytautas and his wife Uliana – data from the story behind the rulers’ crowns that has hitherto practically not been noticed is being brought into academic circulation. Several important historical sources are being analysed: inscriptions from the book of expenses of the city of Nuremberg, a description of the Teutonic Order’s legation under the Vogt of Stuhm Klaus von Redwitz to meet with the Roman-German King Sigismund of Luxemburg (in 1429), and a previously unknown document regarding the coronation that has survived in manuscript form at the Bavarian State Library (BSB, Clm 22372), which once belonged to Sigismund’s advocate, the Bishop of Augsburg Peter von Schaumberg. These sources contain records indicating that the crowns were richly adorned with gemstones, and were in the past associated with Emperor Henry VII (Sigismund’s great-grandfather) and Roman-German King, Ruprecht von der Pfalz. This kind of link reveals the symbolic significance of the crowns, while their cost – one was priced at 50 thousand guldens – testifies to the scale of importance of the Kingdom of Lithuania project in Sigismund’s political plans in 1429–1430. The analysis of the above historical sources also allows researchers to speculate that the failure to have Vytautas crowned could have been due to his overly unilateral dependence on Sigismund’s actions. Keywords: Vytautas, Sigismund of Luxemburg, coronation, royal jewels.

The article’s objective is to reveal what food products were used in the cuisine of Sigismund II Augustus and in what ways they were supplied when the Ruler resided in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, according to the data of the court account books of 1543–1546. The topis has not been exhaustively studied thus far. Researchers have not given the analysis of these court account books through the prism of cuisine suffi cient attention. The analysis shows that plenty of different kinds of meat – of domestic and wild animals and birds – were delivered to the court kitchen of the Ruler. When the Ruler resided in Vilnius Lower Castle during fasting, pikes from about 20 ponds constructed in Viršupis estate were supplied. Additionally, Elders of the Ruler’s estates sent diff erent types of fish. Also, dairy products were consumed, such as eggs, bread, cereals and sweet baked products, local vegetables and fruit as well as imported lemons, rice and a variety of spices. Beer, mead and wine – the accounts mention Rhine and Hungarian ones – were supplied to the Ruler’s court. The court account books of 1543–1546 are the vital source that reveals the assortment of food products and their supply.

On 27 September 1735 in Warsaw, the Pacification Sejm convened by King Augustus III began its proceedings. The sessions were to last until 8 October 1735. The Sejm’s primary purpose was to end war hostilities and to lead the intervention troops out of the Commonwealth. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was represented by 48 deputies elected at pre-Sejm sejmiks held in August. Their election was confirmed by the fact that all the sejmiks were held and concluded. It is worth noting that most of the deputies were from the middle nobility, oft en associated with specific magnate factions. While serving them, the noblemen also sought to maximise their own benefits and interests. Ten deputies had already performed parliamentary functions at the Convocation Sejm, and twenty-four took part in the Election Sejm. About fourteen Lithuanian deputies were to speak during the proceedings of the Pacification Sejm, 31 times in total. Therefore, it should be assumed that about thirty deputies were already associated with the Saxon camp with a high degree of probability. This number could have been even greater because the resolutions of the pro-Augustus confederation council convened on 9 November 1735 after the would-be Sejm were to be signed by as many as forty-four deputies. One wonders, however, about the credibility of those signatures, made under threat and fear of reprisals from Saxon supporters. However, it is worth noting that the deputies in favour of a quick election of the Sejm Marshal were usually supporters of the Saxon. The opponents supported King Stanisław Leszczyński, who demanded that Russian troops be withdrawn before the Marshal would be chosen. In this situation, the Sejm was broken, to which the Lithuanian deputies also contributed.

In the middle and second half of the 14th century, significant territorial changes took place in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. The old political structures, which by that time had outlived their usefulness, were replaced by new ones: the revived Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Moldavian principality. These changes took place in a fierce struggle, with confrontations on the battlefield giving way to confrontations on the diplomatic front. In addition to the above-mentioned political formations, the Hungarian king also had an important place in this struggle. Louis the Great of Anjou at one time united the Hungarian and Polish crown into his own hands, after the death of Casimir the Great Polish king who had no male offspring. The Moldovan rulers took advantage of the international political conjuncture in this space, who skillfully conducted their foreign policy based on the principle of the balance of power. First, the problem of heredity in Poland and then in the Hungarian kingdom itself undoubtedly contributed to the strengthening of a still very young state that appeared in the middle of the 14th century, first as a Hungarian march, and which was tasked with moving eastward, and then as an independent state. However, at that time, every political entity had a suzerain, which gave him the right to exist. Vasal addiction varied from case to case. In turn, when such an opportunity arose, the Moldovan rulers could change their overlords based on political interest. In this, they used the strength and power of the Lithuanian princes. At first, being in allied relations with the Koriatovichs, the Moldovan rulers strengthened their state, and then, by the will of fate, they developed friendly relations with Vitovt / Alexander and tried not to spoil relations with him, participating in those planned through the Grand Duke of Lithuania. A special test for the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the war with the Teutonic Order, which broke out in 1409. The Moldavian soldiers again took part in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. However, the problem was that the Teutons were supported by the Hungarian king, Sigismund of Luxembourg, who wanted to return the Hungarian influence in Moldova. Thus, the Moldavian principality was drawn into the tangle of international relations in this area where the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was of great importance.

This article investigates the case of four Lithuanian-Ruthenian dukes vouching for Duke Żedywid before the Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło. The original Ruthenian document does not include a date nor does it contain any information about the circumstances in which the surety (poręczenie) was issued. There have been attempts to solve this riddle in the historical literature, with reference to information about Żedywid contained in primary sources, biographies and genealogies of the vouching dukes, and the political history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the late fourteenth century. However, the majority of conclusions that have been drawn so far are based on misreadings of the text of the surety. The identification of the scribe who prepared the document has made it possible to determine its chronological framework, and information about the vouching dukes and King Władysław’s itinerary indicates that it was written between August 1392 and October 1393, most likely in Kraków. An attempt to put the surety into a broader political context requires us to take into account its possible connection with the actions undertaken by Vytautas aimed at extending and strengthening his power in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania after the Ostrów Agreement of 1392. This connection, however, remains only in the sphere of hypothesis. The exceptionally short diplomatic form of the document and lack of detailed information about these events and Żedywid himself in contemporary sources indicate that Żedywid’s actions did not pose any serious threat to Jagiełło.

The marriage of Duke Vytautas the Great’s daughter Sophia to the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily in 1391 was a momentous event that impinged on the course of history. Although the circumstances in which this marriage was concluded address extremely important historical issues, such as relations between Lithuania and Moscow, Vytautas’ biography, and the politics of the Grand Duchy of Moscow towards the end of the fourteenth century, historiography has not recorded many attempts to study them. This is probably due to the rather vague primary sources which are dominated by the accounts contained in the chronicles. The author of the article makes an effort to analyse them, which, combined with other evidence, as well as a review of the political situation at the time, led him to believe that it was the Moscow side that initiated the talks on the marriage of Sophia and Vasily. The Grand Duke of Moscow, Dmitry of the Don, had been looking for the possibility of a dynastic rapprochement with the ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for a long time. The conclusion of the Polish-Lithuanian agreement in Krevo (1385), uncertain situation in the Golden Horde and the desire to strengthen the position of his son were the reasons that could force the Moscow ruler to act more decisively in this field. Therefore, having left Tartar captivity at the end of 1385, Vasily son of Dmitri of the Don, went west, where he took the opportunity of meeting Vytautas to start first talks. The negotiations were interrupted due to a rather weak political position of Vytautas before 1389. They were resumed when it turned out that Władysław Jagiełło, after taking the throne in Kraków, did not intend to forgo his active policy in Eastern Europe. Therefore, when Vytautas fought together with the Teutonic Knights to seize power in Lithuania, Moscow decided to support his efforts. In this way, the duke, with his allies in the Teutonic Order and strong ties with Moscow, became a dangerous rival for Władysław Jagiełło. Such a turn of events could have influenced the Polish king’s decision to reconcile with his cousin yet again.

The article is the edition of two sources supplementing the publication series “Akta zjazdów stanów Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego” [Records of Conventions of the Estates of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania] edited by Henryk Lulewicz. Both documents refer to the Lithuanian Convocation of 1615. One of them is “Punkta postanowiene na Convocatiey” [Resolutions Adopted at the Convocation] (Vilnius, 5 VI 1615), prepared for the deputies who were to present the resolutions of the general convocation to Sigismund III Vasa. The other one is the king’s response to the resolutions and the above-mentioned decisions of the Lithuanian Convocation. In the introduction to the published materials I stress the significance of the ruler’s response to the resolutions of the estates of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With few exceptions, the approval of the monarch was necessary to make tax resolutions and legal standards valid law. Therefore, the final process of the legislative procedure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania needs to be taken into consideration in the context of historical and legal research.

This article provides an overview of financial situation in the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the early modern era when both states entered the period of military revolution. Military conflicts engaging the Kingdom and the Duchy in the 15th and especially in the 16th century were a catalyst for institutional and treasury reforms affecting crown/ducal domains and fiscal systems in both states. The reforms were aimed primarily at increasing the royal and ducal revenues, but in the long run they were conducive to political changes, the most important of which was the parliamentary union in 1569 and establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Although revenues increased and foreign policies of Jagiellonian states proved successful, their treasury systems were never fully modernized. Fixed taxes played a minimal role and allowed the state apparatuses to function relatively efficiently only during periods of peace. The crises, in turn, showed that the Jagiellons’ credit capacity was very limited. Compared to the most developed European countries, the revenue and financial capacity of the Kingdom of Poland, and even more so of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, can be considered very modest.

The birth of parliamentarism in the Kingdom of Poland, its development, and its heyday, referred to in historiography as the ‘golden age’, are associated with the almost two-hundred-year reign of the Jagiellonian dynasty (1386–1572). During the reign of four generations of Jagiellons, the oligarchic monarchy of the fifteenth century was transformed into a parliamentary monarchy of nobles in the next century. One of the institutional foundations and principles of the state was the two-tier parliamentary system, which ensured actual participation in power of the holders of political rights. The year 1468 saw the birth of the Chamber of Deputies, based on the principle of representation, and consequently, the establishment of the bicameral Crown Sejm. The Polish-Lithuanian Union concluded in Lublin in 1569 resulted in legal and political decisions which determined the role and functioning of the Sejm until the collapse of the Commonwealth at the end of the eighteenth century.

