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Introducción. La utilización de la Intrucción directa (ID) con tarjetas ha sido señalada como un procedimiento intervención de aula efectivo. El presente trabajo examina el uso de un sistema de tarjetas de instrucción directa con dos adolecentes con dificultades de aprendizaje.Objetivos. El propósito de esta investigación fue incrementar la tasa de respuestas correctas y disminuir la tasa de error en la visión/escritura de dígitos en multiplicaciones utilizando un sistema de tarjetas de instrucción directa con una estrategia de repetición de tres tarjetas tras los errores. Otro objetivo fue favorecer la extensión y replicación de trabajos previos realiza-dos con la metodología de instrucción directa.Método. Los participantes fueron dos estudiantes de enseñanza elemental con dificultades de aprendizaje. Tras la establecer la línea base, se implementó el sistema de tarjetas a través de instrucción directa. El estudio fue realizado en un aula del centro. La escuela estaba situada en un área de nivel alto de pobreza de una zona urbana. Los efectos de la intervención fueron evaluados mediante un diseño de múltiples líneas basales para cada estudiante.Resultados: Ambos participantes mejoraron su capacidad en relación con las tareas matemáticas. Estos cambios fueron inmediatos y se extendieron durante los primeros dos pasos. Algunos problemas de generalización en los últimos pasos fueron observados para ambos participantes.Discusión. El sistema de tarjetas fue poco costoso y fácil de implementar. Se proporcionan algunas recomendaciones para la utilización de este sistema.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a typical third-grade boy and fifth-grade girl and a boy with learning disabilities could benefit from the combined use of Direct Instruction (DI) flashcard and math racetrack procedures in an after-school program. The dependent variable was accuracy and fluency of saying basic multiplication facts. A single subject multiple baseline design across three sets of facts showed a clear functional relationship between the DI flashcard combined with the math racetrack procedures and increased mastery of multiplication facts. By the end of the study, each participant mastered all target math facts. Additionally, all three participants correctly generalized from oral to written without instruction on written math facts. Also, the students’ confidence in math seemed to grow as their mastery increased. The procedure was cost effective and required little training to implement.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of employing the Handwriting Without Tears (HWT) program with and without a teacher-made handwriting racetrack. Five preschool students enrolled in a public elementary special education preschool classroom served as participants. A combind multiple baseline and an ABCD design were employed to assess the effectiveness of our two handwriting interventions. For three of our participants, a teacher-made handwriting racetrack and HWT were also assessed. During the first session of baseline, Participants 1 and 5 were prompted to trace five straight lines of varying lengths with a pencil. During the first session of baseline, Participants 2, 3, and 4 were prompted to write inside the four standard letters from the HWT workbook with a pencil. After baseline, each participant was instructed using the HWT program and materials. For two of our participants (P-1 and P-5), increases in handwriting scores were found. For our other three participants (P-2, P-3, P-4), ...

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Augmentative Communication (AAC), specifically a Flip 'n Talk device, with a preschool student with developmental delays. Also, during data collection he was also being evaluated to determine if he had autism (ASD). The ability to functionally requesting assistance and to functionally request the attention of individuals such as teachers, instructional assistants, and later peers was the focus of this study. A multiple baseline design was employed to evaluate the use of AAC across asking assistance or seeking attention. The results of this study suggested that AAC was an effective way to teach functional communication to the participant.

