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Background The objective of this 3-arm randomized controlled trial was to evaluate efficacy of computerized cognitive training (CCT) to improve primary outcomes of delayed recall memory and serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels and secondary outcomes of working memory, instrumental activities of daily living (IADL), and health-related quality of life (HRQL) among patients with heart failure (HF). Methods and Results Patients (N = 256) were randomly assigned to 8 weeks of CCT using BrainHQ, computerized crossword puzzles active control intervention, and usual care. All patients received weekly nurse enhancement interventions. Data were collected at enrollment and baseline visits and at 10 weeks and 4 and 8 months. In mixed effects models, there were no statistically significant group or group by time differences in outcomes. There were statistically significant differences over time in all outcomes in all groups. Patients improved over time on measures of delayed recall memory, working memory, IADL, and HRQL and had decreased serum BDNF. Conclusions CCT did not improve outcomes compared with the active control intervention and usual care. Nurse enhancement interventions may have led to improved outcomes over time. Future studies are needed to test nurse enhancement interventions in combination with other cognitive interventions to improve memory in HF. LaySummary In 256 patients with heart failure, 8 weeks of computerized cognitive training, computerized crossword puzzles, or usual care were studied for effects on (1st) recall memory and serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and (2nd) working memory, instrumental activities of daily living (IADL), and health-related quality of life (HRQL). Measurements were at baseline, 10 weeks, 4- and 8-months. Nurse enhancement interventions (e.g., support, assessment) were provided. Recall memory, working memory, IADL, and HRQL improved over time. There were no statistically significant differences among treatment groups over time. BDNF unexpectedly decreased. Nurse enhancement interventions may explain improved outcomes. Future studies are needed.

The convergence of internal path integration and external sensory landmarks generates a cognitive spatial map in the hippocampus. We studied how spatially localized odor cues are recognized as landmarks to guide navigation by recording the activity of neurons in CA1 during a virtual navigation task. We found that odor cues enriched place cell representations and dramatically improving navigation. Presentation of the same odor at different locations generated distinct place cell representations. An odor cue at a proximal location not only enhanced the local place cell density but also led to the formation of place cells beyond the cue. This resulted in the recognition of a second, more distal odor cue as a distinct landmark, suggesting an iterative mechanism for extending spatial representations into unknown territory. Our results establish that odors can serve as landmarks to guide navigation, and they motivated a model in which path integration and odor landmarks interact in a sequential, iterative process to generate cognitive spatial maps over long distances.

OBJECTIVE: To compare whites and African-Americans in terms of dementia risk following index stroke. METHODS: The data consisted of billing and International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision diagnosis codes from the South Carolina Revenue and Fiscal Affairs office on all hospital discharges within the state between 2000 and 2012. The sample consisted of 68,758 individuals with a diagnosis of ischemic stroke prior to 2010 (49,262 white [71.65%] and 19,496 African-Americans [28.35%]). We identified individuals in the dataset who were subsequently diagnosed with any of 5 categories of dementia and evaluated time to dementia diagnosis in Cox Proportional Hazards models. We plotted cumulative hazard curves to illustrate the effect of race on dementia risk after controlling for age, sex, and occurrence of intervening stroke. RESULTS: Age at index stroke was significantly different between the 2 groups, with African-Americans being younger on average (70.0 [SD 12.5] in whites versus 64.5 [SD 14.1] in African-Americans, P

Introduction Few studies to date have explored patient and caregiver views on the clinical use of amyloid positron emission tomography (PET). Methods A 7-item questionnaire assessing patient and caregiver views (510 total respondents) toward amyloid PET imaging was advertised broadly through alz.org/trialmatch. Results We received 510 unique responses from 48 US states, 2 Canadian provinces, the Dominican Republic, and Greece. Both patients and caregivers indicated that they would want to receive amyloid imaging if offered the opportunity. Over 88% of respondents had a positive response (∼10% with neutral and 2% with negative responses) to whether amyloid PET should be offered routinely and be reimbursed. Such information was felt to be useful for long-term legal, financial, and health care planning. Respondents identifying with early age cognitive decline (younger than 65 y) were more likely to explore options for disability insurance (P=0.03). Responders from the Midwest were more likely to utilize information from amyloid imaging for legal planning (P=0.02), disability insurance (P=0.02), and life insurance (P=0.04) than other US regions. Discussion Patients and caregivers supported the use of amyloid PET imaging in clinical practice and felt that the information would provide significant benefits particularly in terms of future planning.

Summary The convergence of internal path integration and external sensory landmarks generates a cognitive spatial map in the hippocampus. We studied how localized odor cues are recognized as landmarks by recording the activity of neurons in CA1 during a virtual navigation task. We found that odor cues enriched place cell representations, dramatically improving navigation. Presentation of the same odor at different locations generated distinct place cell representations. An odor cue at a proximal location enhanced the local place cell density and also led to the formation of place cells beyond the cue. This resulted in the recognition of a second, more distal odor cue as a distinct landmark, suggesting an iterative mechanism for extending spatial representations into unknown territory. Our results establish that odors can serve as landmarks, motivating a model in which path integration and odor landmarks interact sequentially and iteratively to generate cognitive spatial maps over long distances.

The introduction of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) as a diagnostic category adds to the challenges of diagnosing Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). No single marker has been proven to accurately categorize patients into their respective diagnostic groups. Thus, previous studies have attempted to develop fused predictors of AD and MCI. These studies have two main limitations. Most do not simultaneously consider all diagnostic categories and provide suboptimal fused representations using the same set of modalities for prediction of all classes. In this work, we present a combined framework, cascaded multiview canonical correlation (CaMCCo), for fusion and cascaded classification that incorporates all diagnostic categories and optimizes classification by selectively combining a subset of modalities at each level of the cascade. CaMCCo is evaluated on a data cohort comprising 149 patients for whom neurophysiological, neuroimaging, proteomic and genomic data were available. Results suggest that fusion of select modalities for each classification task outperforms (mean AUC = 0.92) fusion of all modalities (mean AUC = 0.54) and individual modalities (mean AUC = 0.90, 0.53, 0.71, 0.73, 0.62, 0.68). In addition, CaMCCo outperforms all other multi-class classification methods for MCI prediction (PPV: 0.80 vs. 0.67, 0.63).

The sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor-1 (S1P1) agonist ozanimod ameliorates ulcerative colitis, yet its mechanism of action is unknown. Here, we examine the cell subsets that express S1P1 in intestine using S1P1-eGFP mice, the regulation of S1P1 expression in lymphocytes after administration of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS), after colitis induced by transfer of CD4+CD45RBhi cells, and by crossing a mouse with TNF-driven ileitis with S1P1-eGFP mice. We then assayed the expression of enzymes that regulate intestinal S1P levels, and the effect of FTY720 on lymphocyte behavior and S1P1 expression. We found that not only T and B cells express S1P1, but also dendritic (DC) and endothelial cells. Furthermore, chronic but not acute inflammatory signals increased S1P1 expression, while the enzymes that control tissue S1P levels in mice and humans with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) were uniformly dysregulated, favoring synthesis over degradation. Finally, we observed that FTY720 reduced T-cell velocity and induced S1P1 degradation and retention of Naïve but not effector T cells. Our data demonstrate that chronic inflammation modulates S1P1 expression and tissue S1P levels and suggests that the anti-inflammatory properties of S1PR agonists might not be solely due to their lymphopenic effects, but also due to potential effects on DC migration and vascular barrier function.

Despite production of the first domestically produced peach of the calendar year in the United States, the subtropical peach industry faces marketing challenges, particularly with small fruit size. Although important, size is only one aspect of fruit quality, and not inclusive of all possible fruit quality attributes. Thus, this research asked consumers to identify an “ideal” peach given a combination of possible peach fruit quality attributes to help determine their influence on consumer purchase. These attributes were verified with farmers’ market intercept studies. The top attributes that fostered purchase likelihood included flavor, texture, size, and firmness. Psychophysics studies showed that consumers preferred peaches that were sweet, juicy, round, with freestone or semifreestone characteristics, whereas consumers were less likely to purchase peaches with mealy, dry, or meaty textures. Young consumers (ages 18–24) preferred crisp, firm peaches with good flavor, whereas older consumers (ages 51–65) preferred sweet, melting-texture peaches. Farmers’ market intercept studies found consumers (ages 45–65) preferred melting-texture peaches with good flavor that led to increased overall liking. In addition, in the farmers’ market studies, aroma and flavor were important attributes and were highly correlated with overall liking. Objective measurements of total soluble solids (TSS) were not correlated with overall liking, indicating that although the nationwide experiment found consumers desired sweet peaches, other attributes may contribute more favorably to overall liking.

Introduction Few studies to date have explored patient and caregiver views on the clinical use of amyloid positron emission tomography (PET). Methods A 7-item questionnaire assessing patient and caregiver views (510 total respondents) toward amyloid PET imaging was advertised broadly through alz.org/trialmatch. Results We received 510 unique responses from 48 US states, 2 Canadian provinces, the Dominican Republic, and Greece. Both patients and caregivers indicated that they would want to receive amyloid imaging if offered the opportunity. Over 88% of respondents had a positive response (∼10% with neutral and 2% with negative responses) to whether amyloid PET should be offered routinely and be reimbursed. Such information was felt to be useful for long-term legal, financial, and health care planning. Respondents identifying with early age cognitive decline (younger than 65 y) were more likely to explore options for disability insurance (P=0.03). Responders from the Midwest were more likely to utilize information from amyloid imaging for legal planning (P=0.02), disability insurance (P=0.02), and life insurance (P=0.04) than other US regions. Discussion Patients and caregivers supported the use of amyloid PET imaging in clinical practice and felt that the information would provide significant benefits particularly in terms of future planning.