The discussion article provides an analysis of a book recently published by Wojciech Krawczuk entitled Records and Regesta of the German Expedition of the Royal Swedish Chancery of King Sigismund III of the Years 1597–1600. The book contains a source edition of the minutes of the royal chancery of Sigismund III Vasa, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania (1587–1632), and King of Sweden (he retained power in 1592–1599), written around 1600, which has been supplemented by extensive regesta prepared by the editor. This discussion article evaluates this form of providing access to the contents of primary sources against the background of similar source editions consisting of records created by other royal chanceries, namely the chancery of the Kingdom of Poland, the chancery of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the chancery of the dukes of Mazovia. It is noteworthy that increasingly more archival materials are made available online through the websites of various archives and other institutions that preserve historical documents. In view of the growing trend to digitalize primary sources and make them available online, the idea of publishing complete source editions including full source texts, which began at the beginning of the twentieth century, seems unjustified nowadays. Currently, the solution proposed by Wojciech Krawczuk, based on the publication of regesta, appears to be the most favourable. Perhaps it would be appropriate to link the published regesta even more closely to the digitized archival materials by providing each one of them with a link or QR code that would refer to the website hosting the relevant digitalized source. The content of the documents included in the reviewed book differs significantly from the content of the records created by the chanceries of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Swedish documents are dominated by current affairs, primarily concerning military and diplomatic issues, and include much fewer normative acts, such as appointments to offices and bestowals of landed property.

Research objectives: The aim of the article is to trace the origins of the Old Russian text of Tokhtamish Khan’s 1393-dated yarliq-letter to King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland, as well as the place and time of its emergence. Research materials: The Turkic and the Old Russian texts of Tokhtamish Khan’s 1393 yarlıq-letter to King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland, as well as published and unpublished auxiliary materials. Results and novelty of the research: It is established that the Old Russian text of Tokhtamish Khan’s 1393 yarlıq-letter to Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland was written down in the royal chancery by the king’s Ruthenian scribe, Małochiej. This text was a record of the embassy of the khan’s envoys which explains its additional information when compared to the Turkic original.

The paper presents a missive from the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III declaring war to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Aleksander Jagiellończyk on June the 24th, 1500. The missive, so far unaccounted in scientific publications, survives in a Middle Low German translation kept in the archive of the Hanseatic City of Lübeck. The declaration of war is motivated by alleged injustices done to Ivan III, to his subjects and to his daughter Elena Ivanovna, who was Aleksander’s wife. Judging by the particular dialect of Low German, the translation was made in Lübeck. Its literality allows conclusions about the content of the original missive and the sources on which it was based. Analysis shows that the arguments included complaints formulated by Muscovite diplomats after the conclusion of the ‘eternal peace’ of 1494, beginning with the negotiations in 1495. Compared to indirect and short textual evidence available so far, this document gives a fuller picture of the events, including a more precise date of the beginning of the Muscovite-Lithuanian War of 1500–1503: brought together, all sources show that the declaration was made by Ivan III with considerable delay, months after warfare had begun. The document also demonstrates how the 15th-century Russian state used official documentation in its foreign policy and which role the emerging bureaucratic class played in it. The published document is accompanied by a Russian translation.

Polotia recepta. A Map of the Principality of Polatsk: Texts and Pretexts of thePower Dispute This study discusses an important aspect of a political message conveyed by Stanisław Pachołowiecki’s map, published in 1580 by G.B Cavalieri’s printing house in Rome as part of The Atlas of the Principality of Polatsk – Descriptio Ducatus Polocensis. The message in question is one of the paratexts, presenting a detailed historical note on Polatsk and the Principality. The main goal of the study is to prove a double hypothesis, first that the note on Polatsk was a key argument legitimising the rule of Stephen Báthory – contested by Tsar Ivan the Terrible – not only over the small territory under dispute but over the whole Great Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and second, that the decision to aim the first Polish-Lithuanian military offensive in the 1577–1582 war at Polatsk was motivated by political rather than military or strategic considerations. In section I, preliminary assumptions, theses and research methods are presented. Then, in section II, the context of the propaganda campaign, as Pachołowiecki’s map ideological framework, is introduced. This is followed by a critical analysis of the historical note, based on Polish and Ruthenian-Lithuanian sources (III.1). The next section (III.2) demonstrates that Polatsk held a central place in the Muscovite political discourse. Having proclaimed himself a heir to the throne of the Great Duchy and to the crown of Poland, Ivan the Terrible seized the land of Polatsk, and the efficient Muscovite diplomacy started to assert the tsar’s alleged dynastic claim to Lithuania and Poland. In this way, the manipulated history of the “recovered Polatsk”, Polotia recepta, argued to be a historical part of Lithuania, can be seen as a reply to the Muscovite discourse of power drawing on dynastic claims to a non-existent duchy, and the key matter is the legitimisation of elective monarchy as opposed to hereditary one. Having discussed the theatrical and iconic form of the Polish triumph over Ivan the Terrible (III.3), the author highlights the long life of the political myth of the Polatsk statehood and its sign ificance for today’s Belarusian identity discourse.

The article analyses achievements of contemporary historiography in the study of the role and significance of the Gorodel Union of 1413 in the formation of the gentry class of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The key subjects of scientific research of Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian historians are identified. It is emphasised that these subjects, as a rule, are not an independent historiographical problem and act as part of a broader research discussion about the causes and results of the Union of 1413 in the system of relations between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. In conclusion, it is noted that despite the differences in the interpretation of a number of specific issues, researchers generally agree in the statement that the acts of the Gorodel Union and the heraldic adoption, both in their content and in their consequences, are one of the key stages in the process of forming the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The article is devoted to a comparative analysis of the historical ideas of Russians and Belarusians about the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The author comes to the conclusion that the historical views of the neighboring peoples were of a dual nature. In Russian historical culture, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania acted as one of the centers of gathering Russian lands, and, at the same time, was steadily associated with a foreign invasion from the West. The Belarusians began to form Belarusian identity within the principality, however, a spiritual split took place, and the border of civilizational confrontation did not pass between peoples, but between the nobility and the lower classes. Therefore, folk versions of history, not burdened with the accuracy of the chronicles and the imagery of Sarmatian ideology, largely reflected an alternative view, in which social sympathies and antipathies were refracted in a peculiar way. The article presents a mosaic of images and stable epithets associated with the historical conditions of the coexistence of Russians and Belarusians within the border states. The medieval worldview of the two peoples, who had a common ancient Russian and Orthodox heritage, and opposition to paganism, and subsequently to the Catholicism of Lithuania, brought them closer together. In Russian texts, the author revealed the reflection of dynastic and military-political ties between the Lithuanian and Russian states, the events of the Russian-Lithuanian wars, sympathy for individual allied Lithuanian princes, the consequences of the «Lithuanian ruin» and some characteristics of «cultural heroes» attributed to «Lithuania». In the Belarusian historical culture, the expanded image of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is found only in the written culture of the nobility, who found themselves in the orbit of another civilization and gradually lost their spiritual connection with their people, as well as among the urban population, who defended their status rights. The analysis of the texts made it possible to establish that the glorification of wars and princes is not characteristic of the folk ideas of the Belarusian peasants, historical details are not required, but the experiences of ordinary people, who were exposed to devastating invasions, captivity, and forced separation from their families, are important. Therefore, the content of the Belarusian ballads is largely identical to the Russian songs about the Tatar area. Attempts to «reconstruct» the Belarusian heroic epic in the spirit of fantasy chivalry, based on national mythological falsifications, have little in common with genuine works of folk art. Some Belarusian legends about Prince Vitovt either «ground» his origin, fit him into the expectations of the people’s ruler, or endow him with the role of a «cultural hero» transforming the local landscape. The latter finds analogies in Russian toponymic legends, however, on the other side of the border, the image of Vitovt the enemy, who personified the «Lithuanian ruin», was more important. Key words: folk historical representations, Russians, Belarusians, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ethnic consciousness, folk memory, epos, traditions, legends, toponymy, historical culture, medieval consciousness.

Bet koks daiktas, pažymėtas epigrafiniu raštu, tampa išskirtinis tokių pačių daiktų visumoje, įgyja paminklo statusą. O XVI a. įrašais (tekstais ir vaizdais) buvo ženklinamos ir patrankos: vienos kurtos karybai, kitos – tam tikram įvykiui įamžinti. Žygimanto Augusto valdymo laikais Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje (LDK) buvo sukurta patrankoms lieti reikalinga infrastruktūra, kuri leido gausiai gaminti pabūklus ir ruoštis karui su Maskvos Didžiąja Kunigaikštyste. Straipsnyje pasitelkus originalius bei publikuotus archyvinius šaltinius, saugomus užsienio šalių (Lenkijos, Švedijos) atminties institucijose, bandyta rekonstruoti patrankų įrašus. Sudarytas 67 tiriamojo laikotarpio patrankų įrašus apimantis priedas leido struktūruoti ant pabūklų buvusius epigrafinius įrašus. Pasitelkus paskutiniojo Jogailaičio egodokumentinį palikimą straipsnyje ištirtas patrankų įrašų funkcionalumas epigrafinės kultūros kontekste, atkreipiant ypatingą dėmesį į įrašo atsiradimo aplinkybes. Tai iki šiol istoriografijoje buvo menkai tyrinėta. Sukaupti ir išanalizuoti duomenys leido prieiti išvadą, kad būtent pats LDK valdovas tiesiogiai darė įtaką patrankų formai, pavadinimams bei įrašų turiniui. Any object marked with epigraphic writing becomes unique in the totality of the same objects and acquires the status of a monument. In the 16th century, cannons were also marked with inscriptions (texts and images): some were created for warfare, others – to commemorate a certain event. During the reign of Sigismund Augustus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania created the necessary infrastructure for cannon casting, which allowed it to produce large numbers of cannons to prepare for its war with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The article attempts to reconstruct inscriptions on cannons using original and published archival sources stored in memory institutions in foreign countries (Poland, Sweden). An appendix covering 67 cannon records made it possible to perceive the structure of such inscriptions. Meanwhile, with the help of the ego-documentary legacy of the last Jagiellonian ruler, it was possible to study the functionality of cannon recordings in the context of epigraphic culture, paying special attention to the stages of the record’s emergence. This has so far been little studied at all. The collected data allowed to reach the conclusion that it was the ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania who directly influenced the form, names, and content of the inscriptions on cannons.

