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This paper examines evidence from the HESA DLHE six-month Censuses and 3½ year ('longitudinal') surveys relating to three aspects of the flows of those who have left university with Higher Education Engineering qualifications, to test the robustness of the conclusions of SKOPE Research Paper No. 122 (Dixon, 2015), which showed strong evidence that most Engineering graduates do not go on to work in the sectors of the economy that might be expected, in particular in the 'natural' Manufacturing sub-sector. Specifically, the paper examines three questions: (1) whether evidence of starting salary levels for those from particular disciplines going into particular sectors could explain the relative flows (on the assumption that higher salaries for graduate vacancies in a particular sector would attract more applications); (2) whether evidence of sector destinations three years on from the (six-month after graduation) Census data analysed in Dixon (2015) would show up significantly different levels of 'leakage'; and (3) whether those entering employment having completed Taught Masters (as opposed to First Degree) courses in particular Engineering disciplines would tend (in the light of their apparent greater interest and deeper understanding in the specific discipline) to enter the "expected" sectors more than their Bachelors colleagues. The "bottom line" answers to these questions is that -- with rather minor exceptions -- none of the relevant broader evidence from HESA DLHE data over a ten-year period significantly questions the very considerable 'leakage', away from the 'natural' Manufacturing sub-sector, that was found and presented in Dixon (2015). (1) There is "some" correlation between the "average salaries offered" (by employers in each 'destination' sector to cohorts from each Engineering discipline examined) and the "size of the flows" from each discipline into each sector, but it is limited and rarely strong. While there might be reasons why average salary differences might not be large enough to provide a sufficient incentive for Engineering graduates to choose one sector over another, evidence of considerably greater correlation would have been helpful to justify the traditional response of classical economics to employers' concerns about shortages: "offer more money"! (2) While there are sample size issues constraining the statistical precision of comparisons between the two DLHE surveys, these have been addressed, and comparisons of the "linear flows" of graduates from each discipline into the natural Manufacturing sub-sector show (a) comparatively very small differences, and (b) on balance, slightly "greater" 'leakage' three years on; and (3) More MSc's in "Automotive" and "Aerospace Engineering" have, over the ten years examined, then gone into the "Manufacture of Motor Vehicles"... and "Air and Space craft manufacture" (respectively) than BEng's from these disciplines. However, for the other disciplines compared, there is little difference, and -- in terms of entry into Manufacturing as a whole, for the most recent year in the period - the fraction of the disciplinary cohorts entering "any type of Manufacturing" is slightly "higher" for MSc's than First Degree (FD) graduates in "three" Engineering disciplines, though "lower" for MSc's than FD's in "four"! This new evidence, therefore, only serves to "strengthen" the great importance of NOT assuming linear flows of Engineering graduates into the "natural" Manufacturing sub-sectors corresponding to their discipline, in particular in policy responses to reports of shortages from such sub-sectors.

This white paper analyzes the potential effects of requiring income-driven repayment for all federal loans as well as relying on paycheck withholding for loan payments, with particular attention to the implications for low-income students and families. The Institute for College Access & Success (TICAS) also examines the relevance and evolution of mandatory IDR ["income-driven repayment"] systems in Australia and the United Kingdom, and the paper includes specific recommendations to streamline and improve student loan repayment options in the United States. Two appendices are included: (1) Citation List of Figure 2: "Key Comparisons of IDR Systems and Context: U.S., U.K., and Australia"; and (2) Borrower Example Details.

We investigate if there is a causal link between education and health knowledge using data from the 1984/85 and 1991/92 waves of the UK Health and Lifestyle Survey (HALS). Uniquely, the survey asks respondents what they think are the main causes of ten common health conditions, and we compare these answers to those given by medical professionals to form an index of health knowledge. For causal identification we use increases in the UK minimum school leaving age in 1947 (from 14 to 15)and 1972 (from 15 to 16) to provide exogenous variation in education. These reforms predominantly induced adolescents who would have left school to stay for one additionally mandated year. OLS estimates suggest that education significantly increases health knowledge, with a one-year increase in schooling increasing the health knowledge index by 15% of a standard deviation. In contrast, estimates from instrumental-variable models show that increased schooling due to the education reforms did not significantly affect health knowledge. This main result is robust to numerous specification tests and alternative formulations of the health knowledge index. Further research is required to determine whether there is also no causal link between higher levels of education--such as post-school qualifications--and health knowledge. An appendix entitled, "Sensitivity of results to alternative definitions of health knowledge index," is included. [This paper was produced as part of the Centre's Education Programme. The Centre for Economic Performance is financed by the Economic and Social Research Council.]