The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of reading racetrack and flashcards when teaching phonics, sight words, and addition facts. The participants for the sight word and phonics portion of this study were two seven-year-old boys in the second grade. Both participants were diagnosed with a learning disability. The third participant was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by his pediatrician and with a learning disability and traumatic brain injury by his school’s multi-disciplinary team.. The dependent measures were corrects and errors when reading from a first grade level sight word list. Math facts were selected based on a 100 add fact test for the third participant. The study demonstrated that racetracks paired with the flashcard intervention improved the students’ number of corrects for each subject-matter area (phonics, sight words, and math facts). However, the results show that some students had more success with it than others. These outcomes clearly warrant further research.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the copy, cover, and compare (CCC) procedure on improving the mathematics and spelling performance of a freshman attending a high school special education class. The participant was a 16-year-old high school student enrolled in special education classes for 3 periods of the school day. Math problems consisted of single-and double-digit division and fractions. Spelling words used were at the 3rd-grade level. A multiple baseline design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of CCC. The results suggest that the CCC procedure can be used to improve accuracy in mathematics and spelling. The authors discuss the benefits of employing the CCC procedure for secondary students.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of Teach Your Child to Read in 100 Easy Lessons (Engelmann, Haddox, & Bruner, 1983), on the acquisition and maintenance of reading skills by a six-year-old female with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Cognitive Disorder, and Mixed Receptive Language Disorder. The skills evaluated for this study were reading phonetically regular words specifically taught in the text, and similar words not taught in the text (probe words). The outcomes indicate that Direct Instruction is effective in improving correct frequency for both trained as well as probe (non target) words. The benefits of employing Teach Your Child to Read in 100 Easy Lessons were provided. Finally, the authors discuss the importance of generalization to probe words.

The purpose of the present research is to compare the effects of a Direct Instruction flashcard procedure on the mastery of multiplication facts by two high school students with attention deficit hyper-activity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Both students were enrolled in a separate high school for students with behavior disabilities. The effectiveness of the Direct Instruction flashcard procedure was evaluated across three different sets of math problems using a multiple baseline design. In addition, the effectiveness of various ratios of mastered to unmastered facts was examined. The overall outcomes indicate a large increase in correct responding by both of the participants during the Direct Instruction Flashcard System. An intermediate ratio of mastered to unmastered facts was correlated with fewer trials to mastery for each participant. The applicability of employing Direct Instruction flash card procedures was discussed and directions for future research were posed.

The purpose of this case study was to determine the effectiveness of using visual prompts with a model, lead, and test technique paired with a fading procedure. This was implemented to teach a student how to appropriately answer “Where are you?” The participant in this study was a 13-year-old boy, with low functioning autism who was also echolalic. This study took place in the participant’s self-contained special education classroom and at nine various locations at his school. The participant was taught to answer correctly when prompted to nine different places throughout his school. The participant was able to maintain this skill, when visual prompts were systematically reduced during the fading and no longer provided during the two no prompts conditions. Other personnel in the school were very satisfied with the outcomes.

We employed a flashcard strategy to teach two high school students with mental retardation their math facts. The study was carried out in a typical self-contained classroom public school setting. We measured both correct responses and errors. The effects of employing flashcards were examined in a multiple baseline design across participants. Overall outcomes indicated that when flashcards were employed there was an increase in their correct rate and a decrease in errors. Applicability of employing flashcards was discussed.

The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the use of a reinforcement package with four middle school students who were below grade level in reading. Data were gathered, independently by two observers, for on-task behavior for the number of correct words read for a two-minute timed trial, and for book pre- and posttests. These data were gathered during Direct Instruction Corrective Reading Lessons. The participants earned points for increases in reading academic behaviors and on-task during the lesson. The effects of the reinforcement package were evaluated in an ABAB single case replication design. The overall outcomes indicate that on-task behavior improved from the low levels during both baselines and increased to high levels when the reinforcement package was in effect. Changes in reading rate were also dramatic with the largest increases found when the reinforcement package was in effect. Increases in pre- and posttest scores were noted for each of the participants. The advantages of em...

This article examines prompt training and reinforcement to decrease the amount of time between routine transitions within a self contained transitional kindergarten. A comparison between baseline results for two kindergarten classes for students with behavior disorders and that of prompting plus reinforcement produced an overall decrease in transition time across transitional settings. The use of physical prompting by consequences was found to be an easily implemented and effective set of strategies to reduce the amount of time between transitions in the preschool classroom. Weaknesses in the present research as well as suggestions for future research are provided.

A one-day antecedent analysis and an extended school-based double-blind medication trial were used to assess the effects of Ritalin on the disruptive behavior of a child diagnosed with ADHD. The evaluations took place in an outpatient clinic and in the child's general education classroom. The results of both evaluations indicated that the medication had a positive effect on reducing disruptive behaviors. The investigation suggests that the one-day antecedent analysis procedure could be used as an initial evaluation of the use of Ritalin. More importantly, the one-day trial provided results similar to the outcomes obtained during the school-based evaluation. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 235–240, 2004.