Additional index words. blueberry breeding, flavor, fruit quality, Vaccinium corymbosumAbstract.Blueberriesareahigh-valuefruitthathasexperiencedextraordinarygrowthinconsumption in the past decade. Maintaining this growing market requires an un-derstandingofthecurrentmarketanditspotentialforexpansion.Toassaytheimpactof36 specific blueberry sensory and psychological traits on consumer interest, a blueberryfruitqualitystudywasconstructedusingtechniquesthatallowmanyfeaturestobetestedin an analysis by combining specifics from different categories that describe a product.Individual traits that most impact the likelihood of fruit purchase were identified. Sweetand intense blueberry flavor yielded the most positive purchase interest, whereas badtexture attributes such as seediness were the most detrimental to interest. It was alsopossible to define two interest segments within the survey population that shared similarresponses to particular experimentally assayed traits. The larger segment of the samplepopulation (61%) was most interested in the aspects of blueberry flavor, whereas thesecond segment of respondents (39%) was most influenced by health aspects commonlyassociatedwithblueberryfruitconsumption.Bothsegmentsrespondednegativelytobadtexture. This study suggests that breeders and producers should exploit genetic andenvironmental variables that contribute to improved blueberry flavor and that market-ing strategies to sell blueberry cultivars of superior flavor may be appropriate.Blueberries [northernhighbush( Vacciniumcorymbosum), southern highbush (V. corym-bosum hybrids), rabbiteye (V. virgatum), andlowbush (V. angustifolium)] are an economi-cally important small fruit crop in the UnitedStates with 277 million pounds harvestedfor fresh production valued at $850.8 millionU.S. in 2012 (USDA, 2013). Blueberry acre-age continues to increase worldwide in ac-cordance with growing demand for theseantioxidant-rich fruit. Although native toNorth America, breeding programs have de-veloped blueberry cultivars that grow in awider array of climates, allowing productionto flourish in South America, Europe, Asia,and Australia. Global highbush blueberry pro-duction passed the one billion pound mark in2012 and continues to accelerate (Brazelton,2013). Historically, many traits have beenselected for in blueberry breeding programswith producers in mind, including climaticadaptation, yield, mechanical harvest poten-tial, and disease resistance. Conversely, thefruit quality traits of interest to the consumerarewhatshouldultimatelyfuelproductionandprofitability. In recent surveys, only 48% ofU.S. consumers had bought blueberries in thepast 12 months compared with 88% of con-sumers who had bought the highest sellingfruit, bananas (Fresh Trends, 2013). Of the48% of U.S. consumers who purchased blue-berries in the past year, 15% of these con-sumers were reportedly regular buyers ofblueberries (Brazelton, 2013; Fresh Trends,2013). Converting seldom purchasers intofrequent purchasers through product satisfac-tion could have a beneficial impact on theblueberry market. To provide this level ofproduct satisfaction, it is critical to assess theexpectations and desires of the current blue-berry consumer to make sure these parametersare being met. Increasing market penetrationfor the 50% of consumers who did notpurchase blueberries in the past 3 years willbeimportantto drive continuedexpansionofblueberryproductionaswell(Brazelton,2013;Fresh Trends, 2013).Developing a new blueberry cultivar withimproved traits for the producer or consumeris a long-termprocess.From thetimeaninitialcross between two blueberry parents is made,the earliest a resulting progeny is typical-ly considered for release is 10 years. Thisplant must then be marketed to nurseries orfarmerswhomasspropagatetheclones,whichmeansthattheblueberrybreederdesigningtheparental crosses is catering to an industrynearly two decades in the future. Breedersoften work closely with the producers and aretherefore aware of the changing needs offarmers. However, consumer satisfaction withthe end product is influencing new directionsin research and development of horticul-tural crops, encouraging breeder focus ontraits such as improved strawberry (Fragaria·ananassa) flavor (Colquhoun et al., 2012)andflowerfragrance(Levinetal.,2012).Withlengthy breeding cycles, it is critical to em-pirically assay the psychological influences ofconsumer blueberry purchases before com-mitting to years of manipulating traits thatmay not actually affect marketability. Addi-tionally, this information could be used totailor messages directed to the consumerthrough commercial marketing, in advertise-ments, and on packaging.When a consumer encounters a product,multiple attributes of the product may in-fluence their purchase decision. The con-sumer may not necessarily be rational orconsciously aware of the reasoning for thisdecision, and outright asking of the consumerto identify their desires may introduce cog-nitive bias (DellaVigna, 2009; Price and Riis,2012; Redelmeier and Dickinson, 2011).Additionally, attempting to test a high num-ber of variables for psychological impact cancause subject frustration and cognitive bur-den (Park and Lessig, 1981). Both of theseissues can be tackled using modified conjointanalysis and rule-developing experimenta-tion. In this approach, the consumer is pre-sented with sets of three to four individualdescriptive phrases or elements at a time,which reduces the variable load on the re-spondent. Byposingmanyscenarios inwhicha product has a few attributes in differentcombinations, it is then possible to pull outindividually impactful elements from thescheme (Behe, 2006; Behe et al., 1999,2013; Jaeger et al., 2011; Moskowitz, 2012;Moskowitz et al., 2006; Moskowitz andGofman, 2007). This method has been pre-viously implemented to analyze favorablecharacteristics of fresh strawberries andflowers as a tool to guide breeding efforts inthese horticultural crops (Colquhoun et al.,2012; Levin et al., 2012). The strawberrystudy identified sweetness and complex fla-vors as the most important traits to con-sumers, resulting in a large amount of effortand resources that have been devoted tobiochemically characterizing strawberry fla-vor for identification of enhanced qualitycultivars (Schwieterman et al., 2014).This study was conducted as part of anongoing effort to implement consumer-assisted selection in horticultural breedingprograms. Consumer-assisted selection is anapproach to product development that seeksto identify which features are of most impor-tance to the end user, an ambition that can besometimes be diluted along a complex supplychain. We sought to identify which blueberrytraits are of most importance to consumersand may motivate purchase likelihood. Weconducted two consumer-assisted marketing

Accurate prediction of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is important for the early diagnosis and treatment of this condition. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is an early stage of AD. Therefore, patients with MCI who are at high risk of fully developing AD should be identified to accurately predict AD. However, the relationship between brain images and AD is difficult to construct because of the complex characteristics of neuroimaging data. To address this problem, we present a longitudinal measurement of MCI brain images and a hierarchical classification method for AD prediction. Longitudinal images obtained from individuals with MCI were investigated to acquire important information on the longitudinal changes, which can be used to classify MCI subjects as either MCI conversion (MCIc) or MCI non-conversion (MCInc) individuals. Moreover, a hierarchical framework was introduced to the classifier to manage high feature dimensionality issues and incorporate spatial information for improving the prediction accuracy. The proposed method was evaluated using 131 patients with MCI (70 MCIc and 61 MCInc) based on MRI scans taken at different time points. Results showed that the proposed method achieved 79.4% accuracy for the classification of MCIc versus MCInc, thereby demonstrating very promising performance for AD prediction.

Persons with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) have significant deficits in financial abilities. This study examined the relationship between brain structure volumes, cognition, and financial capacity in patients with mild AD. Sixteen mild AD patients and 16 older adult comparisons completed the Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI), a psychometric measure of financial abilities, and also underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to obtain volumes of the bilateral hippocampi, angular gyri, precunei, and medial and dorsolateral frontal cortices. Mild AD patients performed significantly below comparisons on the FCI and had significantly smaller hippocampi. Among mild AD patients, FCI performance was moderately correlated with frontal (medial and dorsolateral frontal cortex) and posterior (angular gyri and precunei) cortical volumes. Stepwise regression demonstrated that medial frontal cortex volume predicted FCI score. The relationship between medial frontal cortex volume and overall FCI score was partially mediated by two measures of simple attention (DRS Attention, DRS Construction). The findings suggest that medial frontal cortex atrophy and associated declines in simple attention play an increasingly important role in declining financial skills in patients with mild AD.

Background It is common for patients diagnosed with medial temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) to have extrahippocampal damage. However, it is unclear whether microstructural extrahippocampal abnormalities are consistent enough to enable classification using diffusion MRI imaging. Therefore, we implemented a support vector machine (SVM)-based method to predict TLE from three different imaging modalities: mean kurtosis (MK), mean diffusivity (MD), and fractional anisotropy (FA). While MD and FA can be calculated from traditional diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), MK requires diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI). Methods Thirty-two TLE patients and 36 healthy controls underwent DKI imaging. To measure predictive capability, a fivefold cross-validation (CV) was repeated for 1000 iterations. An ensemble of SVM models, each with a different regularization value, was trained with the subject images in the training set, and had performance assessed on the test set. The different regularization values were determined using a Bayesian-based method. Results Mean kurtosis achieved higher accuracy than both FA and MD on every iteration, and had far superior average accuracy: 0.82 (MK), 0.68 (FA), and 0.51 (MD). Finally, the MK voxels with the highest coefficients in the predictive models were distributed within the inferior medial aspect of the temporal lobes. Conclusion These results corroborate our earlier publications which indicated that DKI shows more promise in identifying TLE-associated pathological features than DTI. Also, the locations of the contributory MK voxels were in areas with high fiber crossing and complex fiber anatomy. These traits result in non-Gaussian water diffusion, and hence render DTI less likely to detect abnormalities. If the location of consistent microstructural abnormalities can be better understood, then it may be possible in the future to identify the various phenotypes of TLE. This is important since treatment outcome varies dependent on type of TLE.