Ilgi Žygimanto Augusto valdymo metai pasižymėjo ilgu vidaus ir išorės taikos laikotarpiu (išskyrus nelemtąjį Livonijos karą su Maskva). Santarvę pavyko išlaikyti net ir su Suleimano Puikiojo Turkija. Tai tik padėjo kultūriniam ir ekonominiam Lenkijos ir Lietuvos pakilimui. Ne tik iš Vakarų Europos plaukęs auksas tempė į šį Europos pakraštį valdovui (kartu ir didikams) dirbti menininkus, tačiau. Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės atveju, jau dygo ir savi žmonės. Ne tik humanistiškai išsilavinę dvasininkai, bet ir pasauliečiai. Svarbios vidaus reformos kūrė ir įgalino savivaldą ir savotišką laisvą (kad ir kilmingųjų) visuomenę. Kartu su unija tai ir yra paskutinio Jogailaičio palikimas.

The article analyzes the titulature used in the documents of the "Book of Inscriptions No. 8" of the Lithuanian Metrica. The study of documents clearly indicates 1713 ruler's titles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which are classified into 47 different variants. The author characterized the system of presentation of the supreme power through the title of a ruler and its reception by the subjects. The article provides specific features of the modern and previous rulers systems of titulature. It reveals the use of titles "king", "grand duke" and "hospodar". The obtained results demonstrate that the title of the ruler is used in both extended and abridged versions. Most often, the abridged version contains the title of "king", which is a consequence of its greater prestige compared to the title of "grand duke". The author examines the system of using titles of rulers within one document. It is established that the first use of the title is often the most complete. In the case of documents drawn up on behalf of the ruler, the first title denotes the prerogatives of the ruler. "King by the grace of God", "King and Grand Duke by the grace of God", "King of Poland by the grace of God", "By the grace of God" with the addition of a name in all cases are most often used as the first titles in the documents created during the reign of the ruler Sigismund I the Old. The supreme power emphasizes the sacred origin of their prerogatives by adding "by the grace of God" to the title of a modern ruler. In the same case, there is no deliberate emphasis on the sacralization of power of previous rulers. The article provides an analysis of combinations of titles of rulers. In documents drawn up on behalf of the ruler, the title of "king" is often combined with the title of "grand duke", which is characteristic of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. On the other hand, it is typical to frequently use the title of "hospodar" for documents originating from subjects of rulers. The study has confirmed that the remoteness of the reign of the Grand Duke from the time of the creation of the document reduces the variability of the titulature. Vytautas and Sigismund Kęstutaitis are titled exclusively as "grand duke". The titulature of Casimir IV Jagiellon and Alexander Jagiellon has more variations. In documents originating from the subjects, the ruler is often referred to as "his mercy", "hospodar", "his mercy king" and "his mercy hospodar".

Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas klausimas, kaip didžiojo kunigaikščio kanceliarijos tarnautojai XVI a. pradžioje kaupė galią bei naudojo ją kopdami socialinės ir politinės hierarchijos laiptais. Į šj klausimą bandom a atsakyti analizuojant siaurosios valdovo tarybos (arba kitaip vadinamos vyriausiosios valdovo tarybos) raštininko Jono Bogdanaičio Sapiegos (Иван Богданович Сапега) karjeros atvejį. Korespondencijos analizė atskleidė, kad šios pareigos suteikė galimybę J. B. Sapiegai ne tik būti artimiausioje valdovo aplinkoje, bet ir daryti įtaką valdovo sprendimams, susijusiems su valstybės arba privačiais Lietuvos kilmingųjų reikalais. Tai leido J. B. Sapiegai plėtoti artimus ir draugiškus (horizontalius) santykius su aukščiausio socialinio statuso Lietuvos kilmingaisiais, naudotis jų globa ir užtarimu. The article raises the question about the way the officials o f the Grand D uke’s Office accumulated pow er and used it to ascend the social and political ladder at the beginning o f the 16th century. This question is answered based on the case study o f the career o f Jonas Bogdanaitis Sapiega (Иван Богданович Сапега), the Scribe o f the Supreme Council o f the Grand Duke. The analysis o f the correspondence revealed that this position not only granted J. B. Sapiega the opportunity to be in the closest environment o f the Grand Duke but also to influence his decisions related to the matters o f the state or private affairs o f the Lithuanian nobility. This enabled J. B. Sapiega to develop close and friendly (horizontal) relations with Lithuanian noblemen o f the highest social ranking as well as to benefit from their protection and patronage.

Research objectives: This article offers an edition and a source study of the letters of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray I to Jerzy Mikołajewicz Radziwiłł (Jurgis Radvila), the voivode of Kiev, written in 1512–1513. Research materials: The originals of the letters preserved in the Princes Czartoryski Library in Cracow and the collection of Ignacy Onacewicz at the Institute of Russian Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Pushkin House) in St. Petersburg, subsidiary materials, edited and unedited, from the archival and library collections of Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Warsaw. Results and novelty of the research: It is established that two original letters of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray I to Jerzy Mikołajewicz Radziwiłł (Jurgis Radvila), the voivode of Kiev (1511–1514), are preserved in the Czartoryski Library in Cracow (Ms. 2893) and Ignacy Onacewicz’s collection in the Institute of Russian Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences (the Pushkin House) in St. Petersburg. It is demonstrated that they were written on March 14th, 1512, and September 21st, 1513, and their contents are connected with the international relations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Both of them were kept in the Radziwiłł family archive until the nineteenth century. The texts of both letters are published for the first time, accompanied with detailed descriptions of the originals, a contextualization of them as sources, and provided with commentary.

Apie Latvijos nacionaliniame archyve rastą „Aleksandro, kitaip Vytauto“ 1415 m. sausio 13 d. patvirtintos „prekybinės taikos“ originalą su prikabintu nepažeistu Valdovo-Raitelio (Vyčio) regaliniu raudono vaško antspaudu. Archyve rasti ir Stepono Batoro ir Sigizmundo III Vazos antspaudai, Lietuvos princo Gerdenio1263 m. sutartis, kiti dokumentai, kurie galėtų reikšmingai praturtinti Lietuvos karalystės ir Lietuvos Didžiosios kunigaikštystės istoriją. Autorei pavyko išsiaiškinti, kad Zimburgės (Insbruko Hofkirchėje aplankyta Zimburgės skulptūra) motina – Lietuvos princesė iš Gediminaičių dinastijos, Ldk Kęstučio anūkė. Autorė jau 30 metų renka tvirtus pirminius dokumentuotus įrodymus, ikonografinius liudijimus, išbarstytus po visą pasaulį. Vis aiškesnė darosi didinga Lietuvos Karalystės ir Gediminaičių dinastijos istorija, nepaprastai svarbi jos įtaka Europos monarchijoms nuo pat Bizantijos laikų. The newest findings – a letter of Vytautas Magnus of 1415, the agreement of Gerdenis signed in 1263 and Lithuanian origins of Cymburgis. The author started to look for documented and iconographic sources as early as 1992 and concludes that the history of Gediminas‘ dynasty becomes more and more clear as well as its impact on European monarchies and empires.

The correspondence between the king Sigismund II Augustus and the Radziwiłł family is one of the main sources of research on the political history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Polish-Lithuanian relationships in the second half of 16th century. Five Russian letters of the last member of the Jagiellonian Dynasty to Mikołaj “the Red” Radziwiłł from the period of 1568–1571 are the subject of this article. The original documents were destroyed in 1944 but the information about their content is available owing to the abridged versions printed in 1876 by W. Chomętowski. The abridgements didn’t come into scientific circulation. There is also Stanisław Bodniak’s translation of one of the letters (24th March 1571, Warsaw). The abridgements and the translation are published in the article, which also contains an attempt to explain in what way the letters from the Nesvizh Archive came to the collection of the Krasiński Library (Konstanty Świdziński Museum). The question of the bilingual correspondence between the king and the Radziwiłł family is also partially discussed.

The document from the Book of Inscriptions 270 of Lithuanian Metrica is published for the first time. This is King’s Sigismund II August instruction to the elected in the districts envoys to the Grand Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1572. The instruction contains the Kings’ «precept» to the envoys and also detailed description of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian current international politics.

The paper deals with the question of authenticity of the judicial charter that was allegedly issued by Vytautas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, on the legal case between Švitrigaila and Andrey Vasilo, at the end of the 14th century. Analysis of the pseudo-original found in the Department of Written Sources of the State Historical Museum in Moscow allows to draw the conclusion that it is, indeed, a forgery, copied from a reproduction of an original Vytautas' charter published in the 1820s. The same is true of another recently published Vytautas' charter known from a 19th-century copy.

The aim of the article is to present the attempts undertaken by King John II Casimir Vasa to make equal the powers of Lithuanian hetmans and thus to limit the authority of the Lithuanian grand hetman. Despite the fact that the Lithuanian offi ces of hetman were modelled on the Crown ones, they were characterised by certain diff erences. The first and most important was the fact that the filed hetman was not subordinated to the grand hetman, but the latter had much greater powers over the army than his "younger" colleague. This resulted in practical gradation of the offices, although an informal one. King John Casimir sought to change this state of aff airs with a reform of the offi ce of hetman. First, he wanted to limit the scope of grand hetman's authority through an appropriate oath, but the attempt failed at the 1654 Sejm session. At the same time, he took steps to weaken the power of the grand hetman in Lithuania, initially by his objection to the appointment of Field Hetman Janusz Radziwiłł to the office, and after a failure of this measure, by appointing to the office of field hetman a man who was totally devoted to him in the person of Grand Treasurer Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski. Holding two extremely important offi ces, both with the authority over military matters, Gosiewski was able to control and frustrate Radziwiłł's actions considered unfavourable for the court. With it, the king formed a separate division for Gosiewski in the Lithuanian army, exempted from the authority of the grand hetman. In practice, this step brough a series of misfortunes for Lithuania in her struggles with the aggressions of Moscow and Sweden in 1654-1655. The king, however, did not draw appropriate conclusions, and in 1656, after Gosiewski escaped from Swedish captivity, handed him over the command over a part of the army (the so-called "left wing") and decided to totally free him from the authority of the unfriendly to him, powerful and moody Grand Hetman Paweł Jan Sapieha. Initially, Gosiewski only ignored or changed Sapieha's orders related to the authority of the grand hetman (a winter allowance for the army, called hiberna ["winter bread"], judicature, soldier's pay), yet finally, he wanted the king to fulfil his promise and make him the grand hetman. Since Sapieha had not the least intention to resign his office, John Casimir decided to equalise the scope of authority of the two hetman offi ces, and to abolish in their titles the "grand" and "field" terms, making them both "hetmans of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania". Despite the threat of confederation of Sapieha troops, the king pushed his project through to completion at the Częstochowa convocation of 1657. This met with a fierce response from the grand hetman of Lithuania, who with his division of the Lithuanian army (the so-called "right wing") and his faction forced the king to abandon his plans. Finally, however, both hetmans had to reconcile themselves with the status quo, which meant a considerable Gosiewski's independence and some superior prerogatives of Sapieha. King John Casimir, however, did not allow to consolidate the army, and aft er Gosiewski was taken captive in the battle of Werki fought in 1658 against Russia, he appointed commander of the left wing division first Samuel Komorowski and then Michał Kazimierz Pac. It was Pac who, as the grand hetman aft er Sapieha's death, abolished the split of the Lithuanian army into two divisions. The last attempt to "describe" the offices King John Casimir undertook not long before his abdication only to fail onc

