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A tenet of the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) is that even evidence-based interventions will not be effective with all children. We examined preschool children's response to a supplemental literacy intervention ("Story Friends") in two classrooms. Children with weak vocabulary skills were identified and received the intervention. The extremes in children's response to "Story Friends" ranged from highly effective to very ineffective. In one classroom, three children who were not responsive to "Story Friends" received additional intervention components. Two of these children acquired new vocabulary words at rates comparable to highly responsive peers receiving "Story Friends" only, and greater than peers in both classrooms not receiving additional support. The third child was dropped due to refusal to attend sessions. Children's lack of learning the control words demonstrated that their progress on the taught words was not due simply to listening to the words read in the stories.

Measures of young children's social development are needed in the Multi-Tier System of Supports (MTSS) approach to early childhood. In 2004, we reported initial development of an observational measure of infants' and toddlers' social skills designed for early educators, the Early Social Indicator (ESI). Here, we report preliminary findings on the ESI's feasibility, sustainability, and sensitivity to growth in social engagement based on a large, multiyear sample of children in one early childhood program that agreed to pilot the measure. Results indicated that ESI use by program staff was sustained over a 5-year period. Program staff were reliable coding a range of children's positive and negative nonverbal and verbal social skills. However, staff were not reliable when coding the target of a child's social response when it was not the Adult play partner (i.e., the Peer, or Nondirected target). Results documented sensitivity to growth over time, dynamic patterns of change within and across key skills consistent with the typical course of social development, and moderation by children's home language and Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) status. Implications are discussed.

A tenet of multitiered systems of support and response to intervention (MTSS-RTI) is that lack of response to instructional intervention is explained by classroom experiences and behaviors given opportunities to learn. We investigated the potential of filling this information gap in MTSS-RTI decision making using ecobehavioral observation to inform steps that could be taken for children not responding to preschool literacy instruction. Data analyses indicated that (a) teachers implemented a uniform pattern of daily activities providing children with infrequent opportunity to learn literacy, (b) the proportion of children's co-occurring academic engagement also was low but varied widely depending on the activity and teacher's literacy focus, and (c) children's personal risk characteristics moderated the strength of relationships. Novel was the finding that in some activities and teacher behaviors, teachers appeared to be differentiating instruction benefiting children with individualized education programs and dual-language-learner risk. Implications are discussed.

Children's engagement is an important construct often reported in early intervention and early childhood special education. However, its utility depends on its definition, measurement, theory of change, and empirical evidence. Our purpose is to discuss innovations in children's literacy engagement (CLE) and report empirical evidence demonstrating how these advancements can be used to promote children's learning and school readiness. We discuss five specific innovations: (1) defining CLE as the behavioral target of intentional instruction, (2) directly assessing CLE using the CIRCLE ecobehavioral observation system, (3) including CLE in a larger framework of instructional decision-making, (4) evaluating new CLE-focused instructional interventions, and (5) supporting children who are not responding to instructional intervention. We describe how these innovations help address the questions of "under what conditions" and "for whom" preschool instructional interventions are effective. Implications are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal, bidirectional relationship between language skills and behavior problems in a sample of 194 preschool children enrolled in Head Start programs. Children were individually assessed using the "Preschool Language Scale-5," and teachers completed the "Child Behavior Checklist-Teacher Report 1½-5." Cross-lagged path models using a structural equation modeling approach tested the reciprocal associations between language skills and behavior problems over the preschool year. Findings supported a bidirectional relationship between internalizing behavior problems and expressive language skills. However, findings supported a unidirectional association between early receptive language skills and later internalizing behavior problems. Gender moderated the relationship between receptive and expressive language skills and internalizing behavior problems in such a way that the association was only significant for girls. Implications for early intervention and prevention efforts targeting language development and behavior problems were discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between language skills and behavioural problems and the potential moderating role of the quality of classroom emotional support in this relationship among 242 preschool children from low-income families. The "Preschool Language Scale-5" was administered individually to each child. The quality of classroom emotional support was measured using the Emotional Support domain of the "Classroom Assessment Scoring System for Pre-Kindergarten." Teachers and parents completed the "Child Behaviour Checklist for Ages 1 1/2-5." Results indicated the inverse relationship between language skills and behaviour problems varied by the level of classroom emotional support provided by teachers. Specifically, children with lower language skills exhibited higher levels of behaviour problems in classrooms where teachers provided lower levels of emotional support. Findings from this study have important implications for enhancing teachers' emotional support aimed at children with lower language skills and for future research.

