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Although certain pollutants can be biologically degraded by microorganisms, rendering their impact short-term, others can not be impaired, such that their effect persists. The present study evaluates the effectiveness of using a field-collected aphid, Aphis gossypii, as a bio-indicator for heavy metals in tomato farms in Riyadh and Hafar Al-Batin, Saudi Arabia. Heavy metals were selected (Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb) and measured for comparative screening in field-collected plants, soil, and aphids using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Field-collected aphids from both studied regions were identified as Aphis gossypii. In Riyadh, there was no significant difference observed for Cd, Cu, and Zn for all experimental samples, while, Pb was showed differences among samples especially tomato leaves None of the studied samples in Hafar Al-Batin were showed statistically significant differences in Cd, in reverse to significant differences in the other heavy metals. Comparing concentrations of selected heavy metals between the two studied regions was showed that neither region showed a significant difference in heavy metals except for Cu. This study demonstrates that tomato leaf samples showed the highest concentrations of most studied heavy metals, followed by soil, then aphids. Aphids were utilized as a bio-indicator of heavy metals in the studied regions.

The taxonomy of the order Phthiraptera is unstable and still problematic to researchers. Most of the current taxon classifications are mainly based on morphological features. Campanulotes bidentatus belongs to the chewing lice of the Philopteridae family that mostly parasitic on birds. There is a lack of sequence data and phylogenetic analyses on the family Philopteridae. In the current study, C. bidentatus was collected from the domestic pigeon Columba livia and identified morphologically and molecularly based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene (COI). The infection rate of the Campanulotes genus was approximately 58.82% in this study. Phylogenetic analysis based on the mt COI gene was informative for members of Philopteridae and the group taxon genera formed distinct clades. Future studies were recommended using the 16s rRNA to enhance the tree topology and obtain clear differentiation between genera.

This study describes a simple method for the large‐scale isolation of pure Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites and bradyzoites. T. gondii tachyzoites were obtained from infected human foreskin fibroblasts (HFFs) and peritoneal exudates of mice, while tissue cysts containing bradyzoites were collected from chronically infected mice. Harvested cells and brain tissues were incubated in Hanks balanced salt solution (HBSS), containing 0.25% trypsin and 0.5% taurodeoxycholic acid (TDC) for 5 min. Subsequent washes in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) were conducted, and the cell viability of the preparations was good, as determined by flow cytometry and ability to reinfect HFF cells and propagate in mice. The purification procedure allowed for a rapid preparation of pure T. gondii tachyzoites and bradyzoites in sufficient quantity that can be used for downstream procedures. The advantage of the new method is that it is convenient and inexpensive., We developed a rapid and simple method for purifying tachyzoites and bradyzoites with optimal yield and purity. The new proposed method has the following advantages: (1) zoites can be obtained quickly and easily; (2) the technique can be performed in low resource settings and capable of handling larger numbers of cells and tissues; (3) zoites obtained in this way are free of cellular debris; and (4) the viability and infectivity of tachyzoites, and bradyzoites are maintained. A more detailed study is required to explore the effect of trypsin on surface antigens of parasites.

Lead (Pb) is a toxic heavy metal that is harmful to humans, especially male reproductive organs. Luteolin (LUT) is a naturally occurring flavonoid with numerous biological activities. Our aim was to investigate the possible reproprotective effect of LUT against testicular deficits induced by Pb intoxication. In the present study, 28 rats were distributed into 4 groups: control, LUT (50 mg/kg), lead acetate (PbAc, 20 mg/kg), and LUT + PbAc groups, in which rats were pre-treated with LUT 3 hr before PbAc injection. All animals were treated for 7 days. Oxidative stress, inflammatory and apoptotic markers along with histopathological changes have been examined using spectrophotometric, ELISA, real-time PCR, and histopathological methods. PbAc injection elevated Pb concentration in testicular tissue and decreased levels of sex hormones. PbAc intoxication exacerbated lipoperoxidation and nitric oxide formation, depleted superoxide dismutase, and catalase activities along with glutathione and its originated enzymes (glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase). At the molecular level, PbAc deactivated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 and heme oxygenase-1 in the testicular tissue. In addition, PbAc toxicity induced inflammatory and apoptotic cascades in testicular tissue as evidenced by the increased tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta, inducible nitric oxide synthase, Bax, and caspase 3, while Bcl-2 was declined. Histopathological examination of testicular tissue also revealed that PbAc caused degeneration alterations in spermatogenic cells, the spermatogenic epithelial cells were disconnected from the basement membrane, and the seminiferous tubules were vacuolated. Remarkably, pre-treatment with LUT minimized significantly the testicular damage induced by PbAc. Therefore, we conclude that LUT may have a beneficial effect against PbAc-induced testicular injury through preventing oxidative challenge, inflammation, and finally apoptosis.

Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella typhimurium are the leading causes of bacterial food contamination in chicken carcasses. Contamination is particularly associated with the slaughtering process. The present study isolated C. jejuni and S. typhimurim from fifty chicken carcass samples, all of which were acquired from different companies in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The identification of C. jejuni was performed phenotypically by using a hippurate test and genetically using a polymerase chain reaction with primers for 16S rRNA and hippurate hydrolase (hipO gene). For the dentification of S. typhimurim, a serological Widal test was carried out using serum anti-S. typhimurium antibodies. Strains were genetically detected using invA gene primers. The positive isolates for C. jejuni showed a specific molecular size of 1448 bp for 16S rRNA and 1148 bp for hipO genes. However, the positive isolates of the invA gene exhibited a specific molecular size at 244 bp using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Comparing sequencing was performed with respect to the invA gene and the BLAST nucleotide isolates that were identified as Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar typhimurium strain ST45, thereby producing a similarity of 100%. The testing identified C.jejuni for hippuricase, GenBank: Z36940.1. While many isolates of Salmonella spp. that contained the invA gene were not necessarily identified as S. typhimurim, the limiting factor for the Widal test used antiS. typhimurum antibodies. The multidrug resistance (MDR) of C. jejuni isolates in chickens was compared with the standard C. jejuni strain ATCC 22931. Similarly, S. typhimurium isolates were compared with the standard S. typhimurium strain ATCC 14028.

Camel meat is one of the most consumed meats in Arab countries. The use of natural antimicrobial agents to extend the shelf life of fresh camel meat, control Campylobacter jejuni contamination, and preserve meat quality is preferred. In this study, we determined the antimicrobial effects of using 1% or 2% Citrox alone or in combination with 1% chitosan on the survival of C. jejuni in vitro and on camel meat samples during storage at 4 or 10 °C for 30 days in vacuum packaging. We determined the total viable count (TVC (cfu/g)), total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N) content, and pH of the treated camel meat samples every three days during storage. The shelf lives of camel meat samples treated with 2% Citrox alone or in combination with 1% chitosan were longer than those of camel meat samples treated with 1% Citrox alone or in combination with 1% chitosan at both the 4 and 10 °C storage temperatures, with TVCs of &lt, 100 cfu/g after the first ten days and six days of storage at 4 and 10 °C, respectively. The addition of Citrox (1% and 2%) and 1% chitosan to camel meat samples and the application of vacuum storage were more effective than using Citrox (1% and 2%) alone and led to a reduction in C. jejuni in approximately 4.0 and 3.5 log cycles at 4 and 10 °C, respectively. The experimental results demonstrated that using a Citrox-chitosan combination improved the quality of camel meat and enhanced the long-term preservation of fresh meat for up to or more than 30 days at 4 °C.