The four "home countries" of the United Kingdom are becoming increasingly different with regard to education policy. Nevertheless, they are still highly comparable as compared to education systems elsewhere. Over time, they have had a similar legislative framework (particularly in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) and, in a broader sense, there is a similar social context across the four countries. For example, there is a comparable level of inequality across many education indicators, with similar trends emerging in recent times. In-depth analysis by the National Equality Panel (2010) attributed this to the fact that policies most important for influencing distributional outcomes (such as tax and benefits) are UK-wide. In this paper, the authors take the opportunity to appraise differences and similarities in educational policies and outcomes in the four UK nations. The fact that England has pursued very different policies in the recent past than Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland provides a good testing ground to undertake such a comparative review of what has and has not worked so well in terms of the education reforms that have taken place. The content of the paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, the authors discuss some key areas of education policy in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. In Sections 3 and 4, they compare the countries in terms of educational performance and inequality. In Section 5, the authors then discuss evaluation evidence as it relates to key educational issues and the differences and similarities in educational outcomes across the different UK nations. Section 6 offers some concluding remarks. Data Appendix is included. (Contains 8 tables, 1 figure and 6 footnotes.)

This paper is based on a series of workshops about innovation in teaching and learning in vocational education and training (VET) which the authors conducted in March 2009. This paper addresses some of the underlying questions that practitioners have about innovation. The paper is structured in four sections: (1) a comparison of the trends in innovation identified in the two research papers: Australia in one; the United Kingdom and Europe in the other; (2) the workshop task that practitioners undertook: to design and take an innovation to market; (3) the questions and hopes of workshop participants: hidden dimensions of "innovation" and of being "innovative"; and (4) thoughts on expanding the pool of innovative VET practitioners. (Contains 7 footnotes and 1 table.)

Diana Wilkinson, Chief Social Researcher with the Scottish Government, assisted National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) to facilitate a forum to discuss the development of national research priorities for the vocational education and training sector. This paper summarises Diana Wilkinson's impression of the forum and uses two contrasting case studies of Scotland and Australia to consider the extent to which it is feasible to align academic research investment with medium-term priority-setting. (Contains 13 footnotes and 1 table.)

With the tuition cost of traditional colleges and universities soaring and education technology advancing, online courses and degree programs are becoming more common. Some critics argue that an online degree cannot provide all the important features of a traditional college education, from extracurricular activities to new professional networks, but the evidence disputes much of that criticism, especially for certain groups of students. Indeed, some aspects of online education may provide a better experience than a traditional brick-and-mortar college for some students. (Contains 49 footnotes.)

This paper is concerned with the strategies being adopted for vocational education and training (VET) in Australia and the lessons that could be learned for them from policies in other countries. Six issues are considered in the paper, each relates to or more of the objectives and particular strategies in the Australia's National Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 2004-2010: (1) Workforce/adult training and retraining in the light of ageing and shifting occupational structures; (2) Equity issues for indigenous and other groups; (3) Managing demand and funding so that priorities are met; (4) Developments in qualification structures and quality assurance; (5) Enhancing provider capacity to ensure quality and responsiveness; and (6) Regional and community capacity building. The approach taken was to analyse national strategies, policies, objectives and priorities of government agencies to provide a point of comparison with Australia's National Strategy for VET. Analysis was most focused on the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and limited for Canada, due to the decentralised nature of that system. Implications for Australia are set out by strategy. (Contains 6 footnotes and 2 boxes.)

This paper explores educational stratification of unemployment in early labor market career; its institutional embeddedness in specific education and employment systems; and youth unemployment in France (F), the United Kingdom (UK), and West Germany (G), which greatly differ relative to major institutional characteristics of education systems and labor markets. Analyses use national Labor Force Surveys data to assess recent trends. The paper relies on single-stage and sequential logit models to estimate effects of individual educational achievement on unemployment risks and presents evidence of a sharp distinction between the educational stratification observed in G, F, and the UK. Findings indicate the following: (1) labor market entry occurs smoothly and immediately for vocationally qualified leavers in G, with extensive search for first jobs confined to the least qualified; (2) after initial employment in G, education plays a negligible role for risk of unemployment, which is more tied to features of employment positions; (3) in F and the UK, the match between qualifications and jobs is less clear-cut and level of education provides advantages in terms of less search unemployment and lower job instability, yet differentiation is much less pronounced; (4) in F and UK, education effects maintain positive impacts on job stability, suggesting a more gradual match between qualifications and attainment; and (5) results are stable for both time periods, indicating idiosyncratic changes in the educational stratification of youth unemployment. (Contains 58 references.) (YLB)