Summary Although human perception of food flavors involves integration of multiple sensory inputs, the most salient sensations are taste and olfaction [1]. Ortho- and retronasal olfaction are particularly crucial to flavor because they provide the qualitative diversity so important to identify safe versus dangerous foods [2]. Historically, flavor research has prioritized aroma volatiles present at levels exceeding the orthonasally measured odor threshold [3], ignoring the variation in the rate at which odor intensities grow above threshold. Furthermore, the chemical composition of a food in itself tells us very little about whether or not that food will be liked. Clearly, alternative approaches are needed to elucidate flavor chemistry. Here we use targeted metabolomics and natural variation in flavor-associated sugars, acids, and aroma volatiles to evaluate the chemistry of tomato fruits, creating a predictive and testable model of liking. This nontraditional approach provides novel insights into flavor chemistry, the interactions between taste and retronasal olfaction, and a paradigm for enhancing liking of natural products. Some of the most abundant volatiles do not contribute to consumer liking, whereas other less abundant ones do. Aroma volatiles make contributions to perceived sweetness independent of sugar concentration, suggesting a novel way to increase perception of sweetness without adding sugar.

Alzheimer disease (AD) is an increasingly prevalent neurodegenerative condition and a looming socioeconomic threat. A biomarker for the disease could make the process of diagnosis easier and more accurate, and accelerate drug discovery. The current work describes a method for scoring brain images that is inspired by fundamental principles from information retrieval (IR), a branch of computer science that includes the development of Internet search engines. For this research, a dataset of 254 baseline 18-F fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) scans was obtained from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). For a given contrast, a subset of scans (nine of every 10) was used to compute a residual vector that typified the difference, at each voxel, between the two groups being contrasted. Scans that were not used for computing the residual vector (the remaining one of 10 scans) were then compared to the residual vector using a cosine similarity metric. This process was repeated sequentially, each time generating cosine similarity scores on 10% of the FDG-PET scans for each contrast. Statistical analysis revealed that the scores were significant predictors of functional decline as measured by the Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ). When logistic regression models that incorporated these scores were evaluated with leave-one-out cross-validation, cognitively normal controls were discerned from AD with sensitivity and specificity of 94.4% and 84.8%, respectively. Patients who converted from mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to AD were discerned from MCI nonconverters with sensitivity and specificity of 89.7% and 62.9%, respectively, when FAQ scores were brought into the model. Residual vectors are easy to compute and provide a simple method for scoring the similarity between an FDG-PET scan and sets of examples from a given diagnostic group. The method is readily generalizable to any imaging modality. Further interdisciplinary work between IR and clinical neuroscience is warranted.

OBJECTIVES Persons with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) have demonstrated subtle impairments in IADLs including financial abilities, although the underlying brain changes related to these IADL impairments is poorly understood. The purpose of this investigation was to better understand how brain atrophy in MCI as measured by MRI volumetrics could impact IADLs such as financial abilities.

Financial capacity is a complex instrumental activity of daily living critical to independent functioning of older adults and sensitive to impairment in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, little is known about the neurocognitive basis of financial impairment in dementia. We developed cognitive models of financial capacity in cognitively healthy older adults (n = 85) and patients with MCI (n = 113) and mild AD (n = 43). All participants were administered the Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI) and a neuropsychological test battery. Univariate correlation and multiple regression procedures were used to develop cognitive models of overall FCI performance across groups. The control model (R2 = .38) comprised (in order of entry) written arithmetic skills, delayed story recall, and simple visuomotor sequencing. The MCI model (R2 = .69) comprised written arithmetic skills, visuomotor sequencing and set alternation, and race. The AD model (R2 = .65) comprised written arithmetic skills, simple visuomotor sequencing, and immediate story recall. Written arithmetic skills (WRAT-3 Arithmetic) was the primary predictor across models, accounting for 27% (control model), 46% (AD model), and 55% (MCI model) of variance. Executive function and verbal memory were secondary model predictors. The results offer insight into the cognitive basis of financial capacity across the dementia spectrum of cognitive aging, MCI, and AD. (JINS, 2009, 15, 258–267.)

Background: Patients with brain damage often exhibit difficulty understanding sentences, with certain grammatical constructions posing more of a problem than others. Differences between sentences that are “hard” or “easy” to process have been characterised in terms of modern syntactic theory, leading to a number of insightful proposals regarding the nature of sentence comprehension problems in aphasia. However, little attention has been devoted to the semantic aspects of aphasic sentence comprehension. Aims: The primary aim of this research is to validate the use of a computational semantic approach for modelling aphasic sentence comprehension. Methods & Procedures: The model presented here is an extension of natural language processing software designed by Blackburn and Bos (2006). The original program parses a natural language expression by means of a simple definite clause grammar, assigning a semantic representation to each node in the parse tree. The final result of a successful parse is a sentence f...