Malaria is an important health problem in subtropical and tropical areas around the world. Infection with protozoan parasites of the Plasmodium genus, which grow inside host erythrocytes, causes malaria and may lead to morbidity and mortality. Liver tissue plays an important role in the pathogenesis of malaria and is closely involved in parasitic pre-erythrocytic development. Numerous published studies have demonstrated that the liver is not only the source of Plasmodium parasites prior to erythrocytic growth but is also a primary immune effector toward the blood stage of the malaria life cycle. Despite efforts to improve antimalarial drugs and vaccines, Plasmodium species that cause severe malaria are being detected increasingly frequently in endemic regions. In this study, Salvia officinalis (S. officinalis) leaf extract was employed to synthesize silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs). This method is eco-friendly and represents a single-step technique for the biosynthetic process; therefore, it has attracted considerable attention. Accordingly, we biosynthesized Ag-NPs with extract of the S. officinalis leaf and examined the antimalarial activity of these nanoparticles in a murine model of Plasmodium chabaudi malaria (P. chabaudi malaria). Forty mice were chosen and classified into four types: infected group, healthy control, pretreated mice infected after treatment with 50 mg/kg of S. officinalis leaf extract-biosynthesized Ag-NPs for two weeks, and post-treated mice infected before treatment with 50 mg/kg of S. officinalis leaf extract-biosynthesized Ag-NPs (administered daily for 7 d). In this study, both pre-treatment and post-treatment with Ag-NPs produced a substantial reduction in parasitemia relative to the infected group. We investigated the antiplasmodial and hepatoprotective effects of S. officinalis leaf extract-biosynthesized Ag-NPs on P. chabaudi-induced inflammation and hepatic oxidative stress markers.

Leishmaniasis is a group of infectious and noncontagious severe parasitic diseases, caused by protozoans of the Leishmania genus. Natural products characterize a rich source of prospective chemical entities for the development of new effective drugs for neglected diseases. Scientific evaluation of medicinal plants has made it possible to use some metabolites from flavonoids and polyphenols compounds for the treatment of parasitic diseases. Therefore, we aimed in the present study to evaluate the protective effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) biosynthesized using Fig and Olive extracts (NFO) against Cutaneous leishmaniasis in female Balb/c mice. A total of 70 mice were used and divided into seven groups. Treatment was initiated when local lesions were apparent, we found that Fig and Olive extracts were found to be a good source for the synthesis of (Ag-NPs), their formation was confirmed by color change and stability in solution. Nanoparticles biosynthesized using Fig and Olive extracts induced a reduction in the average size of cutaneous leishmaniasis lesions compared with the untreated mice. Moreover, nanoparticles treatment decreased oxidative stress (LPO, NO), down-regulation gene expression levels (TNF-α, IL-1β, and BAX), and this antileishmanial activity of nanoparticles was associated with enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities. In addition, histopathological evaluation proved the antileishmanial activity of nanoparticles compared with the positive control.Therefore, we aimed in the present study to evaluate the protective effect of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized using Fig and Olive extracts against cutaneous lesions induced by Leishmania major infection through their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activities, and faster clinical efficacy than standard pentavalent antimonial treatment.

Arsenic, a major environmental pollutant of global concern, is well-known for its reproductive toxicity. In this study, the protective potential of chlorogenic acid (CGA), a caffeoylquinic acid isomer abundantly found in many plants, was investigated against sodium arsenite (NaAsO2)-induced testicular dysfunctions. Adult male Swiss mice were either administered NaAsO2 alone at 5 mg kg−1 or co-treated with CGA at 100 mg kg−1 or 200 mg kg−1 body weight for 4 weeks. Results showed that NaAsO2-treated mice exhibited marked declines in testes weight, sperm count, and viability accompanied by decreases in sexual hormonal levels. Moreover, NaAsO2 toxicity evoked exhaustion of antioxidant markers (SOD, CAT, GPx, GR, and GSH), down-regulation of Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2) gene expression level, and elevations in malondialdehyde. Further, elevations in inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, TNF-α, and IL-6) together with the up-regulation of pro-apoptotic biomarkers (Bax and caspase- 3) and down-regulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 were observed in NaAsO2 intoxication. Immunohistochemical analysis of testis sections of NaAsO2-treated mice showed high caspase-3 expression. These findings were well supported with testicular histopathological examination. However, pretreatment of mice with CGA resulted in noteworthy improvements in testicular damage induced by arsenic in a dose-dependent manner possibly mediated by the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Conclusively, CGA counteracted arsenic-induced testicular injury through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. Therefore, CGA could serve as a favorable intervention in the alleviation of arsenic-induced reproductive toxicity.

In the present study, a total of 50 raw camel meat samples were analyzed for the presence of Listeria monocytogenes. The isolates were characterized via morphological and culture analyses; identification of isolates was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the listeriolysin O gene. The API Listeria system was used for further chemical identification and verification of the strains. L. monocytogenes was identified in eight raw camel meat samples, which was the highest incidence (16%) of contamination, followed by L. seeligeri 3(6%), L. innocua and L. welshimeri 2 (2% each), and L. grayi 1 (1%). According to Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) analysis, isolated strains that were positive for the listeriolysin O gene were >99% similar to the published database sequences for L. monocytogenes strain LM850658 (sequence ID: CP009242.1). We studied the antibiotic resistance profile of the L. monocytogenes strains with common antibiotics used to treat human listeriosis and demonstrated that almost all strains tested were susceptible to the antibiotics.

Sarcocystis (S.) spp. are intracellular protozoan parasites that infect birds and animals, resulting in substantial commercial losses. Sarcocystis spp. have an indirect life cycle, canines and felines are known to act as final hosts, and numerous domestic and wild animals act as intermediate hosts. The presence of sarcocysts in camel meat may diminish its commercial quality. There is limited knowledge regarding the taxonomy and diagnosis of Sarcocystis spp. that infect camels in Saudi Arabia. In this study, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed S. cameli and S. camelicanis (camelicanis) in Camelus (C.) dromedarius. This is the first report of S. camelicanis in Saudi Arabia and is considered a significant finding. Based on cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (COX1) sequences, two samples of Sarcocystis spp. isolated from C. dromedarius in Riyadh and Dammam were grouped with S. levinei hosted by Bubalus bubalis in India, S. rangi hosted by Rangifer tarandus in Norway, S. miescheriana hosted by Sus scrofa in Italy and S. fayeri hosted by Equus caballus in Canada. The sequences obtained in this study have been deposited in GenBank.

Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) belong to the herpesviridae family and cause neurological disorders by infecting the nervous system. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) extract against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in vitro. The antioxidant activity of this extract was investigated by superoxide anion and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-radical assays. Rosemary extract was evaluated by an HSV-1 antiviral assay, in which viral replication in Vero cells was determined and quantified using a cytopathic effect assay. The present study showed that rosemary extract at 30 µg/ml caused 55% inhibition of HSV-1 plaques, whereas 40 µg/ml rosemary extract caused 65% inhibition of HSV-2 plaques. The extracts completely inhibited HSV-1 and HSV-2 plaque formation at 50 µg/ml. Scavenging activity of the superoxide anion radical was observed at 65.74 mg/ml, whereas 50% scavenging activity of the DPPH radical was observed at 67.34 mg/ml. These data suggest that rosemary extract may be suitable as a topical prophylactic or therapeutic agent for herpes viral infections. However, further research is required to elucidate the plant’s active constituents, which may be useful in drug development.