In the current case report, we implemented a treatment that improved the toileting skills at school for a 19-year-old-female diagnosed with mental retardation. The treatment program was implemented in a self-contained special education classroom. An ABAB single subject replication design was employed to evaluate the effects of the in class toilet training program. The number of occasions that the student was observed wet declined and the number of times she successfully used the bathroom for urination increased. There were significant treatment differences found for both behaviors. The overall outcomes demonstrate that a toilet training treatment program could be successfully instituted in the school setting. The positive and negative aspects of toilet training in the classroom are discussed.

Functional analysis methods were used to monitor medication used to reduce vocal and physical tics of a child with Tourettes Syndrome. An initial functional analysis suggested that the tics were maintained by automatic reinforcement. Given this result, the participant's physician prescribed Orap 1mg per day to reduce the tics. Post-medication results demonstrated a reduced level of tics by the participant. Although preliminary, the findings suggest that functional analysis methods can be used to monitor the effects of medication in outpatient and school settings. Thus, more research using functional analyses to assess medication effects is needed. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

This article reviews the literature with regard to firearms accidents among low-income, urban children younger than 13. The tendency of low-income families to keep unsecured protection guns may contribute to the higher rate of firearms accidents among low-income children. The evidence suggests that the decision to keep a gun for protection is largely a practical response to the conditions a person perceives in his or her neighborhood. Reducing the consequences of risky gun behavior among low-income families requires policies and programs that eliminate experiences associated with such behavior and that train children to recognize and avoid risky gun situations.

The purpose of this paper was to examine and present attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a social disability. The overall outcomes from the literature indicate how children with ADHD and social disability display similar behavior patterns (e.g., conduct disorders, attention problems, and difficulties in family functioning). Other difficulties found with ADHD children were low self-esteem, bad reputations among peers, conflicts in friendships, problems in social skills, and difficulty in overcoming self-centeredness in social skills. Early identification of social disability, however, may result in provision of preventative services, such as suggested parent and mentor methods, and maximization of the chances for positive experiences in school, extracurricular activities, and the neighborhood. These services are recommended, and success depends on effort and consistent implementation of procedures.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a contingency contract for a middle school student with behavior disorders, a ninth grade male enrolled in a self-contained special ed...

The population of children exposed prenatally to alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, and other legal or illegal substances has been rapidly growing in America. The known characteristics of this group include deficits in rule-governed behavior, impulsivity, attention to task, language, sleep attachment, learning, social competence, coordination, hypersensitivity to environmental stimuli, and conduct problems. The purpose of this paper was to describe the characteristics of this population and match known, empirically demonstrated, data-based strategies, such as teacher attention and praise, token reinforcement programs, daily report cards, contingency contracting, self-instructional training, self-management, peer tutoring, Direct Instruction, and combining behavior therapy with stimulant medication therapy, to specific academic and social deficits in children with parental histories of substance abuse. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of token reinforcement and response cost on the accuracy of spelling performance with three adolescent special education students were examined. A multiple-baseline design across students was used to evaluate the effects of token reinforcement and response cost intervention. A greater percent of accuracy on daily spelling exams was obtained during the token reinforcement plus response cost condition than during the baseline condition. This was replicated for each student. Follow-up data collection indicated maintenance of behavior change over time. The benefits of implementing a token economy with a response cost component with middle-school students with behavior disorders were discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study compares the Add-A-Word spelling program to a traditional basal spelling program in an intermediate grade school classroom. The participants were 16 fifth and sixth grade students enrolled in a private parochial school. A counterbalanced time series design was employed to evaluate the effects of the Add-A-Word program across two groups of students. The overall results indicate that students' weekly tests significantly increased during the Add-A-Word program each time it was in effect. The participants received higher quarterly letter grades in spelling during the Add-A-Word condition than during basal instruction. Retention rates on 9-week, 50 word tests were not affected by either the Add-A-Word or basal procedures but gradually increased over time. Benefits to students as well as the difficulties of implementing the Add-A-Word Spelling program are outlined.