Remiantis naujausiais istorijos tyrimais ir šaltiniais straipsnyje siekiama apibūdinti ir įvertinti istorines aplinkybes, socialinius ir kultūrinius procesus, lėmusius rankraštinės knygos raidą, sklaidą ir repertuaro plėtrą Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje, patikslinti jos rankraštinės knygos istorijos pradžios datavimą; nustatyti reiškinius, kurių veikiami susiformavo visuomenės kultūriniai, informaciniai ir konfesiniai poreikiai, sudarę sąlygas funkcionuoti rankraštinei knygai, kurtis naujiems raštijos centrams; išaiškinti, kokie asmenys siejami su šiuo ankstyviausiu LDK knygos istorijos laikotarpiu. [...] On the basis of the latest historical research and sources, the article aims to describe and assess the historical conditions, social and cultural processes that led to the manuscript book development, spread and functioning. The article bases its conclusions on the information from surviving manuscript books and archival sources. The paper analyses the phenomena that had a direct impact on the development of the book: the Christianization of the land, aspiration for the reunion of churches, the establishment and development of the sovereign estate and chancellery, the beginning of education. Thus, the history of GDL manuscript books is closely related to the first half of the 14th c. The establishment and development of the sovereign estate and the institutions of the Catholic Church contributed to the dissemination and functioning of Latin books. Due to teaching, writing culture was mastered throughout the country; the group of literate people, who wrote and read not only in Latin but also in Ruthenian grew rapidly. After the incorporation of Ruthenian lands, the GDL sought for a reunion of the churches. Creation of the Kiev metropolis with the center in Naugardukas, as well as the political, religious and cultural activities of the Orthodox metropolitan bishop led to the formation of the original manuscript book in the GDL. There appeared a group of persons (both Lithuanians and Ruthenians) who did intellectual work and had cultural needs. They not only became the main users of manuscript books, but also were their creators; they initiated and patronized writing books. In the GDL, New Latin and Ruthenian writing centers were established, and the repertoire of books expanded.

The article aims to shed light on the privileges accorded by the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as GDL) as a legal means of printed press regulation. It should be noted that so far, the research has mostly been focused on the privileges granted to the printing houses of the Mamoniciai and Vilnius academies. The current research, based on various studies about the privileges granted to other printing houses and new histori­cal sources, attempts to provide a comprehensive analysis of the privilege phenomenon in its entirety, by examining the dynamics of granting privileges, privilege providers and recipients, types of privileges, sanctions imposed and the languages in which printing was allowed. It has been established that during the period of 1569–1793, the 37 privileges by rulers were granted to GDL printing houses. In the second half of the 16th century, the GDL rulers accorded 6 privi­leges, in the 17th century – 8, and in the 18th century – 22 privileges, respectively. The greatest number of the privileges was granted during the reign of Augustus III (the period of 1734–1763) and Stanislaw II Augustus (the period of 1764–1795). During the 29 years of holding the throne, Augustus III granted 10 privileges to the GDL printing houses. Stanislaw II Augustus reigned the GDL for 31 years, during which he issued 7 privileges. Among the GDL rulers were also the individuals who failed to grant a single privilege to the existing printing houses. They were John II Casimir Vasa (1648–1668), whose reign coincided with the wars waged against Moscow and Sweden and Stanislaw I Leszczynski (1704–1709, 1733–1734). On the grounds of the intended business purposes, the privileges granted to the GDL print­ing houses can be classified as publishing privileges (in total 13 privileges, accounting for 35%), the privileges to establish a printing house (in total 9 privileges, accounting for 24%), confirming privileges (in total 11 privileges, accounting for 30%) and miscellaneous privileges (in total 4 privileges). In the 16th and the first half of the 17th century, the privileges accorded by the rulers were not very widespread, as part of the printing houses conducted their activities under the auspices of the GDL noblemen. In the 18th century, GDL saw the predominance of insti­tutional printing house. It is only natural that such printing houses sought the privileges granted by the rulers as an important means to establish themselves in the book print­ing market. Among the GDL institutions having a printing house of its own, was a higher edu­cation institution (Vilnius Jesuit Academy), religious organizations of city-dwellers (so-called fraternities) and monasteries (Catholic, Orthodox and Uniate). The largest number of privileges was granted to the printing house of the Vilnius Jesuit Academy (in total 13 privileges), whereas the printing houses of other GDL institutions (brotherhoods of city-dwellers as well as Catholic, Orthodox and Uniate monasteries) were usually accorded one, two or three privileges. The analysis of thirteen privileges granted to the GDL printing houses revealed that they included penalties foreseen for violating publishing rights. The greatest sanction ever in the his­tory of GDL printing – 5000 florins (Italian coins)– was in 1588 imposed on the GDL nobleman Kazimierz Leon Sapieha for violating the privilege to publish the Lithuanian Statute. In the his­tory of GDL printing, one case should be particularly highlighted, namely, when a large fine was imposed not for illegal reproduction but for resisting the failing to comply with the purpose of the privilege – to establish a printing house. More specifically, the 1701 privilege granted by Au­gustus II foresaw a fine of 1000 kapa (medieval unit of measurement used in the 15–18th century GDL) imposed on anybody for hindering the Mogilev Orthodox brotherhood in their attempt to establish a printing house. The privileges accorded by GDL rulers gave permission to publish books not only in the official literary languages – Polish and Latin – but also in the languages of ethnoconfessional communities such as Ruthenian, Lithuanian and Jewish. Even though in principle, the privileges granted by GDL rulers did reflect benevolence for printing books in the languages of other GL confessions and cultures, the monopoly of the Vilnius Jesuit Academy hindered the development of other printing houses.

Straipsnyje aptariama, kaip Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje švęstas 1791 m. gegužės 3 dienos konstitucijos priėmimas. Įvykis, amžininkų suvokiamas kaip naujos epochos pradžia, inspiravo tiek oficialių, tiek spontaniškų švenčių rengimą visoje valstybėje. Nagrinėjant šių renginių turinį ir vaizdinę raišką, siekiama parodyti, kaip formavosi ir kokios buvo „naujosios epochos“ šventės, kokie visuomenės pokyčiai jas inspiravo. The article discusses how the ratification of the 3rd of May 1791 Constitution was celebrated in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This event, understood by the contemporaries as the beginning of the new epoch, inspired organization of both official and spontaneous celebrations all over the country. While analysing the content and visual expression of these events, it is sought to disclose how these festivals of “the new epoch” were formed and what they looked like, what transformations of the society had inspired them. These celebrations were a tool and product of “the Joyful Revolution”: they were used for patriotic upbringing and unification of the society in the presence of outward threats, though, at the same time, the high spirits of the “revolutionary” time inspired spontaneous festive events. The organizers of such celebrations were mostly the representatives of middle nobility and townspeople, as they had become the most active supporters of the ruler and implemented the reform programme. There were especially many initiatives by townspeople, who due to the new law felt the full-fledged citizens of the state. Similar to earlier celebrations of state significance, almost all festivities were dedicated to the ruler, who was pictured as the father of the nation and creator of the Constitution. A new image of the ruler was started to propagate: the portrait of a king-patriot working for the wellbeing of the homeland and its citizens. The ideas of the “citizens’ nation” encompassing all social strata of the Republic were actively manifested. Acts of the nobility oath to the town law were very important for unification of the society in a symbolic sense; they demonstrated the fraternity of all estates. It is worth mentioning here the demonstration of military attributes and military capacities in order to strengthen the morale of population in troublous times. The article covers in more detail the decorations created for the Constitution anniversary by a nobleman Vincentas Ignacas Marevičius (Wincenty Ignacy Marewicz) in his homestead near Lukiškės, which most visually demonstrated the new structure of the society entrenched by the Constitution. These celebrations of the “3rd of May epoch” could be held for quite a short time and thus failed to create new rituals and symbols. Maybe this was the reason why texts were so important in their décor and explained anew the meanings of symbols applied in earlier celebrations.

Pasitelkus prozopografinį metodą, straipsnyje siekiama apibrėžti ir charakterizuoti Aleksandro Jogailaičio laikų LDK pasiuntinių į Lenkijos karalystę korpusą, išnagrinėti atskirų asmenų diplomatinę veiklą, jos ypatumus. Diplomatiniai santykiai buvo palaikomi valdovo vardu, tačiau su Ponų tarybos žinia. 1492–1506 m. įvairiuose šaltiniuose užfiksuota 20 pasiuntinybių, į kurias vyko maždaug 28 asmenys, priklausę Ponų tarybai Relations between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland occupy an important place in Polish and Lithuanian historiography. However, historians did not pay much attention to the role of Lithuanian diplomatic corps (if it existed) in the development of the interaction of two neighbouring states. The aim of this paper is to define the diplomatic corps of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Kingdom of Poland during the reign of Alexander Jagiellonian, and to discuss the emissaries’ different practices and their peculiarities. The prosopographical method was employed, which allowed investigation of common characteristics of the Lithuanian legates in Poland to trace the multiplicity of their career lines. The period under analysis – the reign of Alexander Jagiellonian in 1492–1506 – is very important for the political history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. During this time, the court of the grand duke was fully developed and the Council of Lords was institutionalized de jure. Diplomatic relations were maintained on behalf of the ruler, but with the consent of the Council of Lords. From 1492 to 1506, twenty legations were recorded in different sources, which were held by approximately 28 persons who belonged to the Council of Lords. The issues of union were dealt with in June 1492, August 1496, February 1499, in 1501–1502, and from 1504 to 1506. The highest state officials were sent to Poland: bishops of Vilnius (three times), bishops of Samogitia (three times) and Luck (twice), the voivode of Trakai, the castellans of Vilnius and Trakai, the voivode of Polotsk and the like. To solve the problems of ordinary diplomatic relations and collaboration during the time of wars, the officers from the court of the grand duke were usually sent to Poland as well. It should be mentioned that the ruler’s marshals went to Poland ten times and the court or land marshals went to Poland twice; also, such officers as the Steward or Seneschal (stolnik and podstolnik), the Master of Horse (koniushy), the Cutter (krajczy), the Kitchener (kuchmistrz), and the Treasurer (podskarbnik) went there as well. Comparing the service of the legates of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, it should be noted that the composition of the Lithuanian diplomatic service was quite different. The Royal Chancery headed by the Chancellor (kanclerz) and his Lieutenant (podkanclerz) was responsible for the foreign policy of the Crown. The situation in Lithuania was similar. However, it was mostly secretaries, notaries or their family members (not marshals and courtiers like in Lithuania) who were Polish envoys in foreign countries. Their social position also differed. Among Polish legates, there were thirty representatives of the gentry, twenty of them were nobles, and nine represented the burghers. Lithuanian legates were mostly aristocrats. It seems more likely that the aim of such Lithuanian policy in choosing diplomatic staff was to send legates who had more political weight; also, the nobles were better educated people with good eloquence.