Exposure to lead (Pb) causes multiorgan dysfunction including reproductive impairments. Here, we examined the protective effects of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) administration on testicular injury induced by lead acetate (PbAc) exposure in rats. This study employed four experimental groups (n=7) that underwent seven days of treatment as follows: control group intraperitoneally (i.p.) treated with 0.1 ml of 0.9% NaCl containing 1% Tween 80 (v:v), CoQ10 group that was i.p. injected with 10 mg/kg CoQ10, PbAc group that was i.p. treated with PbAc (20 mg/kg), and PbAc+CoQ10 group that was i.p. injected with CoQ10 2 h after PbAc. PbAc injection resulted in increasing residual Pb levels in the testis and reducing testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone levels. Additionally, PbAc exposure resulted in significant oxidative damage to the tissues on the testes. PbAc raised the levels of prooxidants (malondialdehyde and nitric oxide) and reduced the amount of endogenous antioxidative proteins (glutathione and its derivative enzymes, catalase, and superoxide dismutase) available in the cell. Moreover, PbAc induced the inflammatory response as evidenced by the upregulation of inflammatory mediators (tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 beta). Further, PbAc treatment induced apoptosis in the testicular cells, as indicated by an increase in Bax and caspase 3 expression, and reduced Bcl2 expression. CoQ10 supplementation improved testicular function by inhibiting Pb accumulation, oxidative stress, inflammation, cell death, and histopathological changes following PbAc exposure. Our findings suggest that CoQ10 can act as a natural therapeutic agent to protect against the reproductive impairments associated with PbAc exposure.

Recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) is a common pregnancy-associated complication of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) which is an endocrine malfunction disease. Patients with PCOS may have several underlying contributing and interrelated factors, which have been reported in women with RSA. The incidence rate between PCOS and RSA remains uncertain. The aim of this study is to determine the possible association of IL-1β-511C/T, IL-6-174G/C, TNF-α-1031T/C, and TGFβ1-509T/C with RSA patients with or without PCOS. A total of 140 RSA patients, 70 of which were PCOS patients, and 140 healthy females with no history of RSA or PCOS were included in this study. PCR amplification, genotyping, and sequence analysis were employed to investigate the presence of the polymorphisms. The genotypic and allelic frequencies were calculated separately for each subject. Out of the four studied polymorphisms, the IL-1β-511C/T genotype in RSA without PCOS patients (12.7%) was significantly different compared with that in control subjects (p=0.047). For IL-6-174C/G, there was a tendency towards more CC carriers among RSA with PCOS patients (10%) than in controls (3%). The GG genotype in RSA women with PCOS (60%) was significantly different compared with that in control subjects (p=0.033), and the GC genotype in RSA with PCOS patients (30%) showed a marginal significant difference compared with that in control subjects (p=0.050). Significant difference was identified in the allelic frequencies in RSA patients with PCOS compared to controls (p=0.025). IL-6-174G/C and TNF-α-1031T/C polymorphisms are significantly associated with RSA patients in Saudi patients with PCOS, while the IL-1β-511C/T polymorphism is significantly associated with RSA patients without PCOS.

Listeria monocytogenes is a psychrophilic bacterium, which causes widespread zoonosis in the natural environment, and mainly affects goat, sheep, and cattle herds. Recently, we predicted that it can be transmitted through food. It causes listeriosis, a severe infectious disease, which occurs with food contaminated with the pathogenic bacterium. Anti-inflammatory factors are important to treat the dangers of chronic inflammation associated with chronic diseases. Natural foodstuffs have made and are continuing to make vital contributions to the search for new antilisterial agents. The use of natural products in association with silver nanoparticles has drawn attention because of its easy, nonpathogenic, eco-friendly, and economical protocol. Hence, we aimed to biosynthesize silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) using Garcinia mangostana peel extract, which was found to be a good source for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles, their formation being confirmed by color change and stability in solution, and investigated the antilisterial activity of these nanoparticles in a murine model of L. monocytogenes infection. A total of 28 mice were divided into four groups&mdash, healthy control, infected, infected mice treated with green Ag-NPs biosynthesized with G. mangostana (5 mg/mL), and infected mice pretreated with Ag-NPs. From our results, oral treatment with Ag-NPs biosynthesized with G. mangostana peel extract resulted in a significant reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA), enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, and increased the levels of the antiapoptotic protein, compared with the untreated mice. These results indicate that G. mangostana may provide therapeutic value against L. monocytogenes-induced oxidative stress and histopathological alterations, and that these effects may be related to antiapoptotic and antioxidant activities.

The kidney is among the metabolic organs most susceptible to injury, particularly following exposure to xenobiotics and heavy metals. We aimed to explore the potential protective impacts of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) on lead acetate (PbAc)-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Four experimental groups (n = 7) were applied as follows: control group, CoQ10 alone (10 mg/kg), PbAc alone (20 mg/kg), and PbAc with CoQ10. Exposure to PbAc led to the accumulation of Pb in the kidney and increased urea and creatinine serum levels. The deposition of Pb coupled with the elevation of malondialdehyde and nitrate/nitrite levels along with the upregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase. Additionally, upon PbAc poisoning, glutathione content and the antioxidant enzymes were depleted along with the downregulation of Nrf2 and HO-1 expression. Moreover, PbAc injection increased the protein and mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines namely, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 beta, while decreased the levels of interleukin-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, in the kidney. Furthermore, exposure to PbAc correlated with increased levels of pro-apoptotic markers, Bax and caspase-3, and reduced levels of the anti-apoptotic marker Bcl-2. The administration of CoQ10 alleviated the molecular, biochemical and histological changes following PbAc intoxication. Thus, CoQ10 reduces the deleterious cellular side effects of PbAc exposure due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects.

The abundant use of lead (Pb, toxic heavy metal) worldwide has increased occupational and ecosystem exposure, with subsequent negative health effects. The flavonoid luteolin (LUT) found in many natural foodstuffs possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Herein, we hypothesized that LUT could mitigate liver damage induced by exposure to lead acetate (PbAc). Male Wistar rats were allocated to four groups: control group received normal saline, LUT-treated group (50 mg/kg, oral, daily), PbAc-treated group (20 mg/kg, i.p., daily), and LUT+PbAc-treated group (received the aforementioned doses via the respective routes of administration), the rats were treated for 7 days. The results revealed that PbAc exposure significantly increased hepatic Pb residue and serum activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and total bilirubin value. Oxidative reactions were observed in the liver tissue following PbAc intoxication, characterized by the depletion and downregulation of antioxidant proteins (glutathione, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, and heme oxygenase-1), and an increase in oxidants (malondialdehyde and nitric oxide). Additionally, PbAc increased the release and expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 beta), inducible nitric oxide synthase, and nuclear factor kappa B. Moreover, PbAc enhanced hepatocyte loss by increasing the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins (Bax and caspase-3) and downregulating the anti-apoptotic protein (Bcl-2). The changes in the aforementioned parameters were further confirmed by noticeable histopathological lesions. LUT supplementation significantly reversed all of the tested parameters in comparison with the PbAc-exposed group. In conclusion, our findings describe the potential mechanisms involved in the alleviation of PbAc-induced liver injury by luteolin via its potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties.

This study investigated the protective effect of Fragaria ananassa methanolic extract on cadmium chloride (CdCl2)-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. CdCl2 was intraperitoneally injected at a dose of 6.5 mg/kg of body weight for 5 d with or without methanol extract of Fragaria ananassa (250 mg/kg). The hepatic cadmium concentration, lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide, glutathione (GSH) content, and antioxidant enzyme activities, including superoxide dismutase, catalase (CAT), GSH peroxidase, and GSH reductase, were estimated. CdCl2 injection induced a significant elevation in cadmium concentration, lipid peroxidation, and nitric oxide and caused a significant depletion in GSH content compared to controls, along with a remarkable decrease in antioxidant enzymes. Oxidative stress induction and cadmium accumulation in the liver were successfully ameliorated by F. ananassa (strawberry) pre-administration. In addition, the pre-administration of strawberry decreased the elevated gene expression of the pro-apoptotic Bax gene as well as the protein expression of caspases-3 in the liver of CdCl2-injected rats. In addition, the reduced gene expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 was increased. Our results show an increase in the expression of tumor necrosis factor α in the liver of rats treated with cadmium. In sum, our results suggested that F. ananassa successfully prevented deleterious effects on liver function by reinforcing the antioxidant defense system, inhibiting oxidative stress and reducing apoptosis.