Despite the strategic importance of the private-school sector to education policy reform, and a general belief in the superiority of private schools, there is very little evidence on the relative effects of such schooling in comparison with public schools. This paper reviews the current evidence in the United States and United Kingdom on the relationship between private-school attendance and earnings. The effects of private schooling on future earning are important for the equity and efficiency of education systems, arguably more so than any effects on test scores. Yet, the review uncovers only 4 studies of this relationship for the United States, and 11 studies for the United Kingdom. They show a reasonably robust correlation between higher earnings and private schooling, but a summary explanation of the private-school earnings premium cannot be easily identified. The available evidence varies across estimation techniques, and probably fails to include the full set of direct and indirect effects of private schooling on earnings. However, the rate of return to investment in private schooling in comparison with public schooling is calculated from simulations of the earnings premium. This rate of return, which includes the direct and indirect effects of private schooling, is modest, at around 3 percent for the United States and 5 percent for the United Kingdom. (Contains 40 references.) (Author/RT)

This paper compares the development since the 1980s of privatization of education services in the U.S. and U.K. In both countries, education management organizations (EMOs) have become institutionalized to some degree, with policy-borrowing between the two countries and common ideological predisposition toward market solutions. Despite this history, privatization remains small-scale and not especially lucrative to those entering the market. In the U.K., the emphasis has been on compulsory competitive tendering and the Private Finance Initiative: public-sector structures to aid privatization within a governmental system. The result is a privatization at "glacial speed," with few opportunities for EMOs. In the U.S., it is the creation of capital markets and the rollout of charter schooling that have sustained privatization. The activities of companies such as Edison and TesseracT are considered. Capital market growth and charter schooling represent much more general alternatives to public provision. (Contains 59 references.) (Author)

This paper presents key indicators of educational and employment status for students making the transition from adolescence to early adulthood in selected Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. The data that are presented include international comparisons of student achievement, educational attainment, literacy and unemployment among young adults. Data on expenditures for education are presented as a measure of national investment in education. It is a selective account, presenting data on important educational markers from international surveys and collections, offered as representative of key aspects of transitioning from education to the workforce in each country. To ensure comparability of data across countries, the data are derived from international surveys, or data collection efforts in which data have been harmonized. The time frame to which the data refer is the middle of the 1990s, between 1994-96. The countries chosen for comparison are OECD members that are representative of the regions of Europe (Northern, Central, Southern, and Eastern), English-speaking countries, and Asia. The coverage of countries varies by source, as the same countries did not participate in each of the surveys and data collections. However, every effort was made to include seven countries that are of particular interest, and they are the focus of the discussion in the text and appear in the figures when data are available: the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Italy. An appendix presents: Description of School Systems in Seven Countries.

A multinational, multidisciplinary team examined the impact of globalization on education, training, and small and medium sized enterprise development in Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa. The study focused on the following issues: developing a learner-led competitiveness approach; building learning enterprises; education for microenterprises and macroeconomic growth; and training for self-employment and competitiveness. The study documented the importance of learning-led competitiveness and identified obstacles to development of learning enterprises in all three countries. The following are among the 12 recommendations offered to national governments and international agencies with development concerns: (1) insert learning-led competitiveness into development debates; (2) understand the implications of globalization better; (3) address the range of barriers to development of learning enterprises; (4) consider interenterprise linkages and the role of learning therein; (5) place learning-led competitiveness at the heart of small enterprise development policy; (6) broaden the universal primary education vision; (7) construct a curriculum for competitiveness; (8) improve public training's ability to support competitive self-employment; (9) empower training providers to be more market responsive; and (10) emphasize skills transfer from large to small firms. (The bibliography lists 139 references. Brief profiles and addresses of the research team members and a list of project papers are appended.) (MN)