Straipsnyje analizuojami vidiniai valdovo išdavystės kaip nusikaltimo sampratos atsiradimo LDK veiksniai XIV a. vid. – XV a. vid. Apibendrinant istoriografiją, kuri nagrinėjo valdovo išdavystės problemą LDK, galime konstatuoti, kad išdavystė visų pirma buvo tirta remiantis XVI a. šaltiniais, o to laikotarpio išdavystės samprata taikoma ir ankstesnėms epochoms. Būtų klaidinga manyti, kad valdovo išdavystės kaip nusikaltimo samprata XV a. pirmoje pusėje buvo tapati jos sampratai po 100 metų – XVI a. pirmoje pusėje. Šiuo laikotarpiu įvyko ne tik milžiniškas visuomenės socialinių struktūrų pokytis, bet ir valstybės struktūrų transformacija. Archajiškais asmeniniais ryšiais paremtą valstybės valdymą keitė institucinis valstybės valdymo modelis. Tyrimas parodė, kad pagrindinė socialinė grupė, kurioje ėmė formuotis šis nusikaltimas XV a. pr. – XV a. vid., buvo didžiojo kunigaikščio varžovai ir nedraugai (lot. adversarius, inimicus; rusėn. недруг, неприятель, враг; vok. fynd). Išdavystės terminų atsiradimas būtent šioje socialinėje grupėje liudija apie valstybinių struktūrų ryšio intensyvėjimą, kai tarp valdovo ir jo pareigūnų / draugų užsimezga glaudūs ryšiai. Visų pirma tai vyksta valdovo institucinio dvaro terpėje bei per pareigybių sistemą. Būtent šiuo atveju ištikimybės ir lojalumo ribos peržengimas buvo imtas suvokti jau nebe kaip priešiškumas, o kaip išdavystės nusikaltimas. The article presents an analysis of internal factors behind the emergence of treason as a crime in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the mid-14th to mid-15th centuries. The research showed that the main social group in which this crime started to form in the early to mid-15th centuries were the grand duke’s adversaries and foes (Latin: adversarius, inimicus; Ruthenian: недруг, неприятель, враг; German: fynd). The appearance of terms for treason within the context of precisely this social group is evidence of the intensifying links between state structures, whereby closer bonds were established between the ruler and his officials/friends, primarily within the institutional milieu of the ruler’s court and the system of public offices. In this particular context, going beyond the boundaries of loyalty and allegiance was no longer understood just as a demonstration of hostility, but as the crime of treason.

Preface -- Introduction -- Tepid Beginnings and the First Martyrs: Adalbert-Wojciech and Bruno of Querfurt -- High Hopes on Difficult Terrain: Mindaugas – the First and Last King of Old Lithuania -- How to Play with Western Christians: a Battle of Wits between the Literate and the Illiterate -- Going East, Facing West: Pagan Lithuania and Christian Neighbours -- Orthodox and Franciscan Martyrs: Spiritual and Bodily Arms Talk -- Grassroots Christianity in Pagan Lithuania and the Final Turn: the Road from Vilnius to Cracow -- The Demonstration of Christian Power in Vilnius in 1387 and Its Aftermath -- How to be Big in Europe: Convert the Pagans, Reduce the Schismatics -- Bulwark of Latin and Greek Christendom? -- Supplications and Indulgences -- Lithuanian Catholics go to Court -- Diocesan Structures and Reform -- Epilogue: From Pagan Europe to Christian Europe -- List of abbreviations -- Manuscript sources -- Bibliography -- List of maps and illustrations -- Index. Medieval Lithuania was the last state in Europe to accept Christianity officially, pagan Lithuanians converted to Roman Catholicism in 1387; the westernmost part of the country, known as Žemaitija (Samogitia), became ‘Christian’ only in 1417, when the diocese of Medininkai was established by the commission of the Council of Constance and through the good offices of King Jogaila of Poland and Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania. It took almost a millennium from Clovis to Jogaila to complete the project known as Christian Europe: eleventh-hour Christians arrived not long before the Discovery of the New World and the final break-up of medieval Christendom. The aim of this book is to reconstruct the road the medieval Lithuanians took tip-toeing a delicate line between Latin and Greek Christendom. Once crossed, Lithuanians embraced essentially all paraphernalia of late-medieval Christian spirituality thus becoming a recognizably European nation. In its scope and detailed analysis this monograph is the first attempt to introduce English readership to the arcane world of Baltic-speaking tribesmen who succeeded in countering expansionist Latin and Russian Orthodox Europe by employing much the same means and devices as their Christian neighbours; it also examines how Lithuanian society adopted and adapted Christian institutions and practices during the long fifteenth century he Conversion

Straipsnyje analizuojama Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės (LDK) visuomenės raida XVI a. antroje pusėje. Remiantis atvejo studija, bandoma apžvelgti senosios aristokratijos palikuonių galimybes kilti karjeros laiptais. Siekiant apibendrinti kunigaikščio Jonušo Boleslovaičio Svirskio karjerą ir jos modelį, reikia pabrėžti, jog pirmi jo žingsniai LDK visuomenėje buvo paremti tradiciniais santykiais pavieto viduje. Nors tai nebuvo tradicinė erdvė, tačiau karjeros pradžioje jo raiška Polocke buvo ne mažiau susieta su pačia tradicija – pareigybių buvo siekiama ten, kur turėta žemėvalda. Šalia buvo stengiamasi užsitikrinti pajamas iš dvarų, todėl greta vietinių ar centrinių pareigybių jis buvo įvardijamas kaip Aukštadvario, Bistryčios ir Maišiagalos laikytojas. Netekus Polocko nuo 1563 m. Polocko tiltininko pareigybės tapo garbės pareigybėmis, todėl reikėjo ieškoti naujų būdų, kaip toliau įtvirtinti savo padėtį visuomenėje. Jau 1564 m. kunigaikštis Jonušas Boleslovaitis Svirskis aptinkamas Vilniaus vaivados Mikalojaus Radvilos Juodojo aplinkoje, o šiam mirus, jis pradeda tarnauti jo pusbroliui – LDK didžiajam etmonui Mikalojui Radvilai Rudajam. Užsimezgę ryšiai padėjo tolesnei karjerai Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės struktūrose: vykstant administracinei reformai, jis tapo valdovo maršalu. Dar glaudesni santykiai užsimezgė pakeitus konfesiją. Mirus Mikalojui Radvilai Rudajam, kunigaikštis Jonušas Boleslovaitis Svirskis toliau palaikė ryšius su jo sūnumi Kristupu Radvila. Ištikimybė patronui ir ryšiai su jo įpėdiniu leido dar kartą pakilti pareigose – XVI a. 9-ojo dešimtmečio pabaigoje jis tapo Vilniaus vietininku. Ryšiai su Radvilomis ir valdovo maršalo pareigybė padėjo įsilieti į LDK politinį gyvenimą. Kaip valdovo dvaro pareigūnas jis vykdydavo įvairias užduotis, susijusias su valstybės vidaus gyvenimu. Taip kunigaikštis Jonušas Boleslovaitis Svirskis pateko į LDK diplomatinę tarnybą. Nors apie šį jo veiklos barą nėra daug žinių, tai taip pat laikytina savotišku rodikliu. Jis dalyvavo santykiuose su Lenkija (Liublino unijos sudarymo metu), Turkija, Maskvos valstybe, taip pat buvo siunčiamas pas atplaukusį į Torūnę Švedijos karalaitį Zigmantą Vazą su Lietuvos ponų reikalavimus perteikiančiu laišku. Visgi intensyviausiai jis veikė santykių su Maskva bare, tačiau ir čia vykdė tik pagalbines funkcijas – lydėdavo maskvėnų pasiuntinius Vilniuje ar sutikdavo juos prie LDK sienos. Iki galo nėra aišku, kaip reikėtų vertinti tokią veiklą. Galima tik konstatuoti, jog kunigaikštis Jonušas Boleslovaitis Svirskis neišnaudojo diplomatinės tarnybos teikiamų galimybių tolesniam ir spartesniam jo karjeros kilimui. The article is dedicated to the analysis of the development of society in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) in the second half of the 16th century. Based on the case study, it attempts to look at the opportunities for the former tribal aristocracy to rise in the society. To describe the career of Duke Janusz Bolesławowicz Świrski and its model, it should be highlighted that his first steps in the society of the GDL were based on traditional relations evolving inside the district. Though it was not a traditional space but the expression of his activities in Polotsk in the early days of his career was linked to the tradition itself to no lesser degree – posts were pursued in the places where land ownership was held. In parallel, it was sought to ensure income from estates; therefore, in addition to local or central offices, he was designated the keeper of Aukštadvaris, Bistryčia and Maišiagala. After the capture of Polotsk, from 1563, the posts of toll-bridge keeper of Polotsk became the posts of honour; therefore, new ways had to be sought how to continue the consolidation of one’s position in society. Duke Janusz Bolesławowicz Świrski can be traced in the milieu of Voivode of Vilnius Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł, nicknamed The Black, as early as 1564. After the death of the latter, he was admitted to the service of his cousin, Great Lithuanian Hetman Mikołaj Radziwiłł, nicknamed The Red. The relations established contributed to his further career in the structures of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: in the midst of the administrative reform, he became the Marshal of the Crown. Even closer relations were established after the change of confession. Following the death of Mikołaj Radziwiłł, nicknamed The Red, Duke Janusz Bolesławowicz Świrski further maintained relations with his son Krzysztof Radziwiłł. Allegiance to his patron and relations with his successor once again created an opportunity for him to climb the career ladder – in the late 1580s he was appointed the Governor of Vilnius. The relations with the Radziwiłł family and the posts of the Marshal of the Crown gave him a chance to become a part of the political life of the GDL. Being an office-bearer in the ruler’s manor, he used to fulfil various tasks in relation to the country’s domestic life. In this way, Duke Janusz Bolesławowicz Świrski made his way to the diplomatic service of the GDL. Though not much is known about this activity sphere, it is also considered a certain indicator. He played a role in the relations with Poland (at the time of conclusion of the Union of Lublin), Turkey, the state of Moscow; he was also delegated to meet Sigismund Vasa, Prince of Sweden, in Toruń with a letter containing the requests of Lithuanian nobles. Nevertheless, his activities were most intensive in the affairs with Moscow. Still, it may be concluded that he only performed auxiliary functions by escorting the envoys from Moscow in Vilnius or meeting them near the border of the GDL. It is not yet fully clear how such activities should be evaluated. It may only be concluded that Duke Janusz Bolesławowicz Świrski did not fully exploit the possibilities provided by the diplomatic service because it could open a way to the further and more rapid rise of his career.