Purpose: We investigated a small-group intervention designed to teach vocabulary and comprehension skills to preschoolers who were at risk for language and reading disabilities. These language skills are important and reliable predictors of later academic achievement. Method: Preschoolers heard prerecorded stories 3 times per week over the course of a school year. A cluster randomized design was used to evaluate the effects of hearing storybooks with and without embedded vocabulary and comprehension lessons. A total of 32 classrooms were randomly assigned to experimental and comparison conditions. Approximately 6 children per classroom demonstrating low vocabulary knowledge, totaling 195 children, were enrolled. Results: Preschoolers in the comparison condition did not learn novel, challenging vocabulary words to which they were exposed in story contexts, whereas preschoolers receiving embedded lessons demonstrated significant learning gains, although vocabulary learning diminished over the course of the school year. Modest gains in comprehension skills did not differ between the two groups. Conclusion: The Story Friends curriculum appears to be highly feasible for delivery in early childhood educational settings and effective at teaching challenging vocabulary to high-risk preschoolers.

The prevalence of struggling readers by third grade nationwide is estimated at one in three. Reports trace the roots of this problem to early childhood and the opportunity to learn language and early literacy skills at home and in preschool. Reports also indicate that one-size-fits-all preschool language and literacy instruction is beneficial for only some children. The Center for Response to Intervention in Early Childhood (CRTIEC) was funded by the National Center for Special Education Research at the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) to conceptualize and develop evidence-based assessment and curricular tools that early education programs could include in their plans for teaching language and literacy skills using a multi-tier system of supports (MTSS) or response to intervention (RTI) approach. CRTIEC also was directed to provide leadership in disseminating information about progress in applying MTSS approaches to instruction in early childhood. The articles in this issue summarize the work of the Center through descriptions of the process of developing and validating tools needed for an MTSS approach and summaries of the research completed by the Center.

The purpose of this article is to synthesize the available studies regarding responsive interaction intervention (RII) for children with or at risk for developmental delays with a focus on six dimensions: (a) the characteristics of participants, (b) the features of RII, (c) the measurement of treatment fidelity, (d) the overall effectiveness of RII as reflected by the percentage of studies reporting significant changes in adult or child outcomes, (e) the measurement of maintenance and generalization of RII effects, and (f) the social validity or level of acceptability. Through a search of articles from 1990 to 2010, the authors identified 26 studies (31 articles) employing group experimental or quasiexperimental designs incorporating these dimensions. Overall, the results of the reviewed studies indicated that implementation of RII resulted in significant positive changes in adults' responsive behaviors and children's emotional and social-communicative outcomes. Although the most frequently reported child outcomes were in the social-communication domain, the most consistently significant positive outcomes for parent and child outcomes were in the emotional domain. The authors identify several gaps in this literature and suggest areas where research is needed. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Preschool experience plays a role in children's development. However, for programs with language and early literacy goals, the question remains whether preschool instructional experiences are sufficiently effective to achieve these goals for all children. In a multisite study, the authors conducted a process-product description of preschool instruction, and children's growth and outcomes in typical programs (i.e., Pre-K, Title 1, Head Start, Tuition-Based) using a response to intervention (RTI) perspective. Results indicated that (a) students in their preschool year prior to kindergarten made small gains, but students starting the year in lower Tier 2 and 3 performance levels did not close initial skills gaps, (b) variations were noted by program types with varying sociodemographics and instructional processes, and (c) the quality of instruction (Tier 1) received by all was low with room for improvement. Implications for future research on the application of the RTI approach and potential benefits are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

In the last two and half decades, much has been learned about conceptualizing and developing measures for use by practitioners designed to inform their intervention decision making, such as when a child would benefit from receiving additional instructional support (universal screening) and whether the child is responding positively to the intervention when delivered (progress monitoring). The authors describe these developments, related issues continuing to face the field, and what is needed in terms of measures, access, and usability in future practice, research, and development. (Contains 1 figure.)

This study examined school readiness at kindergarten entry for low-income children whose disability indicators were identified before age 3. Data were collected as part of the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Longitudinal Follow-Up study. Children who had suspected developmental delays and did not receive Part C services had lower preacademic skill scores at kindergarten entry than those who had no disability indicators. In contrast, the preacademic skills at age 5 of children who received Part C services did not differ from those who had no disability indicators. A large proportion of children who had suspected developmental delays and did not receive Part C services by age 3 received Part B services later. Results highlight the importance of early intervention for low-income children who have suspected developmental delays to enhance their school readiness skills. (Contains 3 tables.)