Natural antibacterial agents such as citrox are effective against many foodborne pathogens and foods contaminated with bacteria. We studied the antimicrobial effects of citrox solutions (1% and 2%) on the total viable counts of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in chicken meat fillets. The total coliform group counts found in the chicken samples were also determined. The samples were treated with S. aureus at a concentration of 106 colony-forming units (cfu)/g of meat and vacuum-packed (VP) at 4 &deg, C for 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 21 days. We also studied the effect of citrox on the total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN) content and pH changes during the storage period of the meat samples. The results revealed that citrox inhibited the growth of MRSA in the chicken fillets. The total viable counts of MRSA decreased after treatment with 2% citrox in all treated samples that were stored at 4 &deg, C by approximately 2 log units compared with the samples inoculated with S. aureus (Chicken-Staph groups) after 3, 6, 9, and 12 days of storage, and by approximately 1 log unit compared with the control samples treated with salt (Chicken-Salt groups) after 3, 6, and 9 days of storage. TVBN was reduced in the Chicken-Citrox-treated samples stored at 4 &deg, C compared with the Chicken-Staph- and Chicken-Salt-treated samples. The results indicated that citrox is effective in reducing the total counts of MRSA and in improving the quality of chicken during the first three days of storage by reducing the number of bacteria by 1 log unit and extending the shelf life of chicken.

Antibiotic- and heat-resistant bacteria in camel milk is a potential public health problem. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is an opportunistic pathogen in humans, dairy cattle and camels. We characterized the phenotype and genotype of methicillin-resistant staphylococcal strains recovered from pasteurized and raw camel milk (as control) distributed in the retail markets of Saudi Arabia. Of the 100 samples assessed between March and May 2016, 20 S. aureus isolates were recovered from pasteurized milk, 10 of which were resistant to cefoxitin, and as such, were methicillin-resistant. However, raw camel milk did not contain methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Antimicrobial susceptibility tests showed that the resistance ratio for other antibiotics was 60%. We performed a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay using primers for the methicillin-resistant gene mecA and nucleotide sequencing to detect and verify the methicillin-resistant strains. Basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) analysis of the gene sequences showed a 96–100% similarity between the resistant isolates and the S. aureus CS100 strain’s mecA gene. Ten of the methicillin-resistant isolates were heat-resistant and were stable at temperatures up to 85°C for 60 s, and three of these were resistant at 90°C for 60 or 90 s. The mean decimal reduction time (D85-value) was 111 s for the ten isolates. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) showed that there was no difference in the total protein profiles for the ten methicillin heat-resistant S. aureus (MHRSA) isolates and for S. aureus ATCC 29737. In conclusion, a relatively high percentage of the tested pasteurized camel milk samples contained S. aureus (20%) and MHRSA (10%).

Simple Summary In this article, we investigated the occurrence of Sarcocystis species in samples of sheep and goats obtained from slaughterhouses in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. We searched for tongue, heart, esophagus, diaphragm and skeletal muscle tissues. Fragments of these tissues were investigated by macroscopic evaluations, direct optical microscopy of tissue fragments, optical microscopy of digested fragment sediment, transmission electron microscopy and PCR followed by nucleotide sequencing. From the set of information obtained, we searched 230 sheep, and 84 goats; 91 and 36 were found to be infected, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed Sarcocystis tenella (S. tenella) in sheep and Sarcocystis capracanis (S. capracanis) in goats. Sarcocystis species were confirmed in Saudi Arabian sheep and goats by molecular testing. S. capracanis was most closely related to S. tenella, with the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (COX1) sequences sharing a (91.7%) identity. Abstract Sarcocystosis is induced by species of Sarcocystis, which is an intracellular protozoan parasite in the phylum Apicomplexa. The diversity and importance of Sarcocystis species in sheep and goats in Saudi Arabia are poorly understood. In this study, the tongue, esophagus, heart, diaphragm, and skeletal muscles were collected from 230 sheep and 84 goats, and the tissues were examined for the presence of Sarcocystis species by macroscopic examination and light microscopy. Microscopic Sarcocystis species cysts were found in both sheep and goats. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed S. tenella in sheep and S. capracanis in goats. Sarcocystis species were confirmed for the first time in Saudi Arabian sheep and goats by molecular testing. S. capracanis was most closely related to S. tenella, with the COX1 sequences sharing 91.7% identity. A phylogenetic analysis produced similar results and indicated that the Sarcocystis isolates were within a group of Sarcocystis species in which dogs were the final host. Finally, the Sarcocystis species cysts from sheep and goats could be grouped together, indicating that they were strongly related.

Eugenol was investigated for the treatment of Haemoproteus columbae (H. columbae) infected squabs (young domestic pigeons, Columba domestica). Thirty naturally-infected squabs were divided into three groups of 10 each. One group was treated with Eugenol, while the positive and negative control groups were administered buparvaquone (Butalex®) and distilled water, respectively. The number of infected red blood cells (RBCs) was calculated in all groups before and after treatment at 4-day intervals for 16 days. The results showed a significant therapeutic effect of Eugenol, with a progressive decrease in the number of infected RBCs from 89.20 ± 2.11 before treatment to 0.90 ± 0.31 at the end of treatment (P≤0.05). Butalex® was able to suppress the number of infected RBCs from 93.70 ± 1.72 before treatment to 0.90 ± 0.35 at the end of the experiment (P≤0.05). Eugenol showed therapeutic effects against H. columbae and may be regarded as a candidate for further studies to develop new drugs against blood parasites, in both animals and humans.

Toxoplasmosis constitutes a global infection caused by oblige intracellular apicomplexan protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Although often asymptomatic, infection can result in more severe, potentially life threatening symptoms particularly in immunocompromised individuals. The present study evaluated the anti-Toxoplasma effects in experimental animals of silver nanoparticles synthesized in combination with extracts of natural plants (Phoenix dactylifera and Ziziphus spina-christi) as an alternative method to standard sulfadiazine drug therapy. Liver functions estimated by and AST and ALT were significantly increased in T. gondii-infected mice compared with the control group as well as hepatic nitric oxide (NO), lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels and caused significant decrease in superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione activities in the liver homogenates. Nanoparticles pretreatment prevented liver damage as determined by enzyme activity inhibition, in addition to significant inhibition of hepatic NO levels and significant elevation in liver SOD and CAT activities. Moreover, nanoparticle treatment significantly decreased hepatic LPO and NO concentrations and proinflammatory cytokines but significantly boosted the antioxidant enzyme activity of liver homogenate. In addition, histological examinations showed distinct alterations in the infected compared with untreated control groups. Conversely, nanoparticles pretreatment showed improvement in the histological features indicated by slight infiltration and fibrosis, minimal pleomorphism and less hepatocyte and degeneration. Furthermore, nanoparticles treatment induced a reduction in immunoreactivity to TGF-β and NF-κB in hepatic tissues. Therefore, the present study provides new insights into various natural plants that are used traditionally for the treatment of toxoplasmosis and other parasitic infections, which may be useful as alternative treatment option for T. gondii infections.