Cover, Copy, and Compare (CCC) is a simple, efficient, self-managed academic intervention that can be used to improve accuracy, fluency, and maintenance across students, curricula objectives, academic skill domains, and settings. In it's simplest form CCC requires students to look at an academic stimulus (e.g., for spelling the stimulus would be a written a word) cover the stimulus, respond by copying the stimulus (e.g., writing the word), and evaluate the responses by comparing it to the original stimulus. The CCC procedure and research that supports the generalizability and ecological validity of this procedure is described and analyzed. Following this analysis, recommendations for implementing Cover, Copy, and Compare in educational settings are provided.

The effectiveness of using the reading racetrack drill and practice intervention on the sight word acquisition and fluency of 15 elementary students was examined in two separate experiments. A multiple baseline design across participants was used. The participants were 15 third and fourth-grade students attending a public (n =10) or parochial (n =5) elementary school. Participants included children receiving special education services in a resource room, services for learning difficulties, and those in a general classroom setting. Reading racetracks IS a novel approach which employ error correction, timing, and drill and practice procedures. This strategy also utilized drill and practice probe sheets that resemble an automotive racetrack. The results indicated that during the reading racetrack intervention all of the participants more than doubled their correct rate in oral reading. There was also a marked decrease in the number of errors made by each of the participants in this study. The implications of employing reading racetrack procedures for practitioners are outlined.

The purpose of this research was to determine if an in-school breakfast program could increase on-task behaviors of 18 high school students. The effects of the in-school breakfast program were examined in a vocational and an academic setting. A multiple-baseline design across settings and students was employed to assess the effects of the in-class breakfast program. Results indicated that an in-school breakfast program was effective in increasing on-task behaviors in both settings. Questionnaires administered to students before and after implementation of the in-school breakfast program indicate positive change toward breakfast by those who participated. These outcomes indicate that an in-school breakfast program may positively influence on-task behaviors of high school students in a vocational setting and an academic setting.

A practical, hands-on method teachers can use in spelling, math, and geography

We examine and review the relationships between variables descriptive of cultural and social capital and the development of a new term: educational capital. While school personnel can use demographic variables to predict outcomes, such predictors do not lend themselves to implementing treatments or programs which may more directly mediate the effects of unequal cultural, social and human capital across the population. To increase and improve the education capital of its constituents, school can: set high expectations, match student skill level with curricular materials, provide home work hotlines, set up peer tutoring programs, develop partnerships with businesses and other community groups, match teacher characteristics with those of the student population, and reduce class size. Likewise, ways that parents might increase their children's educational capital include increasing attendance, taking part in parent-teacher discussions, helping with homework, participating in extracurricular activities, and transmitting aspirations in parent-child interactions.

The purpose of the present investigation was to determine whether school children with moderate retardation could learn to print their own first names with a systematic set of behavioral teaching procedures. Teaching procedures involved the use of task analysis, prompting, modeling, and contingent teacher praise. Teaching procedures were evaluated in a combination multiple baseline and pre-post-test design with repeated measures across subject-pairs. Results indicated that the children acquired the skills to print their names legibly during the 6-week training program. Follow-up data, taken at 10 and 15 days after the experiment was terminated, revealed that the subjects retained the writing skills that were previously trained.

To increase the compliance of a preschool student with disabilities, the combined and separate effects of a time-out ribbon procedure and a precision request format were examined. A time-out ribbon and precision request format were evaluated with an ABACBC single subject replication design. The percent of child compliance was recorded during circle time. When the time-out ribbon procedure was used, compliance increased. When precision requests were added to the time-out ribbon procedure, there was an even greater increase in compliance. Implications for using the time-out ribbon procedure and precision request format with preschool children with disabilities in a classroom are discussed.

The purpose of this research was to determine if an in-school breakfast program could increase attendance and the on-task behaviors of 10 male high school students. The effects of the in-school breakfast program were examined in a vocational high school setting. An ABAB design was employed to assess the effects of the in-class breakfast program. Results show that an in-school breakfast program was effective in increasing on-task behaviors each time it was in effect. Small positive changes in attendance were also found. These outcomes indicate that an in-school breakfast program may positively influence on-task behaviors of high school students in a vocational setting.