Minimize, Substitute, Moderate, and Simplify are four primary Inherently Safer Processing (ISP) strategies. The Moderate strategy is primarily Attenuation, a strategy that emphasizes the use of materials under less hazardous conditions. Limitation of Effects is also an ISP term bantered about as being included within the purview of this Moderate strategy, although it is at times presented as a separate, unique ISP strategy. Regardless of the taxonomy, the application of such a strategy can significantly lower overall process safety risk. This study discusses the author's understanding of the meaning of the term Limitation of Effects and presents examples of the application of this strategy to the siting of plants, processes, and buildings. © 2007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Process Saf Prog, 2008

Using modified conjoint analysis techniques, two separate yet sequential studies were conducted to gain a better understanding of foliage plant consumers and their plant/purchasing preferences. The first study primarily focused on consumers’ perceptions of a foliage plant and various purchasing conditions. The second study focused on accessories featured with a foliage plant in a retail setting. These studies revealed elements that appealed to each study's population as a whole, to specific demographic groups, and to different segments of the overall populations. Through both studies, the concept of "buy one, get one free" was of strong interest to the majority of participants. Elements related to consumer benefits, such as “this plant has been proven to improve the indoor air quality of your home,” received the highest overall interest in study one, while elements related to plant containers, sleeves, and value garnered high overall interest in study two. Sorting the data by various demographic groups revealed a multitude of differences in consumer preference for foliage plants and plant purchasing experiences, which allow for targeted marketing by foliage plant retailers. K-clustering revealed separate and unique segments in each study. Study one resulted in a larger segment of the sample population (61%) primarily interested in consumer benefits, while the smaller segment (39%) was chiefly interested in plant care. Study two produced a segment (57%) interested in monetary value, as well as a segment (43%) drawn to plants bred by renowned breeders and promoted by sources such as Better Homes and Gardens. These observations will allow nurseries and retailers to customize the plant purchasing experience according to specific consumer preferences, thereby increasing consumer engagement and reinforcing purchasing decisions.

Importance Mutations in known causal Alzheimer disease (AD) genes account for only 1% to 3% of patients and almost all are dominantly inherited. Recessive inheritance of complex phenotypes can be linked to long (>1-megabase [Mb]) runs of homozygosity (ROHs) detectable by single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays. Objective To evaluate the association between ROHs and AD in an African American population known to have a risk for AD up to 3 times higher than white individuals. Design, Setting, and Participants Case-control study of a large African American data set previously genotyped on different genome-wide SNP arrays conducted from December 2013 to January 2015. Global and locus-based ROH measurements were analyzed using raw or imputed genotype data. We studied the raw genotypes from 2 case-control subsets grouped based on SNP array: Alzheimer’s Disease Genetics Consortium data set (871 cases and 1620 control individuals) and Chicago Health and Aging Project–Indianapolis Ibadan Dementia Study data set (279 cases and 1367 control individuals). We then examined the entire data set using imputed genotypes from 1917 cases and 3858 control individuals. Main Outcomes and Measures The ROHs larger than 1 Mb, 2 Mb, or 3 Mb were investigated separately for global burden evaluation, consensus regions, and gene-based analyses. Results The African American cohort had a low degree of inbreeding ( F ~ 0.006). In the Alzheimer’s Disease Genetics Consortium data set, we detected a significantly higher proportion of cases with ROHs greater than 2 Mb ( P = .004) or greater than 3 Mb ( P = .02), as well as a significant 114-kilobase consensus region on chr4q31.3 (empirical P value 2 = .04; ROHs >2 Mb). In the Chicago Health and Aging Project–Indianapolis Ibadan Dementia Study data set, we identified a significant 202-kilobase consensus region on Chr15q24.1 (empirical P value 2 = .02; ROHs >1 Mb) and a cluster of 13 significant genes on Chr3p21.31 (empirical P value 2 = .03; ROHs >3 Mb). A total of 43 of 49 nominally significant genes common for both data sets also mapped to Chr3p21.31. Analyses of imputed SNP data from the entire data set confirmed the association of AD with global ROH measurements (12.38 ROHs >1 Mb in cases vs 12.11 in controls; 2.986 Mb average size of ROHs >2 Mb in cases vs 2.889 Mb in controls; and 22% of cases with ROHs >3 Mb vs 19% of controls) and a gene-cluster on Chr3p21.31 (empirical P value 2 = .006-.04; ROHs >3 Mb). Also, we detected a significant association between AD and CLDN17 (empirical P value 2 = .01; ROHs >1 Mb), encoding a protein from the Claudin family, members of which were previously suggested as AD biomarkers. Conclusions and Relevance To our knowledge, we discovered the first evidence of increased burden of ROHs among patients with AD from an outbred African American population, which could reflect either the cumulative effect of multiple ROHs to AD or the contribution of specific loci harboring recessive mutations and risk haplotypes in a subset of patients. Sequencing is required to uncover AD variants in these individuals.

Background: Research on the epidemiology of dementia has focused on the elderly. Few investigations have studied differences in etiologic frequencies between early-onset dementia (EOD), with onset at an age of less than 65 years old, and the more common late-onset disorder. Objectives: To determine relative frequencies and characteristics of EOD versus late-onset dementia (LOD; age of onset ≧65 years) diagnosed in a large memory disorders program over a 4-year period. Methods: We reviewed medical records, including an extensive neurobehavioral and neurological evaluation, of all patients seen at a large Veteran’s Affairs Medical Center Memory Disorders clinic between 2001 and 2004 and assessed demographic variables, final diagnoses, presence of dementia, and differential diagnosis of dementing illnesses. Results: Among 1,683 patients presenting for evaluation of an acquired decline in memory or cognition, 948 (56%) met established clinical criteria for a dementing illness. About 30% (n = 278) of these had an age of onset of Conclusions: This study, conducted at a Veterans Affairs Hospital, is the largest series to date on EOD, and found a previously unexpectedly large number of patients below the age of 65 with cognitive deficits and impaired functioning consequent to head trauma, alcohol abuse, and HIV. These findings highlight the differential distribution and importance of preventable causes of dementia in the young.

The acreage of agronomic crops (soybean, cotton, corn and canola) developed using recombinant DNA technology has expanded dramatically since their introduction in 1996, while the commercialization of biotech horticultural crops (vegetables, fruits, nuts and ornamentals) has languished. This is not due to a lack of both current and potential traits that could be utilized in horticultural crops, as ongoing research is identifying a diverse array of applications. However, commercialization is stalled by market reluctance to accept biotech products, particularly in the absence of clear benefits to consumers. High regulatory costs and restricted access to intellectual property create additional hurdles for specialty crops. These challenges are causing the horticultural industry to forego a number of current benefits. New products with clear advantages for producers, marketers and consumers may be required before the potential of biotechnology can be realized.