We investigated Early Head Start home visitors' use of evidence-based practices and the effectiveness of a web-based system to support these practices. Home visitors learned to use 3 evidence-based practices: (a) frequent assessment of children's early communication for screening and progress monitoring, (b) 2 home-based language promoting interventions, and (c) data-based decision making in the use of the language promoting intervention strategies. We randomly assigned 1 group of home visitors to use an online data collection system and receive training in data-based intervention decision making and in the evidenced-based language interventions. The other home visitors had access to these tools and trainings, but in addition, they had web-based support (Making Online Decisions; MOD) linked to the children's expressive communication data. We found that the expressive communication of children served by home visitors who used the MOD grew significantly more than children whose home visitors did not have MOD support. Home visitors who used the MOD reported high satisfaction with its use. Future research and implications for early intervention and home visiting practices are discussed. (Contains 2 figures.)

We investigated Early Head Start home visitors' use of evidence-based practices and the efficacy of a web-based system to support these practices. Home visitors learned to use 3 evidence-based practices: (a) frequent assessment of children's early communication for screening and progress monitoring, (b) 2 home-based language-promoting interventions, and (c) data-based decision making in the use of the language-promoting intervention strategies. Two conditions were compared in a randomized control trial. Condition A involved the use of an online data collection system, training in data-based intervention decision making, and training in the evidenced-based language interventions. Condition B was the same as A plus additional web-based support (MOD: Making Online Decisions) linked to the children's expressive communication data. Results indicated that the expressive communication of children receiving MOD support grew significantly more than for children whose home visitors did not receive MOD support. Home visitors in both groups increased their monitoring of children in need of intervention. The dosage of the MOD intervention that children received varied within the group, and MOD home visitors reported high levels of implementation fidelity and satisfaction with the MOD system. Future research and implications for early intervention and home-visiting practices are discussed. (Contains 2 figures, 7 tables and 1 note.)

This study examined relations among children's individual experiences, global classroom quality, and school readiness. Preschool children from low-income backgrounds (N = 138; M = 62.16 months; SD = 3.93; range = 55-70) were observed in their early care and education settings, and their language and cognitive skills were assessed. Research Findings: Individual children in classrooms with small group sizes had higher quality individual experiences even though global classroom quality was not necessarily better. Higher levels of global classroom quality did not ensure that every child in the classroom was engaged fully in available interactions and activities. Children with disabilities were generally enrolled in classrooms with higher global quality and had higher quality individual experiences than those without disabilities; however, children without disabilities enrolled in these inclusive classrooms did not necessarily have a higher level of individual experiences than those in non-inclusive classrooms. Children's individual experiences and the global quality of their classrooms were associated with their social skills. Only the quality of children's individual experiences was found to be related to the quality of their relationships with teachers. Practice or Policy: Ratings of children's individual experiences provide information beyond that provided by global ratings of classroom quality and have potential for informing efforts to individualize educational programs. (Contains 1 footnote and 8 tables.)

Progress monitoring and data-based intervention decision making have become key components of providing evidence-based early childhood special education services. Unfortunately, there is a lack of tools to support early childhood service providers' decision-making efforts. The authors describe a Web-based system that guides service providers through a decision-making process informed by child performance on Infant and Toddler IGDIs (Individual Growth and Development Indicators), the provider's professional judgment, and information from the child's primary caregiver. Using a case example, the authors describe how a service provider integrates the system into an existing service delivery model. Finally, they describe barriers and potential solutions to implementation within the context of a traditional early childhood service delivery model and implications for policy and practice. (Contains 5 figures.)

Response to Intervention (RtI) is a systematic decision-making process that has gained widespread popularity as a problem-solving framework for organizing hierarchies of evidence-based interventions in the context of ongoing progress monitoring. Initially applied to literacy instruction, RtI is being incorporated into an expanding breadth of domains, including early intervention and the prevention of social-emotional delays and the occurrence of challenging behaviors. In this article, we describe RtI and its relationship to the "Pyramid Model" (L. Fox, G. Dunlap, M. L. Hemmeter, G. Joseph, & P. Strain, 2003) for promoting social, emotional, and behavioral development of young children. The 2 approaches have close parallels and are considered to be highly compatible. The discussion examines this congruence, identifies challenges in need of resolution, and emphasizes the exciting promise offered by the emergence and implementation of the 2 problem-solving and decision-making frameworks. (Contains 1 figure.)