Introduction. The purpose of this study was to decrease the number of talk-outs displayed with a 3rd grade student with autism. She engaged in these behaviors during work time, specialty classes such as physical education, music and library, and group work.Method. A multiple baseline probe design was used to measure the effectiveness of differential reinforcement with a token economy treatment package. A functional relationship was demonstrated between the reduction in talk-outs and the implementation of a differential reinforcement of an alternative behavior reinforcement schedule (DRA).Results. The participant’s talk-outs decreased across all settings from an average of 10.9 in baseline to a mean 3.1 talk outs during differential reinforcement within a token economy.Conclusion. The use of the positive procedures in the classroom to reduce a problem social behavior is discussed.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the practice of reciprocal peer tutoring could be used with preschool-aged children with disabilities in a structured setting. The ages of the pupils ranged from 2 years 3 months to 5 years 8 months. A class-wide peer tutoring model was evaluated using a multiple baseline approach across instructional units. The following steps were specifically trained: (1) discriminative stimulus (SD) presentation; (2) praise; (3) stamp delivery; and (4) corrective feedback. Each child was given opportunities to be both tutor and tutee. Data were collected in two experimental settings. The first setting was in a public school which provided services for preschool children with disabilities. The second setting was a private organization which served children with special needs from birth to three years. The results indicate that peer tutoring skills can be successfully taught and used in the classroom with children as young as 27 months of age. Furthermore, there is some...

The purpose was to evaluate the effects of self-recording in reducing off-task behavior with a high school student labeled as attention deficit disordered with hyperactivity (ADHD). The student emitted low rates of attending and was enrolled in a self-contained classroom for the behaviorally disordered. Off-task data were gathered in the student's special education classroom setting. An ABAB single-subject replication design was employed to evaluate effects of a self-monitoring. The results indicate an increase in off-task behavior within the classroom setting. Opinions provided by the other school staff suggested a perceived lack of generalization of treatment gains to other courses in which the student was enrolled. Ratings by a student observer indicate that the severity of disruptions declined during the self-monitoring phases. Possible reasons for this outcome are discussed. Practical implications for the use of the procedures in a secondary classroom are presented.

The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) has long sought to identify effective programs for teacher preparation in this country. Recently, the Council has revised its standards to be more rigorous and demanding. This revision presents new and challenging standards for the accreditation of programs preparing educators. The most problematic but most important of these new standards is the requirement of a well-articulated knowledge base supporting a program's content and processes. Development of the knowledge base statement involves the articulation of the program's philosophy, theme, model, goals, objectives, primary research base, wisdom of practice, and evaluation procedures. A behavioral model serves well in meeting these requirements, particularly since behavioral applications in education are well researched and the approach is compatible with the emphasis on specific goals and objectives and evaluation of effectiveness. Effective educational methods are available and are mostly behavioral. The articulation of the NCATE knowledge base encourages education faculty, traditionally nonbehavioral, to examine the effectiveness of their programs and to demonstrate research and professional support for content and instructional methods. A behavioral knowledge base statement appropriate for NCATE is demonstrated through examples drawn from Gonzaga University's knowledge base for special education.

The following review summarizes the research concerning the characteristics of at-risk students. Surprisingly, at-risk students have not been extensively studied. However, as the discussion of social structure will document, the available research clearly demonstrates that the single most consistent factor characterizing at-risk students is social class. Social class is a powerful determinant of school success, and, as a consequence, at-risk students are disproportionately drawn from families with low socioeconomic status. Fortunately, researchers, especially sociologists, have devoted considerable energy to studying the impact of social class on educational success. While these researchers have not singled out at-risk students for special study, their findings on why students from lower-socioeconomicstatus families do less well in school than children from middle-class families can be extrapolated to the at-risk population. The relatively few studies focusing exclusively on at-risk students support this link. They suggest that the factors underlying the poorer school performance of students from lower-socioeconomic-status families also account for much of the variance between students who are at-risk and those who are not. Accordingly, in this report we will discuss, not only studies of students identified as being at-risk, but also studies investigating the impact of social class on school success.