Magazine articles, such as those in Process Safety Progress (PSP), are a source of new ideas as well as old ideas restated and emphasized. While busy schedules increasingly interfere with getting the most out of these types of information sources, studying such published papers should not be given a low priority. Presented below are ideas and thoughts (some garbage, some gems) on a variety of subjects from just one such issue (September 2001 of PSP). They include: comments on the probabilistic nature of electrostatic ignition, the domino effect in explosion scenarios, MY Tree analysis of accidents, an argument from the viewpoint of the industrial ecosystem in support of a fault data bank, the prescriptiveness of performance-based standards, the applicability of HAZOP to analogous systems different in scale and purpose, keys to a good HAZOP and a good FMEA, an argument in support of a universal effort to improve process safety by throwing cash at the hazards, initiator/enabler concepts, the use of a bar chart to effectively present the relative effectiveness of strategies used to control overall plant risk, the flammability diagram: a living, pulsating thing, and comments on the relationship between minimum ignition energy and turbulence.

Clinical trials for interventions that seek to delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are hampered by inadequate methods for selecting study subjects who are at risk, and who may therefore benefit from the interventions being studied. Automated monitoring tools may facilitate clinical research and thereby reduce the impact of AD on individuals, caregivers, society at large, and government healthcare infrastructure. We studied the 18F-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) scans of research subjects from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI), using a Machine Learning technique. Three hundred ninety-four FDG-PET scans were obtained from the ADNI database. An automated procedure was used to extract measurements from 31 regions of each PET surface projection. These data points were used to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of support vector machine (SVM) classifiers and to compare both Linear and Radial-Basis SVM techniques against a classic thresholding method used in earlier work.

Background: Despite general agreement that aphasic individuals exhibit difficulty understanding complex sentences, the nature of sentence complexity itself is unresolved. In addition, aphasic individuals appear to make use of heuristic strategies for understanding sentences. This research is a comparison of predictions derived from two approaches to the quantification of sentence complexity, one based on the hierarchical structure of sentences, and the other based on dependency locality theory (DLT). Complexity metrics derived from these theories are evaluated under various assumptions of heuristic use. Method: A set of complexity metrics was derived from each general theory of sentence complexity and paired with assumptions of heuristic use. Probability spaces were generated that summarized the possible patterns of performance across 16 different sentence structures. The maximum likelihood of comprehension scores of 42 aphasic individuals was then computed for each probability space and the expected scores from the best-fitting points in the space were recorded for comparison to the actual scores. Predictions were then compared using measures of fit quality derived from linear mixed effects models. Results: All three of the metrics that provide the most consistently accurate predictions of patient scores rely on storage costs based on the DLT. Patients appear to employ an Agent–Theme heuristic, but vary in their tendency to accept heuristically generated interpretations. Furthermore, the ability to apply the heuristic may be degraded in proportion to aphasia severity. Conclusion: DLT-derived storage costs provide the best prediction of sentence comprehension patterns in aphasia. Because these costs are estimated by counting incomplete syntactic dependencies at each point in a sentence, this finding suggests that aphasia is associated with reduced availability of cognitive resources for maintaining these dependencies.

The biological effects of ethylene on plant growth and development have been documented for over a century. Ethylene profoundly influences many aspects of development, both pre- and postharvest (Abeles et al., 1992). Spoilage losses ascribed to ethylene effects are significant for both food and ornamental crops. The major agricultural losses associated with ethylene have spurred research on methodologies for control of its synthesis and action. We have been particularly interested in two physiological processes associated with high economic value: fruit ripening and flower senescence. This article addresses biotechnological approaches to control these two processes. There are multiple strategies for controlling ethylene synthesis and response. We will limit our discussion to those with which we have personal experience. Although we will not cover all of the potential target genes, the strategies outlined here apply to the other gene targets. Fruits in which ripening is controlled by ethylene are generally referred to as climacteric. Examples include tomato, melon, mango, papaya, and banana. Our efforts have focused on tomato as a model for several reasons. The tomato is relatively easy to genetically modify via Agrobacterium tumefaciens‐mediated transformation. It has a broad base of physiological, biochemical, and genetic research on which to build. It is also a highly important commercial crop, being the number one valued vegetable produced in Florida (Lucier, 2000). Partly because of its economic importance, much research has been focused on the molecular biology of tomato ethylene synthesis and perception. Like climacteric fruits, a subset of flowers produce and senesce in response to ethylene. One of the best understood of these species is petunia. A petunia flower will produce large amounts of ethylene within hours of pollination. Exposure of flowers to ethylene induces rapid loss of turgor that leads to corolla wilting within 1 to 2 d. Like tomato, petunia is readily transformable and has an excellent foundation of genetic, physiological, and biochemical research. All of these factors make it an excellent model system for genetic manipulation.

To evaluate the efficacy of ultrasound (US)-guided automated large-core percutaneous needle breast biopsy, biopsy of 181 ultrasonographically suspicious breast lesions was performed by using a long-throw biopsy gun and 14-gauge needles with continuous US guidance. A "freehand" technique with either 5.0- or 7.5-MHz linear-array transducers was used. Needle core diagnoses were compared with surgical diagnoses in the 49 lesions subsequently surgically excised. The remaining 132 cases were followed for 12-36 months. Agreement between needle-core and surgical diagnoses in the 49 lesions was 100%. This group included 34 cancers (28 infiltrating ductal, two mucinous, one mixed infiltrating ductal and lobular, and one each of intraductal, infiltrating lobular, and tubular carcinoma). To date, no cancers have been found in the other 132 cases. The procedure time averaged 20 minutes, and no complications occurred. With an accuracy approaching that of excisional biopsy, US-guided needle core biopsy provides an alternative to surgery.

Objective: To investigate 1-year change in financial capacity in relation to conversion from amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to dementia. Methods: Seventy-six cognitively healthy older controls, 25 patients with amnestic MCI who converted to Alzheimer-type dementia during the study period (MCI converters), and 62 patients with MCI who did not convert to dementia (MCI nonconverters) were administered the Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI) at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Performance on the FCI domain and global scores was compared within and between groups using multivariate repeated-measures analyses. Results: At baseline, controls performed better than MCI converters and nonconverters on almost all FCI domains and on both FCI total scores. MCI converters performed below nonconverters on domains of financial concepts, cash transactions, bank statement management, and bill payment and on both FCI total scores. At 1-year follow-up, MCI converters showed significantly greater decline than controls and MCI nonconverters for the domain of checkbook management and for both FCI total scores. The domain of bank statement management showed a strong trend. For both the checkbook and bank statement domains, MCI converters showed declines in procedural skills, such as calculating the correct balance in a checkbook register, but not in conceptual understanding of a checkbook or a bank statement. Conclusions: Declining financial skills are detectable in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in the year before their conversion to Alzheimer disease. Clinicians should proactively monitor patients with MCI for declining financial skills and advise patients and families about appropriate interventions.