Notes on royal court on a journey; based on Sigismund III expedition to Sweden in the years 1593-1594 The king of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) ruled similarly short in Sweden as well, actually his reign covers the period from 1592-1599. In this period, he visited his motherland twice. The first journey in the years 1593-1594 was a coronation expedition. This article discusses the composition of the Polish-Lithuanian court during the first journey. Court accounts as of 1595 published in 1934 by Wanda Dobrowolska provide vital information on the subject. It is estimated that the royal court during the journey consisted of at least 75 people who were named in the court accounts. The total number together with the Queen Anna’s and the king’s daughter Anna Vasa’s woman’s room – without the armed guards – certainly amounted to over 100 people. Among them there were high officials like vice-chancellor Jan Tarnowski as well as the King’s secretary, the Queen’s chancellor Stanisław Fogelweder together with the court service. Special attention attracts a great number of 23 musicians which make 30% of all the people named in the accounts. Diminished as compared to the court in Wawel, the court on the journey, fulfilled well, as one may assume, its functions as the centre of power, the tool to satisfy the basic needs of the King and his family at the appropriate level, and as a tool to entertain the royal family., In Gremium. Studia nad Historią, Kulturą i Polityką, Nr 7 (2013): In Gremium. Studia nad Historią, Kulturą i Polityką

Straipsnis skirtas tyrinėti medžioklės fenomeno sampratą bei jos transformacijas Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje. Viduramžiais ir ankstyvaisiais Naujaisiais amžiais ji buvo tapusi įvairiapusiu simbiotiniu ryšiu, apjungusiu Lietuvos didžiojo kunigaikščio kasdienybę, ekonominį valstybės gyvenimą, net užsienio politiką. Tyrimui naudoti Luko Gurnickio, Mikalojaus Husoviano veikalai, Lietuvos Metrikos ir kitų autorių darbai. Mėginama gilintis ir į retai lietuvių istoriografijoje diskutuojamą gamtos etikos aspektą, nors tai vienas iš fundamentaliausių etikos klausimų. Atlikus tyrimą, padaryta išvada, jog LDK valdovo organizuotos medžioklės visų pirma buvo valdančiojo elito pramoga bei privilegija, deranti pavyzdiniam to meto valdovui, praturtinanti didžiojo kunigaikščio ir jo aplinkos laisvalaikį bei vaišių stalą. Ši pramoga LDK valdovams iš tiesų padėjo užmegzti, palaikyti bei vystyti diplomatinius ryšius su kitais valdovais, linksminti bei deramai priimti ir pagerbti atvykstančius įvairių šalių pasiuntinius, taip pat puoselėti lojalumo ryšius LDK valdovo dvare ir už jo ribų. Bendras pramogavimas ir teisė būti šalia valdovo artikuliavo pasilinksminimuose dalyvaujančiųjų socialinę padėtį. Minėtų reikšmingų mentalinių, sociopolitinių ir socioekonominių medžioklės fenomeno dėmenų gyvybingumas LDK suformavo savitą medžioklės tradiciją, kuri atliepė į Vakarų Europos valdančiojo elito praktikuojamą modelį bei ženklino didžiojo kunigaikščio dvaro įsijungimą į to meto bendraeuropinę komunikacinę erdvę. The article is devoted for the exploration of the concept of hunting phenomenon and its transformations in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the Middle Ages and in the early New Ages it was a versatile symbiotic link, combining the daily life of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the economic life of the country, and even foreign policy. The research includes works of Lukas Gurnickis and Mikalojus Husovianas, Lithuanian Metrics and works of other authors. The author also tries to see into the ethical aspect of nature rarely discussed in Lithuanian historiography, although it is one of the most fundamental issues of ethics. After the research it was concluded that huntings organized by the the Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were primarily an entertainment for ruling elite and a privilege attributed to the exemplary ruler of that time, enriching the leisure time of the Grand Duke and his environment and the feast. This entertainment had really helped the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to establish, maintain and develop diplomatic relations with other rulers, to entertain, properly receive and pay tribute to the arriving foreign messengers, and to foster loyalty in the estate of the Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in its surroundings. Joint entertainment and the right to be close to the ruler had articulated the social status of the entertainment participants. Viability of the mentioned significant mental, sociopolitical and socioeconomic aspects of hunting phenomenon in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania has developed a special hunting tradition that had corresponded to the model practised by the ruling elite of Western Europe and marked the integration of the Grand Duke's estate into the co-European communicative space of that time.

Straipsnyje analizuojama Lietuvos didžiojo kunigaikščio titulatūros raida ir siekiama nustatyti rusėniškos tradicijos įtaką jos formavimuisi. Oficialų karaliaus titulą naudojo Mindaugas XIII a., tačiau po atsimetimo nuo krikščionybės šis titulas buvo tik apibūdinamojo pobūdžio. Tai susiję su Vakarų Europos pasaulietinės ir kanonų teisės samprata, kuri pripažino tik popiežiaus ar imperatoriaus suteiktą karaliaus titulą. XIII a. antroje pusėje – XIV a. pirmajame ketvirtyje vakarietiškuose šaltiniuose Lietuvos monarchas vis dar buvo tituluojamas kaip „karalius“ – „rex“ ir „konig“. Vėliau tik kaip kunigaikštis („dux“) arba didysis kunigaikštis („magnus dux“), tačiau vėlgi šie titulai buvo naudoti apibūdinamąja, o ne teisine-faktine prasme. Toks monarcho statuso „pažeminimas“ buvo savotiškas mokestis už Lietuvos tolesnę politinę integraciją į Vakarų Europą. Lietuvos monarcho titulas nusistovėjo valdant Lietuvos didžiajam kunigaikščiui Vytautui XV a. pradžioje. Sunkiau įvertinti rusėniškos tradicijos įtaką Lietuvos monarcho titulatūros formavimuisi, kadangi žinoma palyginti mažai juridinių dokumentų rusėnų kalba iš XIII-XIV a. Iš šio laikotarpio išliko daugiau naratyvinių šaltinių – metraščių – medžiaga. Taip pat buvusią įtaką liudija rusėniški įrašai monarcho antspauduose ir monetose. Nepaisant šaltinių neproporcingumo, galima teigti, kad Lietuvos monarcho titulatūros raidą veikė kartu lotyniškoji ir rusėniškoji tradicijos. The article analyses the development of the title of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and seeks to determine the influence of the Russian tradition on its formation. The official title of the king was used by Mindaugas in the 13th century, but after he renounced Christianity this title was only descriptive. It is related to the Western European understanding of secular and canon law, which recognized only the title given by the Pope or Emperor. In the second half of the 13th century and the first quarter of the 14th century, the Lithuanian monarch was still titled "king" ("rex" and "konig") in the Western sources. Later, he was only titled duke ("dux") or grand duke ("magnus dux"), but again these titles carried more of a descriptive meaning, not legal-factual. Such "demotion" of the monarch's status was a peculiar charge for Lithuania's further political integration into Western Europe. The title of Lithuanian monarch was established under the control of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas at the beginning of the 15th century. It is more difficult to assess the influence of the Ruthenian tradition on the formation of the title of the Lithuanian monarch, since there are relatively few legal documents in Ruthenian language from the 13th-14th centuries. There are few remaining narrative sources from this period, i.e. mostly chronicles. The former influence can also be seen from the Ruthenian writings on monarch's stamps and coins. Despite the disproportionate nature of the sources, it can be argued that the development of the monarch's title was affected by the Latin and Ruthenian traditions.