Mice and rats are animals commonly used in research and laboratory testing. Compared with other animal species, they harbor many more zoonotic agents. Hymenolepis nana (H. nana) is a common tapeworm that parasitizes both humans and rodents. Although this tapeworm is of socio-economic importance worldwide, information related to its mitochondrial genome is limited. The present study examined the sequence diversity of two mitochondrial (mt) genes, subunit I of cytochrome oxidase (cox1) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (pnad5), of H. nana in mice and rats from two geographical regions of Saudi Arabia (Makkah and Riyadh). Partial sequences of cox1 and pnad 5 from individual H. nana isolates were separately amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. The GC contents of the sequences ranged between 31.6–33.5% and 27.2–28.6% for cox1 and pnad5, respectively. The genomic similarity among specimens determined via cox1 primer and pnad5 primer was 97.1% and 99.7%, respectively. Based on these primers, our data did not indicate any differences between H. nana from rat and mice isolates. Results demonstrated that the present species are deeply embedded in the genus Hymenolepis with close relationship to other Hymenolepis species, including H. nana as a putative sister taxon, and that the isolates cannot be categorized as belonging to two different groups with origins in Makkah and Riyadh.

Cadmium (Cd) is a common environmental toxicant that has harmful effects on plants, animals, and humans. The present study evaluated the protective effects of Fragaria ananassa methanolic extract (SME) on cadmium chloride (CdCl2)-induced neuronal toxicity in rats. Male albino rats were intraperitoneally (i.p) injected with CdCl2 (6.5 mg/kg) for 5 days with or without the SME (250 mg/kg). We measured the levels of Cd, lipid peroxidation (LPO), nitric oxide, glutathione (GSH), and oxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase (GR) in the whole brain homogenate. Compared with the control group, the Cd-intoxicated group showed a marked increase in the brain levels of Cd, LPO, and nitric oxide and a decrease in the levels of GSH and all tested antioxidant enzymes. Compared with Cd-intoxicated rats, the rats pretreated with SME showed restoration of oxidative balance in the brain tissue. While the expression of brain SOD2, CAT, glutathione peroxidase 1, and GR was down-regulated in the Cd-treated group, the expression of these enzymes was up-regulated in rats pretreated with SME. In addition, administration of SME before CdCl2 increased the Bcl-2 expression, but significantly decreased the expression of Bax. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that compared with Cd-intoxicated rats, rats pretreated with SME showed a decrease in the protein expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). Our findings indicate that SME protects the brain tissue from Cd-induced neuronal toxicity by improving the antioxidant system and increasing antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory activities.

Heads of sheep (n = 600) and goats (n = 800) slaughtered at Al-Aziziah Abattoir in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, were inspected for the presence of O. ovis larvae (L). Heads were split along the longitudinal axes, and larvae (L1, L2, and L3) were gathered. The infestation rate was significantly higher in goats (44.5%, 356/800) than that in sheep (22.3%, 134/600). Out of the 151 collected larvae from sheep, 0% were L1, 1.3% were L2, and 98.7% were L3. Out of the total of 468 larvae from goats, 0% were L1, 1.2% were L2, and 98.8% were L3. The infestation rate was significantly higher in males than that in females. Myiasis-causing larvae collected from Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, were authenticated as O. ovis, according to morphological characteristics. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of a partial fragment (600 bp) of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCOI) gene further confirmed the species. Phylogenetic analysis based on the partial mtCOI gene sequence demonstrated that 23 unique sequences showed high similarity based on nucleotide pairs of O. ovis accessions retrieved from GenBank.

Background The one-humped camels are economically important for several countries in Africa, Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Coccidiosis causes significant economic impact. Studies on coccidian parasite species causing such infections are limited. The present study aimed to carry out a survey of Eimeria spp. in camels from Riyadh and Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia. Methods A total of 209 fecal samples from Camelus (C.) dromedarius slaughtered in West Abattoir in Riyadh and Onaizah Modern abattoir in Al-Qassim were collected. Samples were examined by flotation methods and oocyst sporulation. Results Of the 209 examined fecal samples, 75 were positive for Eimeria spp..The prevalence of oocysts in Riyadh and Al-Qassim were 33.89% (40/118) and 38.46% (35/92), respectively. The prevalence in young male camels was 41.02% (32/78) and 39.62% (21/53), respectively and in adult males was 19.35% (6/31) and 36% (9/25), respectively. Adult females displayed a prevalence of 22.22% (2/9) and 38.46% (5/13) in Riyadh and Al-Qassim, respectively. Three Eimeria spp. were identified; E. cameli, E. rajasthani, and E. pellerdyi. The presence of E. pellerdyi is considered the first record in Saudi Arabia.

Leishmaniasis is one of the most significant vector-borne syndromes of individuals. This parasitic infection can be affected by many species of Leishmania, most of which are zoonotic. Natural products have made and are continuing to make important contributions to the search for new antileishmanial agents. The use of plants in the production assembly of silver nanoparticles has drawn attention because of its rapid, eco-friendly, non-pathogenic, economical protocol and provides a single step technique for the biosynthetic process. Hence, we aimed to biosynthesize silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) using Moringa oleifera leaf extract and investigated the antileishmanial activity of these nanoparticles in a murine model of Leishmania major infection. A total of 50 mice were used and divided into five groups—healthy control, infected, infected mice treated with pentostam, infected mice treated with Ag-NPs and infected mice pretreated with Ag-NPs. In the present study, the leaf extract of the plant species Moringa oleifera was found to be a good source for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles, their formation being confirmed by color change and stability in solution. In the present murine model of Leishmania major infection, we found that oral treatment with silver nanoparticles biosynthesized using Moringa oleifera extract resulted in a significant reduction in the average size of leishmaniasis cutaneous lesions compared with untreated mice. Furthermore, the clinical efficacy of Moringa oleifera extract was associated with enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities. In conclusion, treatment with silver nanoparticles biosynthesized using Moringa oleifera extract has higher and faster clinical efficacy than standard pentavalent antimonial treatment, probably by boosting the endogenous antioxidant activity.

The diversity and importance of Echinococcus species in domesticated animals in Saudi Arabia are poorly understood. In this study, 108 singular (hydatid) cysts were collected from goats (n = 25), sheep (n = 56) and camels (n = 27). DNA was extracted from the protoscoleces of individual fertile cysts and used for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of mitochondrial subunit 1 of the cytochrome c oxidase 1 (cox1) gene. Amplicon sequencing results revealed the presence of Echinococcus granulosus sensustricto (s.s.) (genotypes G1-G3) in 16 of the17 sheep cysts and 2 of the 27 camel cysts.of these samples, 18 (2 camel and 16 sheep) were divided into genotypes G1, G2, and G3.

Schistosomiasis is a widespread parasitic infection that affects humans, as well as wild and domestic animals. It ranks second after malaria, with a significant health and socio-economic impact in the developing countries. The objective of this study was to assess the anti-schistosomal impact of Ziziphus spina-christi leaf extract (ZLE) on Schistosoma mansoni-induced liver fibrosis in CD-1 Swiss male albino mice. S. mansoni infection was achieved by dipping of mouse tails in schistosomal cercariae. ZLE treatment was initiated at 46 days post-infection by administering a dose of the extract on a daily basis for 10 consecutive days. S. mansoni infection resulted in liver granuloma and fibrosis, with a drastic elevation in liver function factors, nitric oxide, and lipid peroxidation, which were associated with a reduction in glutathione content and substantial inhibition of antioxidant enzyme activities compared to those of the control. Induction of hepatic granuloma, oxidative stress, and fibrosis in the liver was controlled by ZLE administration, which also produced inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9, alpha-smooth muscle actin, transforming growth factor-β, and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases expressions. In addition, the S. mansoni-infected group exhibited an increase in Bax and caspase-3 levels and a decrease in Bcl-2 level. However, treatment with ZLE mainly mitigated apoptosis in the liver. Thus, the findings of this study revealed that Ziziphus spina-christi had anti-apoptotic, anti-fibrotic, antioxidant, and protective effects on S. mansoni-induced liver wounds. The benefits of Ziziphus spina-christi extract on S. mansoni were partly partially mediated by enhancing anti-fibrinogenic and nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathways.