Understanding the genetic basis of human variations in pain is critical to elucidating the molecular basis of pain sensitivity, variable responses to analgesic drugs, and, ultimately, to individualized treatment of pain and improved public health. With the help of recently accumulated knowledge and advanced technologies, pain researchers hope to gain insight into genetic mechanisms of pain and eventually apply this knowledge to pain treatment. Perspective We critically reviewed the published literature to examine the strength of evidence supporting genetic influences on clinical and human experimental pain. Based on this evidence and the experience of false associations that have occurred in other related disciplines, we provide recommendations for avoiding pitfalls in pain genetic research.

Objective Self and informant reports of functional abilities are weighted heavily in diagnostic decision making regarding mild cognitive impairment (MCI). However, it is unclear whether patients with MCI are fully aware and provide reliable estimates of their functional status. In this study, the authors used three different approaches to examine accuracy of self-report of financial abilities among patients with MCI. Design Cross-sectional, case-comparison group study. Setting University medical center. Participants Seventy-four patients with MCI and their informants, and 73 cognitively healthy older adults and their informants. Measurements The authors compared MCI patients' report of their financial abilities with their performance on an objective measure of financial capacity. The authors also compared informant reports of patients' abilities with patients' objective test performance, and informant reports with patients' self-report. Results The authors found that the discrepancy between self-report and objective performance was higher among MCI patients compared with the cognitively healthy older adults on the financial domains of Checkbook Management, Bank Statement Management, and Bill Payment, and on overall financial capacity. The authors also found that MCI patients with poorer global cognition overestimated their financial abilities whereas those with higher depressive symptoms underestimated their financial abilities. Overall, MCI patients were better at estimating their financial abilities than their informants. Conclusions Patients with MCI are not fully aware of deficits in their financial abilities. Both cognitive impairment and depression impact MCI patients' self-reported functioning. In addition, MCI informants misestimate patients' financial abilities. This raises concerns about the widespread use of informant report as the gold standard against which to evaluate patient self-report of functioning.

This study investigated cognitive predictors of medical decision-making capacity (MDC) in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI). A total of 56 healthy controls, 60 patients with MCI, and 31 patients with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) were administered the Capacity to Consent to Treatment Instrument (CCTI) and a neuropsychological test battery. The CCTI assesses MDC across four established treatment consent standards--S1 (expressing choice), S3 (appreciation), S4 (reasoning), and S5 (understanding)--and one experimental standard [S2] (reasonable choice). Scores on neuropsychological measures were correlated with scores on each CCTI standard. Significant bivariate correlates were subsequently entered into stepwise regression analyses to identity group-specific multivariable predictors of MDC across CCTI standards. Different multivariable cognitive models emerged across groups and consent standards. For the MCI group, measures of short-term verbal memory were key predictors of MDC for each of the three clinically relevant standards (S3, S4, and S5). Secondary predictors were measures of executive function. In contrast, in the mild AD group, measures tapping executive function and processing speed were primary predictors of S3, S4, and S5. MDC in patients with MCI is supported primarily by short-term verbal memory. The findings demonstrate the impact of amnestic deficits on MDC in patients with MCI.

The spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA) can be manifested in neuropsychiatric symptoms. Among 76 SCA patients presenting to a university ataxia center, depressive symptoms characterized SCA3. Memory symptoms occurred across all SCA groups with relative sparing of SCA6. These differences in neuropsychiatric symptoms suggest the subtype of SCA and the corresponding neuropathological involvement.

In many cases of ornamental crops, biotechnology applications are proving to be very difficult, but there have been several advances made with engineering a wide variety of genetic traits in floriculture crops and turfgrass. Significant gains have also been made in cloning important genes that are proving to be involved with biological processes that scientists hope to manipulate in ornamental crops in the future. The purpose of the rest of this chapter is to provide a status report on the progress that has been made in applying biotechnology to plants grown for the ornamental characteristics, and to project where research efforts will be focused over the next few years. Keywords: flower; colour; scent; phytohormone

The floriculture crop industry is technically diverse and is characterized by the use of hundreds of different plant species. Due to the large amount of genetic diversity used by this industry, there are often very complex issues that arise during crop production and during postharvest handling throughout the wholesale and retail markets. Crop production practices are often very complex, and may be complicated by the demands for precise crop timing, and the different cultural requirements of different cultivars. After the crops is produced, optimal conditions for postharvest shipping and handling are difficult to maintain, and this can lead to subsequent poor quality once the crop has arrived at the retail market. In addition to the demands of complex production and marketing systems, the demand from consumers for a constant supply of new and interesting flowering plants with unique characteristics continues to increase. Needs for product quality and availability and subsequent garden performance have driven the availability of new flowering crops to unprecedented levels over the last 5–10 years. With such a vast array of issues in floriculture crops, there is a great deal of potential for using some of these crops as model systems to study the potential for use of transgenic plants with improved horticultural characteristics. In many cases, biotechnology applications are proving to be very difficult, but there have been several advances made with engineering a wide variety of genetic traits in floriculture crops. There have also been significant gains made in cloning important genes that are proving to be involved with biological processes that scientists hope to manipulate in ornamental crops in the future.