The comparison of Sigismund III to Władysław II Jagiełło The comparison of Sigismund III to Władysław II Jagiełło, far too more reaching that this one which 150 years ago was superficially done by Antoni Morzycki and which barely signalised unfair historian judgement, may definitely help to understand both policy and aspirations by the great monarch and help to denounce the suffering in historiography stereotypes and prejudices concerning his figure and his reign. In Poland both Sigismund III and Władysław II Jagiełło ruled for almost half a century, in almost 200 years interval. The Polish-Swedish Union like the Polish-Lithuanian Union that took place 2 centuries earlier opened new perspectives. Its main reasons, from the point of view of Sigismund were identical with Jagiełło’s expectations. The first of these reason was to gain help to conquer Moscow. Sigismund III on ascending the Polish throne, as a Swedish monarch with the help and in accordance with his father’s – the King of Sweden John III expectations, meant to take power in Kremlin having carried out a partial partition of the Moscow’s state. Much the same Jagiełło ascending the throne of Poland meant to implement his father’s Olgierd plans to centralize under the power of the Grand Duke of Lithuania the whole of Rus area including Vladimir on the Klyazma River and Moscow itself. The second reason behind the creation of the Union with Poland was, for Sigismund just like for Jagiełło 2 centuries earlier, to gain additional power to overcome opposition in his hereditary state. Sigismund becoming the king of Poland did not diminish his power in Sweden, but alike 200 years earlier Jagiełło in Lithuania, he enlarged his reign with new territory. They both believed that they would gain armed forces and royal authority to restrain respectively Sigismund – uncle in Sweden and Jagiełło – his relatives in the area of Lithuania and Rus. The third reason was growing in power Prussia, which Sigismund III wanted to include to Poland, which corresponds to the planned at the times of Jagiełło Polish-Lithuanian treat with the Teutonic threat. In both cases expectations were faced with brutal reality. The Polish-Lithuanian Union alike the Polish-Swedish Union changed for a few centuries the fate of few Central-Eastern European nations. The chances, however, which were created by the Polish, the Lithuanian, the Swedish and the Finnish people respectively against Władysław II Jagiełło and the grandson of his grandson – Sigismund III were left not only unused but wasted. It is best proved by the partition of Polish-Lithuanian Republic that took place together with the end of ‘season’ of Swedish power and its loss of Finland in the interest of Russia., In Gremium. Studia nad Historią, Kulturą i Polityką, Nr 7 (2013): In Gremium. Studia nad Historią, Kulturą i Polityką

Publikowany tekst dotyczy epizodu związanego z początkiem wojny polsko-litewskiej w 1431 r. Dotąd wykorzystywano go na ogół tylko za pośrednictwem krótkiego regestu. Dzięki niemu poznajemy 45 znanych imiennie uczestników wyprawy łuckiej, którzy 3 lipca 1431 r. wysłali listy wypowiednie wielkiemu księciu litewskiemu Świdrygielle z obozu wojskowego w Bystrzycy na ziemi lubelskiej. Zachował się tekst jednego z nich, którego autorem był kasztelan krakowski Mikołaj z Michałowa (publikowany w Aneksie).

This article strives to present reforms prepared by king’s Sigismund III Vasa supporters as faced with Sandomierz Rebellion (rokosz sandomierski). The king’s opposition focused mostly on critique and accusations of the monarch, rather than constructing one compact program of political reforms. The royalists’ camp appeared far more proactive with their ideas of constitutional reforms. The first idea, whose goal was to reform the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and to strengthen king’s role in the government, was presented to the nobles before the Parliament session in 1606. It involved a long-term project of introducing fixed taxes, which were supposed to finance the maintenance of a professional army. It also dealt with the issue of regaining the Swedish throne. The king demanded that the Parliament should debate on the royal propositions only, fearing that including the nobility’s demands would result in breaking up the session, but his postulate was refused. The commentary to king’s instructions was embodied in a paper entitled Votum szlachcica polskiego pisane na sejmiki i sejm roku pa n skiego 1606 , which undoubtedly originated in the camp of royal supporters. A thorough analysis shows that the document proposed even bolder projects of reforming the army and the Parliament than those proposed by the king. One of the most interesting, and at the same time radical concepts of strengthening the monarchy can be found in the Consilium na tryumfi e krakowskim przy wroceniu si e KJM z Janowca jemu dane napisane . It was written aft er the agreement that the king and the rebellious nobles had come to in 1606 in Janowiec. The document postulates two major reforms, that were considered by the author to be vital in reviving the country. The first one was supposed to build financial power of the Commonwealth by introducing fixed taxes for nobility and payments for the titles given by the king. The other issue, crucial for strengthening the country and empowering the king, was the necessity to dismiss the Chamber of Deputies as it was only causing chaos and paralyzing the proceedings. The author considered the Chamber of Deputies to be nothing more but an unnecessary novelty in the political system. As for the senators, he proposed that their number should be gradually decreased. Those actions were supposed to set the stage for a new organ, a “chamber council”, which would include only the most trusted of king’s men. In the beginning of the 17th century the privileged noble class was not willing to allow for systemic changes that would empower the monarchy in the Commonwealth. The phrase absolutum dominium alone, was a loathed synonym of tyranny and violation of laws and freedom. That is the reason why the radical project of reforms described in Consilium… did not stand a chance of success in the Commonwealth. Propositions that were presented to the Parliament in 1606 on the other hand, should be considered as a realistic and balanced step to empower the monarchy. Had they been presented in other circumstances than the emotional and rebellious atmosphere before the parliament session in 1606, they might have been adopted, at least partially.

Straipsnio objektas – iš vario lydinio pagaminta apyrankė su arabišku įrašu, rasta archeologinių tyrinėjimų metu Vilniaus Žemutinės pilies Valdovų rūmų rūsyje G 1993 m. (2 pav.; V: 1–2 iliustr.). Trapus papuošalas pagamintas iš plonos vario lydinio skardos, jo galus puošia stilizuotos liūtų fizionomijos, per patį arabiško įrašo vidurį įspaustas ornamentas vadinamas „laimės mazgu“. Ilgą laiką apyrankė nesulaukė didesnio tyrinėtojų dėmesio, nors jos nuotraukos buvo publikuotos keletą kartų, nemėginta radinį perskaityti ar tiksliau datuoti. Detaliau patyrinėjus vilniškę apyrankę paaiškėjo, kad analogiški rankų papuošalai randami visoje Aukso ordos teritorijoje – nuo Rytų Europos iki Centrinės Azijos, datuojami XIII–XV a., t. y. per visą Aukso ordos gyvavimo laikotarpį (1 pav.). Apyrankės su įrašais galėjo būti dėvimos kaip amuletai. Įrašai, linkintys laimės ir sėkmės, – gana dažni viduramžių islamo pasaulyje. Jais buvo išrašomi ne tik papuošalai, bet ir namų apyvokos reikmenys: žvakidės, įvairūs indai. Įdomu paminėti, kad Aukso ordos meistrai, gaminę matricas apyrankėms spausti, dažnai buvo neraštingi ir pridarydavo klaidų. Ši aplinkybė dažnai apsunkina įrašų dešifravimą ir jų interpretacijas. Vilniaus Žemutinėje pilyje rastos apyrankės įrašą siūloma skaityti taip: [Al-‘izz] al-dā’im wa-l-‘umr al-[sālim] wa-l-iqbāl – Amžina [šlovė] ir [ilgaamžis] gyvenimas ir klestėjimas. Daiktavardis gyvenimas „al-sālim“ taip pat gali būti verčiamas kaip sėkmingas ar ilgas. Apyrankių su tokiu pat įrašu ir gamybai naudojant panašią matricą rasta ir kituose Aukso ordos archeologiniuose objektuose – gyvenvietėse ir kapinynuose. Remiantis analogais ir kultūrinio sluoksnio stratigrafija, Vilniuje rastą apyrankę galima datuoti XIV a. antrąja puse – XV a. pradžia. Galima manyti, kad papuošalas į Žemutinės pilies teritoriją pateko kartu su variniu chano Džanibeko (1342–1357) pulu, tačiau ar šie radiniai yra karo grobis, ar atkeliavo prekybos keliu, telieka tik spėlioti. The aim of our article is to discuss a rather well-known artefact from the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania in Vilnius. Although the bracelet has been somewhat widely published and exhibited, the information that usually accompanies it is little more than modest. Although it is generally pointed out that the bracelet is adorned with an Arabic inscription, there is still a question mark present. In this article, we will offer a transcription and a translation of the inscription on the bracelet, along with some parallels, which will allow us to determine the origin of this unique find in Lithuanian archaeological material.

Straipsnyje siekiama įvertinti LDK teisės dokumentus kaip specifinę tyrinėjamo laikotarpio šaltinių grupę, ieškant informacijos apie valstybės erdvės vertinimo ir teritorijos suvokimo būdus bei jų išraišką valstybės teisinę padėtį reglamentuojančiuose dokumentuose. Užuominų apie valstybės ribas, atspindinčias savos ir svetimos teritorijos sankirtas, sutinkama įvairaus pobūdžio šaltiniuose. Siekis išlaikyti valstybės teritorijos vientisumą, užtikrinti integruotų žemių politinės priklausomybės tęstinumą atsispindėjo daugelyje valstybės teisinių aktų. Bendravalstybinės (steigtos visai LDK teritorijai) ir sritinės (nelietuviškoms LDK sritims steigtos) privilegijos, kaip ypač svarbi XV-XVI a. valstybinio pobūdžio dokumentų grupė, gerai iliustruoja buvusias šio siekio perspektyvas. 1447 m. Kazimiero privilegija davė toną tolesnių bendravalstybinių privilegijų turinio pamatui. Čia deklaruota idėja užtikrinti nekintamą valstybės teritorijos plotą buvo atkartota bene visose kitų valdovų privilegijose ir perkelta į Pirmojo Lietuvos Statuto turinį. Sritinių privilegijų teisinis pamatas taip pat buvo paremtas politinio solidarumo demonstravimu Lietuvos valstybei mainais už įvairių teisių ir lengvatų užtikrinimą. Šiose privilegijose fiksuojama teisinė teritorijos vientisumo garantija diskurso "pagal senovę" rėmuose taip pat kūrė ir formavo Lietuvos valstybės ir integruotų nelietuviškų žemių bendrą erdvės sampratą ir jos užtikrinimo būdus. The article seeks to assess legal documents of the GDL as a specific group of sources of the period in question, to search for information on how the state domain was regarded and the state territory understood and in what ways those concepts were expressed in documents regulating legal status. Hints on state borders reflecting the intersection of the own and foreign territory can be come across in various sources. The aspiration to preserve the integrity of the state territory, to ensure the continuous political dependence of integrated regions was reflected in various legal acts of the state. The group of privileges applied for the entire state of the GDL and certain regions (non-Lithuanian regions of the GDL) is a very important group of state documents of the 15th–16th c., which well illustrates the then prospects of this goal. The privilege granted by Casimir in 1447 created the grounds for the content of other privileges common to the state. Its idea of ensuring the stable territorial area of the state was reiterated in nearly all the privileges of other rulers and transposed into the content of the First Statute of Lithuania. The legal core of regional privileges was also based on demonstration of political solidarity for the state of Lithuania in exchange to assurance of various rights and benefits. The legal guarantee of territorial integrity documented in the privileges, in the framework of the discourse “in line with the old times”, was also creating and shaping common perception of the domain of the Lithuanian state and integrated non-Lithuanian lands as well as ways to secure this common area.