Cadmium is a deleterious environmental pollutant that threats both animals and human health. Oxidative stress and elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) have recently been reported to be the main cause of cellular damage as a result of cadmium exposure. We investigate, here, the protective effect of strawberry crude extracts on cadmium-induced oxidative damage of testes in rats. Four groups (n = 8) of 32 adult male Wistar rats weighing 160–180 g were used. The control group received 0.9% saline solution all over the experimental period (5 days). Group 2 was intraperitoneally injected with 6.5 mg/kg CdCl2. Group 3 was provided only with an oral administration of strawberry methanolic extract (SME) at a dose of 250 mg/kg. Group 4 was treated with SME before cadmium injection with the same mentioned doses. It was shown that cadmium exposure results in a significant decrease in both relative testicular weight and serum testosterone level. Analyzing the oxidative damaging effect of cadmium on the testicular tissue revealed the induction of oxidative stress markers represented in the elevated level of lipid peroxidation (LPO), nitric oxide (NO), and a decrease in the reduced glutathione (GSH) content. Considering cadmium toxicity, the level of the antioxidant enzyme activities including catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD2), glutathione peroxidase (GPx1), and glutathione reductase (GR) were markedly decreased. Moreover, gene expression analysis indicated significant upregulation of the pro-apoptotic proteins, bcl-2-associated-X-protein (BAX), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFA) in response to cadmium intoxication, while significant downregulation of the anti-apoptotic, B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2) gene was detected. Immunohistochemistry of the testicular tissue possessed positive immunostaining for the increased level of TNF-α, but decreased number of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) stained cells. Administration of SME debilitated the deleterious effect of cadmium via reduction of both LPO and NO levels followed by a significant enhancement in the gene expression level of CAT, SOD2, GPX1, GR, nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NFE2L2), heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1), Bcl-2, and PCNA. In addition, the SME treated group revealed a significant increase in the level of testosterone and GSH accompanied by a marked decrease in the gene expression level of Bax and TNF-α. In terms of the summarized results, the SME of Fragaria ananassa has a protective effect against cadmium-induced oxidative damage of testes.

Heavy metal exposure, in lead (Pb) particularly, is associated with severe neuronal impairment though oxidative stress mediated by reactive oxygen species, and antioxidants may be used to abolish these adverse effects. This study investigated the potential neuroprotective role of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) against lead acetate (PbAc)-induced neurotoxicity. Twenty-eight male Wistar albino rats were divided into four equal groups (n = 7) and treated as follows: the control group was injected with physiological saline (0.9% NaCl), the CoQ10 group was injected with CoQ10 (10 mg/kg), PbAc group was injected with PbAc (20 mg/kg), PbAc + CoQ10 group was injected first with PbAc, and after 1 h with CoQ10. All groups were injected intraperitoneally for seven days. PbAc significantly increased cortical lipid peroxidation, nitrate/nitrite levels, and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression, and decreased glutathione content, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase activity and mRNA expression, as well as nuclear factor erythroid 2&ndash, related factor 2 (Nrf2) and homoxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression. PbAc also promoted the secretion of interleukin-1&szlig, and tumor necrosis factor-&alpha, inhibited interleukin-10 production, triggered the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins, and suppressed anti-apoptotic proteins. Additionally, PbAc increased the cortical levels of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, and glutamate, and decreased the level of ATP. However, treatment with CoQ10 rescued cortical neurons from PbAc-induced neurotoxicity by restoring the balance between oxidants and antioxidants, activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, suppressing inflammation, inhibiting the apoptotic cascade, and modulating cortical neurotransmission and energy metabolism. Altogether, our findings indicate that CoQ10 has beneficial effects against PbAc-induced neuronal damage through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and neuromodulatory activities.

Background Leishmania is a unicellular protozoan parasite that produces several human diseases, ranging from localized self-healing cutaneous lesions to deadly visceral infections. Objective The effect of allicin on the growth of Leishmania major (L. major) promastigotes was evaluated under in vitro conditions. Moreover, the efficacy of a topical allicin cream was examined in BALB/c (Bagg albino, laboratory-bred strain of the House Mouse) mice with cutaneous leishmanial lesions compared to the currently used drug, sodiumstibogluconate (pentostam). Methods Cytotoxiciy and promastigote proliferation were measured. Different concentrations (50, 100, 150, and 200 μM) of liquid allicin were tested on L. major promastigotes twice: after 24 and 48 hours using an MTT colorimetric assay. In the in vivo condition, the efficacies of allicin cream and liquid allicin at two concentrations (0.15 μM/mouse and 0.30 μM/mouse) were evaluated. Serum factors of the control and treated groups were tested to evaluate the toxic effects of allicin on the liver and kidney. Results Allicin at a concentration of 50 μM inhibited the growth of Leishmania promastigotes. Topical application of allicin cream reduced lesion sizes in mice. No significant differences in biochemical analysis were observed between the control and treated groups. Conclusions Allicin has antileishmanial effects under in vitro and in vivo conditions and may be used in clinical applications.

Leishmania species are parasites that multiply within phagocytes and cause several clinical diseases characterized by single or multiple ulcerations. One of the complications that can induce tissue damage and the resulting scars is caused by secondary bacterial infections. Studies to find new, effective, and safe oral drugs for treating leishmaniasis are being conducted since several decades, owing to the problems associated with the use of antimonials available. Previously, the antiparasitic and antioxidant properties of Punica granatum (pomegranate, P. granatum) have been reported. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to investigate the antileishmanial activity of pomegranate aqueous juice in vitro and in female BALB/c mice. A 3-(4.5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay in Leishmania major promastigotes and alterations in the antioxidant status, liver function, and skin histological changes in L. major-infected mice orally treated with pomegranate juice alone and in combination with the antibiotic ciprofloxacin, were used to investigate the in vitro and in vivo antileishmanial activity of pomegranate juice, respectively. Oral P. granatum juice treatment significantly reduced the average size of cutaneous leishmaniasis lesions compared with that of the untreated mice. This antileishmanial activity of P. granatum was associated with enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities. Histopathological evaluation proved the antileishmanial activity of P. granatum, but did not reveal changes in the treated animals, compared to the positive control. In conclusion, P. granatum shows high and fast antileishmanial activity probably by boosting the endogenous antioxidant activity.