The purpose of this research was to determine if modeling and verbal reinforcement (praise) could increase appropriate social and work-related behaviors of two high school adolescents with autism. The effects of modeling and praise were examined in school, work, and community environment of the participants. A multiple baseline design across skills and students was employed. Results indicated that modeling and praise were effective in increasing each student's appropriate social and work-related behaviors. Questionnaires administered to teachers, a job trainer, a communication disorder specialist, paraprofessionals, co-workers, and parents indicated positive change in each of the subject's behavior. These data suggest that a natural intervention, such as modeling and praise, may positively influence the inappropriate social and work related behaviors that are characteristic of adolescents with autism.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two spelling programs on the weekly spelling performance of 5 underachieving elementary school students. The subjects were 3 boys and 2 girls between the ages of 8.3 and 9.6 years. The students were identified as being the poorest spellers in a Grade 3 class. The spelling programs compared were the Add-A-Word Spelling Program and Compu Spell (a commercial computer spelling program). Data were gathered on spelling accuracy in both the regular classroom and in the learning assistance classroom (special education class) throughout an entire school year. A multi-element baseline design was used to compare the effectiveness of each program. The results indicated that both programs improved the spelling achievement of the students and that this improvement was sustained throughout the duration of the study. Reasons for the outcomes are discussed.

The effects of written feedback on accuracy in reading with 5 students enrolled in a self-contained classroom for behaviorally disordered children and youth were evaluated. Written feedback, placed on students' reading assignments, was evaluated in a multiple baseline design across students. The outcomes indicated improved accuracy in reading when written feedback was provided by the teacher. This finding was replicated across all 5 students. The students also rated the written feedback procedure favorably. Differences between previous research and the present outcomes were examined. The benefits of using written feedback as an intervention procedure with behaviorally disordered children, youth, and other student populations are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of frequent testing on the performance of high school algebra students. A counterbalanced ABAB design in which two classes of Grade 11 algebra students were administered tests on a weekly and biweekly schedule was used. Each testing condition lasted for 2 months, and data were collected for a total of 8 months. The results indicated a definite improvement in performance during the weekly versus biweekly testing. This outcome was replicated each time that more frequent testing was in effect. Low- and middle-achieving students generated the higher gains. A questionnaire given to the students at the end of the study indicated a preference by the students for weekly testing conditions.

Introducción: El programa Handwriting Without Tears® (Olsen, 1998) ha sido considerado como un conjunto de procedimientos adecuados para la enseñanza de la escritura para niños con y sin discapacidad. Desafortunadamente, existen pocas investigaciones sobre la utilidad de dicho programa en la enseñanza de la escritura.Objetivos: El propósito del estudio es incrementar la legibilidad de las letras utilizando los procedimientos de trazado del programa Handwriting Without Tears® program (Olsen, 1998).Método: El programa se implementa para desarrollar la escritura de letras de dos alumnos autistas de educación infantil. Los efectos del programa Handwriting Without Tears® (Olsen, 1998) se evalúan a través de un diseño de línea base múltiple (Kazdin, 1982). La recogida de datos y los procedimientos fueron desarrollados en una clase infantil de educación infantil, evaluándose el número de letras legibles.Resultados: Los resultados indicaron que, en la línea base, ninguno de los participantes podía escribir de forma legible las letras elegidas para el estudio. Los resultados del estudio también indican que la utilización de la pizarra y la hoja de trabajo del programa Handwriting Without Tears® junto con las indicaciones, modelo y punto de inicio, pueden incrementar la habilidad de los estudiantes para escribir determinadas letras. Este hallazgo se repite en todos los parti-cipantes.Discusión: Los resultados obtenidos en la presente investigación apoyan el uso del programa Handwriting Without Tears®. Tales hallazgos fueron encontrados en estudiantes diagnosticados como autistas.

Introducción: La utilización de copiar, tapar y comparar se ha señalado cómo un procedimiento de intervención efectivo en el aula. El presente caso examina la utilización de dicha estrategia en relación con hechos matemáticos de un estudiante con dificultades de aprendizaje.Objetivos: El propósito de esta investigación fue incrementar la eficacia y disminuir la tasa de error en la visión/escritura de dígitos utilizados en la multiplicación utilizando la estrategia de copiar, tapar y comparar. Un segundo objetivo fue utilizar un procedimiento de corrección de los errores utilizando dicha estrategia y evaluar los efectos.Método: El participante era un estudiante de cuarto curso con dificultades de aprendizaje que había tenido problemas en el área de matemáticas. Tras el establecimiento de la línea base se implementó el procedimiento de pegar, tapar y comparar. Por último, la corrección del error fue añadida al procedimiento de copiar, tapar y comparar.Resultados: Los resultados generales indicaron un aumento de las respuestas correctas y una disminución de los errores mediante el uso del copiar, tapar y comparar. Cuando copiar, tapar y comparar se combinó con la corrección del error, las respuestas correctas aumentaron y los errores disminuyeron. La facilidad también aumentó con la corrección de errores.Discusión: La evidencia encontrada en el presente informe indica que la eficacia del procedimiento de copiar, tapar y pegar. Cuando se utiliza de forma adicional la corrección de errores, la eficacia del procedimiento se incrementa. Por último, se discuten los beneficios, así como las dificultades, para que profesorado y alumnado utilicen la estrategia de copiar, tapar y comparar con y sin corrección de errores.