Importance Recently, a rare variant in the amyloid precursor protein gene ( APP ) was described in a population from Iceland. This variant, in which alanine is replaced by threonine at position 673 (A673T), appears to protect against late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD). We evaluated the frequency of this variant in AD cases and cognitively normal controls to determine whether this variant will significantly contribute to risk assessment in individuals in the United States. Objective To determine the frequency of the APP A673T variant in a large group of elderly cognitively normal controls and AD cases from the United States and in 2 case-control cohorts from Sweden. Design, Setting, and Participants Case-control association analysis of variant APP A673T in US and Swedish white individuals comparing AD cases with cognitively intact elderly controls. Participants were ascertained at multiple university-associated medical centers and clinics across the United States and Sweden by study-specific sampling methods. They were from case-control studies, community-based prospective cohort studies, and studies that ascertained multiplex families from multiple sources. Main Outcomes and Measures Genotypes for the APP A673T variant were determined using the Infinium HumanExome V1 Beadchip (Illumina, Inc) and by TaqMan genotyping (Life Technologies). Results The A673T variant genotypes were evaluated in 8943 US AD cases, 10 480 US cognitively normal controls, 862 Swedish AD cases, and 707 Swedish cognitively normal controls. We identified 3 US individuals heterozygous for A673T, including 1 AD case (age at onset, 89 years) and 2 controls (age at last examination, 82 and 77 years). The remaining US samples were homozygous for the alanine (A673) allele. In the Swedish samples, 3 controls were heterozygous for A673T and all AD cases were homozygous for the A673 allele. We also genotyped a US family previously reported to harbor the A673T variant and found a mother-daughter pair, both cognitively normal at ages 72 and 84 years, respectively, who were both heterozygous for A673T; however, all individuals with AD in the family were homozygous for A673. Conclusions and Relevance The A673T variant is extremely rare in US cohorts and does not play a substantial role in risk for AD in this population. This variant may be primarily restricted to Icelandic and Scandinavian populations.

location was classified as a lower GI bleed. CONCLUSIONS: ICD-9 code 578.1 (“blood in stool”) represents hematochezia in ~60% of cases and melena in ~30%. ICD-9 codes 578.1 and 578.9 represent an unknown location of GI bleeding in only about one-third of cases; the remainder are either upper or lower GI bleeding that has been misclassified. Detailed validation can help inform (or reassign) the use of these codes in electronic database studies. The limited specificity of such codes will persist in the ICD-10 era. Table 1. Bleeding Manifestation*

With the possible exception of the Draize Eye Test, there is nothing in the toxicologist’s armoury that generates more emotion than acute toxicity testing as represented by the LD50. And yet there is no test so misunderstood and misrepresented as to purpose and utility. Stated baldly as ‘finding the dose that kills half the animals’, acute toxicity testing can appear to the layman and the non-toxicological scientist to be so ethically and morally indefensible that it must be replaced forthwith. But to the professional toxicologist, an acute toxicity test can give such valuable information on a new chemical, rapidly and with greater economy of animal usage than many other tests, that it is often regarded as one of the keystones of the profession.

It has traditionally been recommended to cut flower stems underwater to reduce blockage and improve water uptake, although little scientific information relates this practice to vase life. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the benefit of this processing technique on quality and longevity of several cut flowers species. Stems were either cut dry or cut wet under deionized water with a stainless steel blade and placed into vases containing a commercial floral preservative. Water samples were obtained from the cutting tank over time during stem processing for bacteria counts. Stems were maintained at 2 °C at 10 μmol·m–2·s–1 (12 h/day). The results were variable from shipment to shipment, possibly due to differences in stem quality or cutting water quality. In most cases, cutting underwater had no effect on longevity of alstroemeria, chrysanthemums, gerbera daisy, roses, or snapdragons. However, in a few instances, cutting underwater improved longevity slightly. Cutting stems underwater was consistently effective in increasing longevity 2-4 days for carnations. Bacteria counts in the cutting tank water after 500 stems were processed were 6/34 × 106 propagules/mL and increased to 1.00 × 107 propagules/mL after 1000 stems. The increase in bacteria decreased leaf quality in roses and reduced the number of snapdragon flowers that opened, but did not affect longevity. In gerberas, however, longevity decreased 2 days. A high concentration of bacteria in the cutting water may effect quality and longevity of many cut flower species and may negate any benefit in cutting stems underwater.

Postproduction evaluation trials have been developed in North America and Europe to test postproduction performance of potted roses from individual growers. The results of the trials have been compiled on the “Roses On The Web” Website (www.parade.dk). Roses on the WEB is a cooperative project between Poulsen Roses ApS, Denmark, the Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, and the Univ. of Florida. The goal of the Website is to provide growers participating in the evaluation trials a quick and easy way to obtain results on the postproduction quality of their roses. Plants receive 4 days of simulated transport, sleeved in a box in darkness at 16 °C. After transport, plants are maintained at 20 °C at 8 μmol·m–2·s–1 for 12 hours/daily. Relative humidity is maintained at 55% ± 5%. To determine quality, several parameters are recorded at day 0 (day of arrival), 11, 18, 22, and 28. The recordings include the number of open and damaged flowers and buds, percentage of damaged leaves, and the presence of disease and pests. Based on the results of all the measurements, each plant is given a postproduction rating or index, indicating quality. Results from each trial are tabulated and stored on the Website. Growers are able to view their results by entering a password. Growers can evaluate their quality over time and are also able to compare their quality with other growers. Many quality problems are manifested in the postproduction environment and can often be directly related to incorrect greenhouse conditions and/or cultural practices. “Roses On The Web” is a tool that provides quick, up-to-date information that can be crucial to the success of a grower. Differences in quality were found based on grower, time of year and variety.

Breast cancer is a common disease and remains a therapeutic dilemma. Radical surgery is often ineffective in eradicating the disease because occult metastases have occurred prior to operation. Detection of early metastases would allow selection of patients who may not benefit from radical surgery. Skeletal imaging using radionuclides has been found to be a sensitive method for detection of early bony metastases from breast carcinoma. Recent reports suggest that bone scanning should be part of the preoperative evaluation of any patient prior to breast surgery. Unfortunately, there is marked variation in the results from the various studies. We reviewed Hartford Hospital’s experience with bone scans in breast cancer patients to determine if any or all patients should have this procedure done routinely prior to surgical therapy.

Two years ago, one of broadcasting's finest hours came when the contestants in a presidential campaign acknowledged their dependence upon radio and television. In another two years, even more use will be made of broadcasting in the constant effort to inform and persuade the voter of the respective merits and demerits of the presidential nominees. This fall's election campaigns will see a use of broadcasting that seems small only by comparison with a presidential race. How did all this start? Some broadcast activities of thirty to forty years ago may seem quaint today, but many of the views of that era are still being expressed and many of the techniques are still in use.