Background Schistosomiasis is a prevalent parasitic disease found predominantly in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the developing world, with the second highest socioeconomic and public health burden despite strenuous control efforts. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the ameliorative effects of Ceratonia siliqua pod extract (CPE) on liver fibrosis and oxidative stress in mice infected with Schistosoma mansoni. Methods The schistosomal hepatopathologic mouse model was established by tail immersion with schistosomal cercaria. The extract was given daily for 10 days beginning 42 days post-infection. Liver samples were obtained from mice sacrificed 9 weeks after infection. Liver histopathological changes were observed with hematoxylin-eosin and Masson trichrome staining. Results Typical schistosomal hepatopathologic changes were induced in the untreated mice. However, the oral administration of CPE was effective in reducing worm number and the egg load in the liver. This treatment also decreased granuloma size and collagen deposition by inhibiting tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2) expression. Schistosomal infection induced oxidative stress by increasing lipid peroxidation (LPO) and nitrite/nitrate (nitric oxide; NO) production along with concomitant decreases in glutathione (GSH) and various antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. However, treatment of mice with CPE at 300 or 600 mg/kg inhibited LPO and NO production, increased GSH content, and restored the activities of the antioxidant enzymes compared with untreated infected mice. Furthermore, treatment with CPE inhibited apoptosis, as indicated by the reduced Bax expression in hepatic tissue. Conclusion These data indicated that extracts from Ceratonia siliqua pods may play an important role in combating schistosomal hepatopathology and may inhibit granuloma formation and liver fibrosis through down-regulation of TIMP-2 expression. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12906-016-1389-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.) belongs to the Solanaceae family. Physalis has many medicinal properties however, the beneficial effect of physalis in protecting against neurotoxins has not yet been evaluated. This experimental study investigated the protective effect of physalis juice against the oxidative damage induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) in the rat brain.The degrees of protection by physalis in brain tissues were evaluated by determining the brain levels of lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide, glutathione content and antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase), after CCl4) induction in the presence or absence of physalis. Adult male albino Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups, Group I served as the control group, Group II was intraperitoneally treated with 2 ml CCl4)/kg bwt for 12 weeks, Group III was supplemented with physalis juice via the drinking water for 12 weeks, Group IV was supplemented with physalis juice and was intraperitoneally injected weekly with CCl4).Treatment with CCl4) was significantly associated with a disturbance in the oxidative status in the brain tissues; this was marked by a significant (p0.05) elevation in the lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide levels with a concomitant reduction in glutathione content compared to the control, along with a remarkable reduction in antioxidant enzymes. The administration of physalis along with CCl4) juice significantly (p0.05) alleviated the changes in enzymatic antioxidant activity when compared to the CCl4) treated group. Furthermore, physalis juice supplemention inhibited apoptosis, as indicated by the increase of Bcl-2 immunoreactivity in brain tissue.Our results suggest that physalis juice could be effective in preventing neurotoxicity and the neuroprotective effect of physalis might be mediated via antioxidant and anti-apoptosis activities.

Aluminium (Al) toxicity is closely linked to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This experimental study investigated the neuroprotective effect of melatonin (Mel; 10 mg/kg bwt) on aluminium chloride (AlCl3 ; 34 mg/kg bwt) induced neurotoxicity and oxidative stress in rats. Adult male albino Wistar rats were injected with AlCl3 for 7 days. The effect on brain structure, lipid peroxidation (LPO), nitric oxide (NO) levels, glutathione (GSH) content, antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx and GR), apoptotic proteins (Bax and Bcl-2) and an apoptotic enzyme (caspase-3) was investigated. No apparent changes occurred following the injection of melatonin. Melatonin pretreatment of the AlCl3 -administered rats reduced brain damage, and the tissues appeared like those of the control rats. Compared to treatment with AlCl3 , pretreatment with melatonin decreased LPO and NO levels and increased the GSH content and antioxidant enzyme activity. Moreover, melatonin increased the levels of the anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-2, decreased the levels of the pro-apoptotic protein, Bax, and inhibited caspase-3 activity. Therefore, our results indicate that melatonin may provide therapeutic value against aluminium-induced oxidative stress and histopathological alternations in the rat brain and that these effects may be related to anti-apoptotic and antioxidant activities.

It is currently accepted that malaria-parasitized red blood cells (pRBC) are eliminated, like senescent erythrocytes, phagocytically by macrophages in the red pulp of the spleen. Here, however, we show that self-healing Plasmodium chabaudi malaria activates spleen closure in C57BL/6 mice. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that spleen closing was manifested by elimination of entry into the red pulp of 3-μm polystyrol particles, pRBC, and nonparasitized red blood cells but not of bovine serum albumin. This spleen closure did not reflect a reduction in the number of phagocytic cells, as shown by flow cytometry, whereas marginal zone macrophages (MZM) were lost and red pulp macrophages entered the white pulp. Splenic trapping of pBRC was strongly reduced in the absence of MZM and marginal metallophilic macrophages (MMM), as it is in noninfected mice with a disrupted lymphotoxin β receptor (LTβR −/− ), and it was still significantly reduced when the number of MZM and MMM was diminished, as in tumor necrosis factor alpha-deficient (TNF-α −/− ) mice. Moreover, mice deficient in TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor receptor I (TNFRI −/− ), and LTβR exhibited progressive impairment in malaria-induced spleen closing. Treatment of C57BL/6 mice with TNF-α induced loss of MZM and spleen closing by about 20%. Our data indicate that TNF/TNFRI signaling is involved in regulating malaria-induced spleen closure, which is maximal during crisis, when parasitemia declines more than 100-fold. Consequently, the vast majority of pRBC cannot be destroyed by the spleen during crisis, suggesting that the known sophisticated sequestration system of Plasmodium parasites did not evolve to avoid splenic clearance.

Disrupted signaling through lymphotoxin beta receptor (LTbetaR) results in severe defects of the spleen and even loss of all other secondary lymphoid tissues, making mice susceptible to diverse infectious agents. Surprisingly, however, we find that female LTbetaR-deficient mice are even more resistant to blood stages of Plasmodium chabaudi malaria than wild-type C57BL/6 mice. Higher resistance of LTbetaR-deficient mice correlates with an earlier onset of reticulocytosis, and the period of anemia is shorter. After surviving fulminant parasitemias of about 35%, mice develop long-lasting protective immunity against homologous rechallenge, with both spleen and liver acting as anti-malaria effectors. Testosterone suppresses resistance, i.e. all mice succumb to infections during or shortly after peak parasitemia. At peak parasitemia, testosterone does not essentially affect cellularity and apoptosis in the spleen, but aggravates liver pathology in terms of increased cell swelling, numbers of apoptotic and binucleated cells and reduced serum alkaline phosphatase levels, and conversely, reduces inflammatory lymphocytic infiltrates in the liver. In the spleen, hybridization of cDNA arrays identified only a few testosterone-induced changes in gene expression, in particular upregulation of INFgamma and IFN-regulated genes. By contrast, a much larger number of testosterone-affectable genes was observed in the liver, including genes involved in regulation of the extracellular matrix, in chemokine and cytokine signaling, and in cell cycle control. Collectively, our data suggest that testosterone dysregulates the inflammatory response in spleen and liver during their differentiation to anti-malaria effectors in malaria-resistant female LTbetaR-deficient mice, thus contributing to the testosterone-induced lethal outcome of malaria.

Bacterial infections of cutaneous leishmaniasis cause skin ulcers on mice, resulting in increased tissue deterioration, and these infections can be controlled with liquid allicin. To isolate and identify the incidences of real secondary bacterial infections in mice, we performed the current study by injecting mice (n = 50) with Leishmania major. L. major infections were initiated by an intramuscular injection of 0.1 mL Roswell Park Memorial Institute (RPMI 1640 media/mouse (107 promastigote/mL)). Scarring appeared 2–6 weeks after injection, and the bacteria were isolated from the skin ulcer tissues. Allicin (50 µL/mL) and ciprofloxacin (5 μg; Cip 5) were used for controlling L. major and bacteria. One hundred samples from skin ulcers of mice were examined, and 200 bacterial colonies were isolated. Forty-eight different genera and species were obtained and identified by Gram staining and physiological and biochemical characterization using identification kits. All samples were positive for secondary bacterial infections. Of the isolates, 79.16% were identified as Gram-negative bacteria, and 28.84% were identified as Gram-positive bacteria; only one yeast species was found. Interestingly, pure allicin liquid at a concentration 50 µL/mL exhibited antibacterial activity against a wide range of Gram-negative and some Gram-positive bacteria, in addition to yeast, and was 71.43% effective. Antimicrobial resistance patterns of all genera and species were determined using 15 different antibiotics. Allicin (50 µL/mL) and Cip 5 were the most effective against L. major and 92.30% of isolated bacteria. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia was the most resistant bacterium to the tested antibiotics with a survival rate of 73.33%, and it exhibited resistance to allicin.