The contribution of occupational profiling to explaining and forecasting job satisfaction were analyzed by using data on job satisfaction for 33,249 workers from waves 1-7 of the British Household Panel Survey. Overall job satisfaction gradients were defined for major and minor groups of occupations in the United Kingdom's Standard Occupational Classification. The level and congruence of the material aspects and quality of work life aspects of job satisfaction in individual occupational unit groups (OUGs) were profiled. Stark contrasts emerged between fortunate OUGs, where levels of both modes of satisfaction are high, and disfavored OUGs, where both are low. Although the analysis results were consistent with earlier accounts of alienation in industrial settings, the findings required more comprehensive forms of explanation involving established findings about the correlates of job satisfaction. Regression analysis demonstrated that, in many cases, levels of satisfaction in OUGs could be accounted for largely in terms of individual and organizational variables. However, significant occupational effects remained for a large minority of OUGs. Industry was discounted as a minor influence on job satisfaction. The scope for more general explanations of job satisfaction in terms of relative deprivation was suggested, and methods for predicting trends in job satisfaction were outlined. (Contains 22 tables and 46 references.) (Author/MN)

Data from the Work History and Attitudes survey of the Social Change and Economic Life research initiative (SCELI) enquiry of 1986-1989 and the first wave of the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) were analyzed to determine their continuity and comparability with regard to employee attitudes in general and job satisfaction and work centrality in particular. The study revealed a high degree of comparability between the two data sets and in the results obtained when they are used. However, several difficulties in comparing the two data sets were also identified. The SCELI was credited with providing good indicators of both human capital ("own-skill") and job skill and for providing extensive details about the technical milieu of work and the work organization, which were deemed good control variables. BHPS was found to offer excellent data on human capital, particularly on recently acquired technical training and vocational and other education. However, BHPS's direct measures of job skill proved minimal. An imputation process was suggested as one way of resolving this difficulty. The material offered by BHPS on partnership and household structures was concluded to be so admirable as to partly compensate for its lack of workplace and organizational data. (Thirteen figures/tables are included. Five additional tables and a comment on the expressive work ethic are appended.) (Author/MN)

The following conference papers cover a wide spectrum of issues in continuing education: "Introduction" (Katherine Leni Oglesby); "Footprints in the Sand?--The Legacy of the University Funding Council's Support for Research in Continuing Education" (Chris Duke); "Thinking Fragments: Learning, Life Histories and the Self" (Linden West); "Group Research Projects in Adult Continuing Education" (Joan Unwin); "Adult Self-Directed Learning in the Community and Its Implications" (Keith Percy); "Creativity Training for Design Engineers in Heavy Plant Industries" (Graham Thompson, Martina Lordan); "The Leeds Adult Learners at Work Project: Knowledge and Control in Employee Development Schemes" (John Payne, Keith Forester); "'Personal Troubles and Public Issues': University Researchers, Adult Educators and Adult Learners in Rural Areas" (John Payne); "Voluntary Organisations. Citizenship, Learning and Change" (Konrad Elsdon); "Inside Perspectives: Ex-Prisoners' Views on Prison Education" (Sally Malin, Ina J. Kell); "Mainstreaming, Critical Histories and Cultural Identities" (Tom Steele); "Responding to Language Shift among Young People" (Heini Gruffudd); "Accessing the Imagination: Creative Writing in Community Education" (Rebecca O'Rourke); "Learning from Working Together: Experiencing Collaborative Research as Education" (Sue Shuttleworth et al.); "The Challenge of Linking Research and Practice: Ways of Learning in Adult Basic Education" (Mary Hamilton, Wendy Moss); "Disability Voice" (Mal Leicester); "Returners, Mathematics and Targeting" (Roseanne Benn); and "Access of Adult to the University: A Comparative UK/Belgian Study" (Barbara Merrill, Jean-Luc Guyot). Many papers contain substantial bibliographies. (MN)

The benefits of and issues associated with output-related funding (ORF) were assessed by examining the use of ORF in vocational education and training (VET) in the European Union and the United States. Data were gathered in the following ways: several online bibliographic searches; consultation with 54 experts, including VET researchers, national policymakers, and lobbyists; CEDEFOP requests for information from organizations and individuals; and traditional library searches. ORF was defined as basing funding on outputs produced, which are generally measured in terms of the achievement of qualifications for school-based training and/or job attainment. The emphasis given to ORF in the VET programs examined ranged from 75% (the United Kingdom's Training for Work program) to 5% (Job Training Partnership Act programs). ORF was determined to offer the following benefits: gives training providers more flexibility in the type of provision offered; enhances improvements in performance; increases value for money by providing incentive to fulfill certain achievements and discouraging "time-serving" in training, which does not lead to outcomes; and simplifies administration and clarifies audit requirements. ORF's success in achieving efficiency, reducing administrative costs, and enhancing accountability could not be determined unequivocally because it was rarely used as the sole instrument of performance management. (57 references) (MN)