Progress monitoring tools have been shown to be essential elements in current approaches to intervention problem-solving models. Such tools have been valuable not only in marking individual children's level of performance relative to peers but also in measuring change in skill level in a way that can be attributed to intervention and development. As such, progress monitoring measures have been central to Response to Intervention (RtI) approaches. In early childhood, progress monitoring measures have only recently been applied to the process of intervention decision-making. The purpose of this article is to describe Individual Growth and Developmental Indicators, contrast them with existing approaches to assessment in early childhood, and illustrate how they can be used within a larger problem-solving model to guide intervention decisions for infants and toddlers. (Contains 6 figures.)

Proficiency in problem solving is an important outcome in early childhood necessary for cognitive and emotional development. The development of an individual growth and development indicator of problem solving for children 1 to 4 years of age is described. Based on the general outcome measurement approach (Deno, 1997), the measure is intended for use by early childhood educators and interventionists in the education and identification of children having difficulty acquiring problem-solving skills and for monitoring children's progress during the course of interventions and early childhood. Results from a sample of 30 children demonstrated the superiority of an indicator comprised of Functions + Solutions toy play behaviors from among indicators based on four potential key skills and two composites. The Functions + Solutions indicator was superior in sensitivity to growth over time, psychometric properties, and practicality for use by early interventionists. Implications for future research and practice are discussed. (Contains 4 figures and 2 tables.)

A multiple baseline design across three parent-child dyads of families with multiple risk factors was used to determine the effectiveness of teaching parents to use milieu language teaching procedures. Parents were taught to use two sets of milieu language teaching skills: responsive interaction and incidental teaching. Results showed that parents were able to acquire milieu language teaching skills and that they maintained those skills after the intervention was completed. Children increased their verbal behavior in the form of child comments and correct responding to parent questions. Increases in children?s mean length of utterance and Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development scores also were noted. Parents? use of responsive interaction skills was more likely to encourage child comments while parental use of incidental teaching was more likely to promote correct responses from children participating in the study. Implications for future research and practice include the need to explore implementation factors related to parent characteristics and environmental risks.

Proficiency in social interaction with adults and peers is an important outcome in early childhood. The development of an experimental measure for assessing growth in social skills in children birth to 3 years is described. Based on the general outcome measurement (GOM) approach (e.g., Deno, 1997), the measure is intended for use by early intervention practitioners to identify children having difficulty acquiring social interaction skills and to monitor children's progress during the course of interventions. Results from a sample of 57 infants and toddlers demonstrated the feasibility of 1 of 14 possible measures, positive verbal social behavior (PVSB), in terms of its sensitivity to growth over time, psychometric properties, and practicality for use by early interventionists. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Premises and misconceptions about developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) are discussed, along with how the premises and practices of DAP diverge and overlap with recommended practices for early childhood special education. Instructional strategies that have been effective for teaching young children with disabilities and that follow DAP guidelines are presented. (SW)

As part of a continuing dialog, this response to Johnson and McChesney Johnson (1992) focuses on the many areas of overlap between principles of Developmentally Appropriate Practice and current early childhood special education principles of early intervention. (Author/DB)

Reviews research findings concerning elementary education in the inner city. Explains low-income children are vulnerable to school failure before entering school. Examines classroom variables and instructional factors, claiming conventional schooling places low demands on students. States research provides a model for making data based decisions about education programs and curriculum. (NL)

This article reviews the rationales and premises of the Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) approach and early childhood special education (ECSE), highlighting areas of overlap. DAP's insufficiencies for planning, implementing, and evaluating ECSE programs are noted. A selective literature review clarifies issues separating the two areas, and standards are offered for evaluating all ECSE programs. (Author/JDD)

This paper reacts to testimony on early childhood special education research before the President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education (EC 632 080). Noting the Commission's emphasis on accountability and results, it stresses the importance of being clear about desired outcomes, the need for sensitive and accurate ways of measuring results, and a stronger knowledge base of proven interventions. (Contains 2 references.) (DB)

This brief article responds to a previous article on guidelines developed by professional associations for developmentally appropriate early childhood special education practices. The importance of individualization in the application of practices is emphasized, and sample criteria are offered for evaluating the practices. (DB)