The effects of the Add-A-Word Spelling Program was examined in two experiments with mildly handicapped middle school students. In Experiment I, the Add-A-Word program with daily testing of small word lists; drill through the copy, cover, and compare method; a high level of mastery before words were removed from the student's list; and reappearance of mastered words, was evaluated with a multiple baseline design across three students. The data indicated improved performance on daily spelling tests when the Add-A-Word system was implemented. The purpose of Experiment II was to compare the Add-A-Word spelling program to the more traditional Monday Pre- and end of the week Posttest spelling procedures found in most classrooms. The comparisons were made in a counterbalanced multiple baseline design across six students. The students' overall accuracy in spelling was higher during the Add-A-Word Program than during either Baseline (daily testing) or the Preand Posttest systems. However, student's spelling scores were also higher during the Pre-Posttest procedure than during the Baseline condition. Benefits of the Add-A-Word spelling program for middle school students were discussed.

The purpose of the present study was to determine if contingent free time could improve the homework completion of senior high school English students. The subjects were two groups of 50 12th grade students enrolled in English classes. A combination multiple baseline and ABAB single subject replication design was employed to evaluate the effects of the free-time contingency. During the free time condition, completion of homework assignments earned each student three minutes of early dismissal. The free time procedure increased the frequency of homework completion. The ratings by the students were positive with respect to the use of free time to improve student performance. The free-time procedure was effective, and practical and record keeping was minimal.

The purpose of this research was to determine what effect a challenging 6-day wilderness experience would have on the self-concept, and the knowledge of and attitude toward the environment, of 61 12th-grade students. The experimental and control groups were pre- and posttested with the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS), the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI), and an environmental attitude and knowledge questionnaire. Statistical analyses of the pre- and posttest results indicated a significant increase for the experimental group on 3 of 10 measures of self-concept in the TSCS, on 2 of 5 measures in the SEI, and in environmental knowledge. No change in attitude was found for the participants. The control group did not significantly change their scores on any of the measures. The data indicated that changes in self-concept and environmental knowledge can occur from short-term wilderness experiences. Further research into determining the qualities of programs that are effective in causing pos...