Tens of thousands of glass articles’ smithereens have been found in the territory of the Lower Castle of Vilnius during archaeological excavations already lasting for more that 20 years. Recently in this territory among plenty of breakage smithereens of two vessels of the 15th-16th centuries were found. That appeared to be a blue glass cup and a rolled gold combined glass cup. Authors of this article reviews their finding, restoration and preparation for exhibiting. Findings of archaeological glass almost always are found in a form of breakage and usually the scale of losses is too large for reestablishing the full appearance of the glass article. At the centre’s of castle research “Lithuanian Castles” division of restoration the breakage of cups has been conserved and prepared for the further restoration process at the Pranas Gudynas’ Centre for Restoration of the Lithuanian Art Museum. Restorers were forced to make decisions on vessels’ forms’ reconstruction and their further exhibiting. Their task was not only to conserve and glue together pieces of archaeological glass in order to perform a partial reconstruction of cups’ forms but also to apply a proper solution for exhibition that would help to reveal their form and would stress the so important historical and artistic values of these findings. Breakage of mazarine glass is a set of fragments of tulip-shaped cup. Because of the scale of losses and the absence of the stem it was decided not to try to reconstruct it. The issue has been resolved by attaching the conserved and glued fragments on a newly produced glass vessel imitating the upper silhouette of the former cup. This glass form has been mounted on a metal tripod forming the awareness of the viewer about the absence of the original stem. Another exhibit restored at the Pranas Gudynas’ Centre for Restoration was an especially ornate cup of combined glass (transparent and mazarine) ornamented with gold spray and dots of enamel. After assembling together all extant fragments it was decided to reconstruct completely only the blue stem and that the upper part should be reestablished only partially. This kind of reconstruction served quite well to reveal cup’s form and ornamentation, the article became rather stable and suitable for putting it on exhibition. Those two restored cups of the 15th-16th centuries from the territory of the Lower Castle of Vilnius will adorn the historical-didactical exposition of the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania.

Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas rankraštinės knygos reiškinio sklaidos socialinis kontekstas ir jo kaita LDK XIV a. – XVI a. viduryje. Naudojant šaltiniotyros, analizės ir sintezės, aprašomąjį bei prozopografinį metodus, stengiamasi nustatyti, kokiuose gyventojų sluoksniuose knygos reiškinys buvo priimtas ir įsitvirtino, išsiaiškinti, kokie knygos funkcionavimo būdai buvo adaptuoti ir išplėtoti. Remiantis išlikusiais rankraštinių knygų įrašais bei įvairiais kitais šaltiniais nustatyta, kad jau nuo XIV a. galime kalbėti apie LDK ankstyvosios knygos visuomenės apraiškas. XV a. viduryje ši visuomenė jau apėmė ne tik valdovus, dalinius kunigaikščius, dvasininkus, bet ir didikus, dalį miestiečių. Šio amžiaus pabaigoje rankraštinės knygos komunikacija įgijo viso ciklo bruožus Relinquishing the linguistic criterion in the cultural history of the GDL in order to better understand the cultural processes in the state (in its geographical and ethnoconfessional entirety) expanded the scope of research in manuscript book history. The subsequent inclusion in the research of books in the Latin, Ruthenian and Church Slavonic languages, written and read in the GDL, offered a possibility to focus on the social purpose of the book. The aim of this study was to establish the social context and transformations of the manuscript book phenomenon in the GDL from the 14th to the mid–16th century. For this purpose, we attempted to determine in which social strata the new cultural phenomenon – the book – took hold and to determine what forms of book functioning developed in these strata. [...] An analysis of 215 manuscript books (177 de visu and 38 descriptions in printed catalogues) as well as of archival documents and historiographical works enabled us to collect information about 163 persons in whose environment manuscript books functioned. Based on the present research, it may be suggested that early manifestations of book society in the GDL occurred already in the 14th century. In the middle of the 15th century, this society encompassed not only the rulers, princes and priests, but also the nobles, part of the townspeople and students. By the end of the century, the communication of the manuscript book acquired features of the full cycle. In the late 15th – early 16th century, the completely formed book society already encompassed diverse social strata. Meanwhile, the active spread of books, printed in Western Europe, interfered with the manuscript book existence

The Lithuanian Art Museum (LAM) has been taking an active part in the formulation of ideas concerning the recreation of the Royal Palace of the GDL and specific works since 1998. At the request of the then Minister of Culture, the museum prepared and in January 1999 presented The Guidelines on Dukes’Palace which outlined prospective expositions and multifunctional activities in the future institution. On 2nd October 2002, the Minister of Culture charged Romualdas Budrys, Director of the LAM, to work out a program for the recreation and adaptation of the GDL Royal Palace for representational, museum and educational functions. In the early 2003, the LAM presented The Outline of the Program for the Interiors of the Royal Palace of the GDL and Their Adaptation for Representational, Museum and Educational Functions (second edition), which was approved at the 1st April sitting of the Coordination Commission of the Ministry of Culture for the implementation of the conception of the function of the GDL Royal Palace. On 18th February 2005, the obligation of the Minister of Culture to the LAM concerning the preparation of the program and the implementation of the interior and exposition program of the Royal Palace was updated and complemented, charging not only to work out a program for the recreation of the interiors of the GDL Royal Palace and their adaptation for representational, museum and educational function but also to implement it. In the publication, the author thoroughly presents information about the activities of the Department of the Interior and Exposition of the GDL Royal Palace in 2005, established at the LAM on 28th October 2002, its staff, the links of the LAM with other local and foreign institutions, implementing its mission in the sphere of the recreation and adaptation of the Royal Palace for representational, museum and educational functions.

Straipsnyje kvestionuojama Valdovų Rūmų atstatymo būtinybė. Teigiama, kad skirtingos metodologinës pozicijos, skirtingos ideologinės nuostatos, taip pat skirtingos paveldosauginės sampratos lėmė pozicijų išsiskyrimą dėl Valdovų Rūmų atkūrimo pobūdžio ir paskirties. Pažymima, kad debatuose reiškėsi dvi nuomonės, kurios įvardijamos kaip romantizuota tradicionalistinė, Valdovų Rūmuose mačiusi valstybės simbolį, bei liberalistinė, pasisakiusi prieš paveldo ir istorijos reanimaciją. Autorius mano, kad į diskusijas buvo būtina įvesti ir svarstymus apie istorinės atminties modelius ir jų skirstymus. Pažymima, kad nuo pat Valdovų Rūmų atstatymo idėjos užuomazgų tarp jos šalininkų Žemutinė pilis buvo traktuojama ne tik kaip Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės valstybingumo, bet ir kaip pagoniškosios baltų kultūros simbolis. Autorius teigia, kad Valdovų Rūmų atkūrimo šalininkai neįvertina aplinkybės, kad Vilniaus istorinis centras 1994 metais įtrauktas į UNESCO Pasaulio paveldo sąrašą, o tai dar atsakingiau verčia žiūrėti į intervencijas senamiestyje. Konstatuojama, kad debatams nepasiekus jokių sąlyčio taškų, Valdovų Rūmų atkūrimo klausimas buvo išspręstas politiniu būdu. Autorius mano, kad ne skirtingos metodologinės ar teorinės sampratos nulėmė galutinį pozicijų dėl Valdovų Rūmų išsiskyrimą, o dominuojantis, iš romantizmo epochos ateinantis istorinės atminties modelis, Valdovų Rūmus traktuojant kaip Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės politinės galios simbolį. The article raises doubts as to the necessity of reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Dukes. It is stated that as a result of differences in methodological positions, ideological views and the concept of cultural heritage, positions regarding the nature and purpose of the reconstruction Palace of the Grand Dukes diverged. It is noted that two opinions were expressed during debates, one of them being romantic traditionalist, seeing a state symbol in the Palace of the Grand Dukes; and liberal, opposing to reanimation of heritage and history. The author holds the view that it was necessary to include considerations about models of historical memory and their categorisation into discussions. It is observed that from the very idea of restoration of the Palace, the proponents regarded the Lower Castle as a symbol of not only the statehood of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but also of the pagan Baltic culture. According to the author, the proponents of the restoration of the Palace of the Grand Dukes fail to take into account the fact that in 1994, Vilnius historical centre was included into the UNESCO World Heritage list, which obliges taking yet more serious approach towards interventions into the old-town. It is concluded that failing to find consensus during the debates, the issue of the reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Dukes was solved at a political level. In the author’s opinion, final differences in positions regarding the Palace were determined not by different methodological or theoretical concepts, but by a dominant model of historical memory, stemming from the Romanticism period, and portraying the Palace of the Grand Dukes as a symbol of political power of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Straipsnyje apžvelgiama Vytauto Didžiojo dvaro struktūra ir kasdienybė. Viduramžiška dvaro samprata yra daugiareikšmė ir sudėtinga. Valdovas valdė nuolat keliaudamas iš vienos šalies vietos į kitą, taip aplankydamas jam priklausančius domeno dvarus ir suvartodamas ten sukauptus maisto produktus. Formuojantis nuolatinėms rezidencijoms (Vilnius, Trakai), atsirado nuolatinio dvaro samprata. Be to, egzistavo ir ūkiniai valdovo dvarai. Didžiojo kunigaikščio dvaro struktūra Lietuvoje klostėsi Vytauto pirmtakų valdymo metu, tačiau tik Vytauto laikais galima kalbėti apie dvaro kultūros susiklostymą. Vytautas sąmoningai formavo dvarą, steigė pareigybes, patirties sėmėsi iš kaimyninių kraštų. Dvaro gyventojus galima skirstyti į kelias grupes: giminaičius ir draugus, tarnus (dvarionis), svečius. Dvaro struktūra išsirutuliojo iš kunigaikščio namų ūkio, kurio svarbiausias elementas buvo pono ir jo šeimynos ryšys. Tarp dvarionių egzistavo akivaizdūs rango skirtumai. Atskirą dvaro gyventojų grupę sudarė svečiai – užsienio šalių pasiuntiniai ar karo žygiui atvykę riteriai. Neūžaugos (liliputai), juokdariai ir muzikantai – dar viena dvaro gyventojų kategorija. Laiškų ir pasiuntinybių dėka Vytauto dvaras buvo integrali tuometinės Europos komunikacinės erdvės dalis. Nepaisant praktikos valdyti keliaujant, laikui bėgant vis didesnę reikšmę įgijo svarbios rezidencinės pilys. Jose buvo galima rengti iškilmingus pasiuntinių ir kitų svečių priėmimus. Europoje tuo metu jau buvo susiklosčiusi garbingų svečių priėmimo sistema, protokolo ir etiketo taisyklės, apsikeitimas dovanomis (pavyzdžiui, sakalų dovanojimas). Šių taisyklių laikytasi ir Vytauto dvare.