The OECD Secretariat, at the invitation of the AHELO Group of National Experts, contracted the Tuning Association to undertake initial development work on learning outcomes to be used for valid and reliable assessments of students from diverse institutions and countries. The two disciplines selected for the AEHLO Feasibility Study are engineering and economics. Following the Tuning approach, academics from various regions and countries in the world reached consensus on definitions of expected learning outcomes for bachelor's-type programmes in both disciplines. This Working Paper presents the outcomes of their work for the engineering discipline. Members of the Engineering Tuning-AHELO working group defined general learning outcomes for all engineering programmes supplemented by branch specifications for the fields of mechanical, electrical and civil engineering, taking into account different degree profiles and relevant occupations. In addition to the agreed upon learning outcomes, the paper presents an overview of the field of engineering, the typical degrees and engineering occupations associated to the first and second cycle degrees. The paper also discusses the role of learning outcomes and presents the approach used to defining them. A comparative summary of some of the most influential learning outcomes frameworks in the engineering field is also provided. Appended are: (1) Indicative Overview of Specialisations/Branches in the Subject Area of Engineering; and (2) Comparison of Learning Outcomes Frameworks/Statements for Engineering Degree Programmes. (Contains 1 table and 34 footnotes.)

The literature on employment growth in the United States and selected industrialized countries and the wage, benefits, and job security characteristics of new and existing jobs were analyzed to determine how job growth and quality in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s compares to that in other industrialized countries. Among the study's main findings were the following: (1) although job growth has been greater in the United States than in most other industrialized countries, only 20-30% of the differential in employment rates between the United States and European countries during the 1980s is accounted for by cross-country differences in unemployment rate trends; (2) not all groups benefited from the strong job growth in the United States in the 1980s (for example, rates of unemployment/labor force nonparticipation among less-educated prime-age men have increased significantly); (3) although a disproportionate number of new jobs were added in high-paying occupations in 1988-93, 20% of net new jobs were added in occupations at the bottom of the earnings distribution; and (4) the biggest deterioration in job quality in the United States has been due to deteriorating wages and benefits across a broad spectrum of new and existing jobs. (Contains 39 references.) (MN)

This booklet analyzes the concept of competence in education and explores the background of this increasingly popular form of assessment. It focuses on the role of competence in four countries the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and South Africa and defines what is meant by competence. The report states that competence-based systems tend to operate with different emphases, such as the U.K.'s system, which is based on standards defined by industry. The text outlines the origins of competence in the four countries under consideration and presents two alternative competence models: the behaviorist model and the interactive model. Some applications of competence are discussed, along with the influence of competence on the curricula and on vocational education and training. Since competence and competence-based systems have come under criticism, some critiques are outlined, such as the idea that a competence is a complex entity comprising simpler items of ability. Criticisms have also emanated from the U.S., which had earlier embraced competence-based systems. However, few schools in the U.S. appear to have reorganized their curriculums to reflect new outcomes. The report closes with the plea that educators take note of the numerous criticisms of competence-based systems. (Contains 29 references.) (RJM)

Globalization is an evolving concept characterized by economic, technological, social, and political dimensions. Vocational education and training (VET) practitioners and the VET system must make more conscious efforts to lead thinking about the social dimension of globalization. The mission of Australian VET today is largely couched in economic terms--to ensure a skilled work force capable of helping the country's industries become globally competitive. In Australia, much of the debate about globalization has focused on economics and technology, and the social and political dimensions of globalization have largely been side-stepped. The Australian education and training system has worked very hard to ensure that technology is pressed to the service of VET rather than falling for the trap of technological determinism. The challenge is not so much to invest in the technologies but to more quickly and effectively apply the technologies for the purposes of vocational learning and for using them to transact VET business. The following issues related to the social dimensions of globalization remain vitally important to the development and delivery of VET: access; Australian cultural identity; and community. Australia's VET practitioners and leaders must support a community-building purpose for VET and work to enhance the stock of social capital in their communities. (MN)