The effects of a personalized system of instruction (PSI) with and without a same day retake contingency on the spelling performance of 10 behaviorally disordered students were evaluated. The results indicate more spelling lessons were passed with 100% accuracy when the PSI program was in effect. A further increase in the number of lessons passed occurred when retakes were allowed each day. Individual data for three selected students indicate that their performance in creased with PSI and PSI with retakes. From items on a questionnaire adminis tered to students, it was found that the students felt their spelling test performance was higher during the PSI program. The students preferred the PSI spelling pro gram to that of the traditional preand posttest spelling procedure (Baseline 1 and 2). The class also preferred the retake component over the non-retake component in the PSI spelling program. Recommendations for classroom use of personalized systems of instruction (PSI) are made. The use of personalized systems of instruction (PSI) at the college or university level has been well documented in the literature (Hursh, 1976; Johnson, 1975; Semb, 1974, 1975; Williams, 1976). There has also been evidence that PSI has benefited student achievement in courses ranging from biology to law (Johnson, 1975). According to Williams (1976) there are several components in a personalized system of instruction. These include (a) written study objectives, (b) division of the course content into small units of material, (c) use of the written word, (d) student self-pacing through the curricula, (e) a high mastery criteria to ad vance to the next unit of material, (f) immediate feedback as to performance on exams or quizzes, and (g) the use of student proctors or tutors. The data from the college instruction literature have indicated that allowing students the opportunity to retake exams until a high mastery level of performance improved course grades, and the students preferred such a procedure (Bostow & Blumenfeld, 1972; Malott, 1984). College students will also complete remedial quizzes when minimal course credit is given for less than A level performance (Bostow & Blumenfeld, 1972; Malott, 1984). There is ample evidence as to the effectiveness of PSI at the college and university level, but minimal evidence for the effects of PSI with respect to quiz frequency, same-day re takes, mastery criteria, pacing of instruction, and so forth at the elementary grade school level. McLaughlin and Malaby (1975) reported that students in the sixth grade could improve their grades in a social studies course taught by a PSI format. Also, the students preferred PSI to that of the more traditional teaching in social studies. McLaughlin and Malaby (1974) also found that student performance in a commercially available map reading skills program could be improved with the use of teacher pacing procedures. In a related study, Lovitt and his co-workers have presented data that indicate that one component of PSI, written study objectives, is helpful to middle school mildly handicapped students in science and social studies (Horton & Lovitt, in press; Horton, Lovitt, Givens, Nelson, 1989; Lovitt & Horton, 1987; Lovitt, Rudsit, Jenkins, Pious, & Benedetti, 1985). While PSI has been shown to be Portions of this data were presented at the Northern California Association for Behavior Analysis, San Francisco, March 1989. Requests for reprints should be addressed to the author. A special note of thanks is offered to Florence Orvik for allowing this research in her school, and to Mary Dolliver for all of her assistance. Behavioral Disorders February 1991 [Vol. 16 No. 2 127-132] 127 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.111 on Sun, 22 May 2016 05:23:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms effective in various classroom settings, there is scant evidence available with respect to its effectiveness with elementary special education children. The present study examines the use of PSI with behaviorally disordered students. The purpose of the study was threefold: (a) to compare the effectiveness of the frequency of available quizzes component of PSI (Retakes versus No Same-Day Retakes), (b) to con trast PSI to the more traditional manner of teaching spelling at the elementary school level (Monday Pretest and Friday Posttest), and (c) to examine student perceptions and prefer ences for the various experimental manipulations at the end of the study.

This study compared the traditional spelling approach of presenting a list of spelling words at the beginning of the week and a final test at the end of the week with a daily copy, cover, and compare spelling approach. Weekly spelling performance of nine special education students was measured in a ABAB single-subject design. Results indicated improved spelling performance during the copy, cover, and compare spelling phase of the experiment. This finding was replicated across all nine students. Questionnaires given to students at the end of the study revealed that all students preferred the copy, cover, and compare spelling method over the more traditional approach to spelling.

This study evaluated the effects of daily practice writing spelling words in sentences on the generalization of the spelling words to written work. Subjects were four (two female and two male) mildly mentally handicapped students aged 8 to 13 in an individual progress program. An ABAB design was employed to evaluate the effects of writing spelling words in sentences. During the baseline condition, spelling words were practiced without writing the target words in sentences. During the sentence practice condition, students were required to write the target spelling words in self-generated sentences. The results show that generalization of the target spelling words to written work was improved by sentence writing. A follow-up condition indicated maintenance of treatment effects over time.

This study examined the effectiveness of a group response cost contingency procedure on the frequency of interruptions by students enrolled in a self-contained residential class for emotionally disturbed adolescents. The group response cost procedure consisted of the class being given 30 tokens at the beginning of each observation session. A token was taken away contingent upon each occurrence of an interruption by any of the students in the classroom. At the end of each observation period the remaining tokens were counted. Each remaining token could be exchanged for one minute of time that the teacher would spend reading to the students from a collection of fiction for young adults. An ABAB reversal siding was sued to examine the effectiveness of the procedure. The results of the study indicated a large reduction in interruptions during the group response cost procedure each time it was in effect. The intervention was effective and practical from a monetary and management standpoint.

The effects of assisted reading on 3 elementary students with learning disabilities were evaluated using a multiple baseline design. Data were collected from the students' oral reading from their basal texts. The results indicated an increase in number of words read correctly as well as a decrease in the number of words read incorrectly when assisted reading was used in the classroom.