Beginning with a comparison of American and Western European experiences, an introductory paper by David Parkes comments on Don Morgan's account of the social, economic, and moral context in which American education has developed. This comparative paper includes discussions on these issues: the value of relating American to Western European educational experiences, educational common problems and solutions in Europe, and particular educational difficulties in the United Kingdom. The title paper examines the purposes and functions (actual and supposed) of the major sectors of education in the United States. Concerned primarily with the relationship between education and work, the theory of some economists that education in the United States fulfills the interests of the elite is reviewed. It traces the rise of the major institutional forms of education and gives reasons for their emergence. These reasons are presented in the broad context of basic social institutions. Two recommendations are made: wholly new forms of educational institutions need to be invented and direct experience in technical, industrial, agricultural, or social service occupations should be a requirement for admission into postsecondary education. (YLB)

Tests of achievement in economics have a variety of uses. Their principal role is to evaluate how successful students have been in learning economics on a particular course, either overall or in particular aspects of economics. They may also serve to provide evidence about the efficacy of specific teaching materials and/or strategies. Finally, they may be used as diagnostic instruments to assess the progress and difficulties of individual students. A standardized instrument for use in British schools is not currently available. The United States, on the other hand, has developed such tests for assessing the whole range of students, from primary through to university. This paper describes the process of trying out the U.S.-developed Test of Economic Literacy (TEL) in the United Kingdom in May 1989. The development and norming of this test in the United States is discussed, and reservations are expressed about the use of multiple choice tests in general to measure economic understanding. Finally, the United Kingdom trials are reported, norming data are presented in 12 tables, and some comparisons are drawn with the U.S. data. A 9-item bibliography is included. (JB)

This comparative study on craft apprenticeship in Europe is divided into four parts. An introductory section analyzes developments and trends in apprenticeship training in Europe. The second section is a view of vocational training derived from interviews with European commission officials. Some common issues in apprenticeship training in Denmark, Eire, France, Netherlands, United Kingdom, and West Germany are then examined. They include definitions of apprenticeship; legislation; participating bodies; component parts of the apprenticeship program; education, training, and work experience; starting age and duration of apprenticeship; formal qualifications and examinations; guidance and supervisory services; reform and development; take-up rates; and examples of ranges of trades involved. Appendixes provide background material on the European community, including the structure of the European economic community, vocational education and training, and general educational policy. They also provide a summary of general principles for vocational training agreed upon by the Council of Ministers in 1963. (YLB)

This report estimates costs of feeding and clothing Australian children at a basic survival level. Detailed information is provided on the types of costs incurred by families at different income levels and with children of different ages. After a brief introduction characterizing the study and summarizing findings, discussion focuses on the history of the Australian government's intervention in alleviating family poverty. Such intervention is subsequently reviewed in relationship to falling birth rates, a changed attitude to children, and an extension of the dependency of young people. Legislation in Australia related to the cost of childrearing is also briefly discussed. Subsequently, the methodological approach of the study is described, and a comparison is made of Australian costs with those of the United Kingdom and the United States. Specifically contrasted are costs for food, clothing, and other items, including costs of household articles, lighting, heating, schooling, entertainment, and holidays. Concluding remarks recommend caution in using the cost figures, delineating some of the calculations' deficiencies. Directions for future research are indicated. Appendices I through III present a minimum diet for preschool-age children, a low cost menu for two adults and two young children, and "costed" food plans for 2-, ,5-, 8-, 11-, and 15-year-olds. Appendix IV discusses budgetary and survey approaches to research on costs of childrearing. (RH)

Using examples from the United States (U.S.) and the United Kingdom (U.K.), the authors investigate the use of special or expert commissions in government policy-making in education. They analyze such commissions' impacts, the criticisms made of them, their role in political legitimation, and some alternative instruments for policy formation. After a brief introduction the paper presents past and present opinions in the U.S. and the U.K. on commissions (chiefly noneducational ones) and their utility. The authors then look in detail at the role of three U.S. and five U.K. educational commissions of the 1960's and 1970's, examining their reports and the results of their recommendations. The U.S. reports are the California Master Plan on Higher Education, the Bundy report on New York City, and the Kerr report on higher education; the U.K. documents include the Robbins, Plowden, James, Auld, and Taylor reports. The paper's following section places educational commissions within the larger context of political policy-making and discusses the extent to which commissions are legitimated and the extent to which they legitimate particular policies. The final section considers such alternatives to commissions as legislative committees, think tanks, one-person studies, political parties' research groups, and academic studies. (RW)