Background Pomegranate fruit has been extensively used as a natural medicine in many cultures. The present study was aimed at evaluating the protective effects of pomegranate (Punica granatum) juice against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced oxidative stress and testes injury in adult Wistar rats. Methods Twenty eight Wistar albino male rats were divided equally into 4 groups for the assessment of protective potential of pomegranate juice. Rats of group I (control) received only vehicles and had free access to food and water. Rats of groups II and IV were treated with CCl4 (2 ml/kg bwt) via the intraperitoneal route once a week for ten weeks. The pomegranate juice was supplemented via drinking water 2 weeks before and concurrent with CCl4 treatment to group IV. Group III was supplemented with pomegranate juice for twelve weeks. The protective effects of pomegranate on serum sex hormones, oxidative markers, activities of antioxidant enzymes and histopathology of testes were determined in CCl4-induced reproductive toxicity in rats. Results Pomegranate juice showed significant elevation in testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) those depleted by the injection of CCl4. Activity levels of endogenous testesticular antioxidant enzymes; superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione (GSH) contents were increased while lipid peroxidation (LPO) and nitric oxide (NO) were decreased with pomegranate juice. Moreover, degeneration of germ and Leydig cells along with deformities in spermatogenesis induced after CCl4 injections were restored with the treatment of pomegranate juice. Conclusion The results clearly demonstrated that pomegranate juice augments the antioxidant defense mechanism against carbon tetrachloride-induced reproductive toxicity and provides evidence that it may have a therapeutic role in free radical mediated diseases.

The active constituent profile in Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruvianaL.) juice was determined by GC-MS. Quercetin and kaempferol were active components in the juice. In this study we have evaluated its potential protective effect on hepatic injury and fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Twenty-eight rats divided into 4 groups: Group I served as control group, and Group II received weekly i.p. injection of 2 mL CCl4/kg bwt for 12 weeks. Group III were supplemented with Physalis juice via the drinking water. The animals of Group IV received Physalis juice as Group III and also were intraperitoneally injected weekly with 2 mL CCl4/kg bwt for 12 weeks. Hepatoprotective effect was evaluated by improvement in liver enzymes serum levels, reduction in collagen areas, downregulation in expression of the fibrotic marker MMP-9, reduction in the peroxidative marker malonaldehyde and the inflammatory marker nitric oxide, and restoration of the activity of antioxidant enzymatic and nonenzymatic systems, namely, glutathione content, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase activities. The results show that the potential hepatoprotective effects ofPhysalis peruvianamay be due to physalis acts by promotion of processes that restore hepatolobular architecture and through the inhibition of oxidative stress pathway.

The pomegranate, Punica granatum L., is an ancient, mystical, unique fruit borne on a small, long-living tree cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region. Pomegranate is used in several systems of medicine for a variety of ailments. The synergistic action of the pomegranate constituents appears to be superior to that of single constituents. P. garantum , have been reported to have antimicrobial activity against a range of Gram positive and negative bacteria. Pomegranate formulations containing ferrous salts have enhanced although on short-term. The aim of this experiment is to determine the antimicrobial activities of combinations of pomegranate rind extract with range of metal salts with the addition of vitamin C. Phytochemical analyses was made to determine the active inhibitors in rind extract, including phenolics and flavonoids.

Testosterone induces a lethal outcome in otherwise self-healing blood-stage malaria caused by Plasmodium chabaudi . Here, we examine possible testosterone effects on the antimalaria effectors spleen and liver in female C57BL/6 mice. Self-healing malaria activates gating mechanisms in the spleen and liver that lead to a dramatic reduction in trapping activity, as measured by quantifying the uptake of 3-μm-diameter fluorescent polystyrol particles. However, testosterone delays malaria-induced closing of the liver, but not the spleen. Coincidently, testosterone causes an ∼3- to 28-fold depression of the mRNA levels of nine malaria-responsive genes, out of 299 genes tested, only in the liver and not in the spleen, as shown by cDNA arrays and Northern blotting. Among these are the genes encoding plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI1) and hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase (STA2). STA2, which detoxifies bile acids, is suppressed 10-fold by malaria and an additional 28-fold by testosterone, suggesting a severe perturbation of bile acid metabolism. PAI1 is protective against malaria, since disruption of the PAI1 gene results in partial loss of the ability to control the course of P. chabaudi infections. Collectively, our data indicate that the liver rather than the spleen is a major target organ for testosterone-mediated suppression of resistance against blood-stage malaria.

Liver diseases are major global health problems. Ginseng extract has antioxidant, immune-modulatory and anti-inflammatory activities. This study investigated the effect of ginseng extract on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis in rats. Male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control group, ginseng group, CCl4 group and CCl4 + ginseng group. Liver injury was induced by the intraperitoneal (I.P) injection of 3 ml/kg CCl4 (30% in olive oil) weekly for 8 weeks. The control group was I.P injected with olive oil. The expression of genes encoding transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), type I TGF-β receptor (TβR-1), type II TGF-β receptor (TβR-II), mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 2 (Smad2), Smad3, Smad4, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), MMP9, tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), Collagen 1a2 (Col1a2), Collagen 3a1 (Col3a1), interleukin-8 (IL-8) and interleukin -10 (IL-10) were measured by real-time PCR. Treatment with ginseng extract decreased hepatic fat deposition and lowered hepatic reticular fiber accumulation compared with the CCl4 group. The CCl4 group showed a significant increase in hepatotoxicity biomarkers and up-regulation of the expression of genes encoding TGF-β, TβR-I, TβR-II, MMP2, MMP9, Smad-2,-3, -4, and IL-8 compared with the control group. However, CCl4 administration resulted in the significant down-regulation of IL-10 mRNA expression compared with the control group. Interestingly, ginseng extract supplementation completely reversed the biochemical markers of hepatotoxicity and the gene expression alterations induced by CCl4. ginseng extract had an anti‐fibrosis effect via the regulation of the TGF‐β1/Smad signaling pathway in the CCl4‐induced liver fibrosis model. The major target was the inhibition of the expression of TGF‐β1, Smad2, and Smad3.

Background To date all efforts to develop a malaria vaccine have failed, reflecting the still fragmentary knowledge about protective mechanisms against malaria. In order to evaluate if vaccination changes responses of the anti-malaria effectors spleen and liver to blood stage malaria, BALB/c mice succumbing to infection with Plasmodium chabaudi were compared to those surviving after vaccination. Methods Mice were vaccinated with host cell plasma membranes isolated from P. chabaudi-infected erythrocytes. Hepatic and splenic capacity to trap particulate material was determined after injection of fluorescent polystyrol beads. Hepatic gene expression was measured using real-time RT-PCR and Northern blotting. Results Survival of BALB/c mice was raised from 0% to 80% and peak parasitaemia was decreased by about 30% by vaccination. Vaccination boosted particle trapping capacity of the liver during crisis when splenic trapping is minimal due to spleen 'closing'. It also attenuated malaria-induced inflammation, thus diminishing severe damages and hence liver failure. Vaccination increased hepatic IFN-γ production but mitigated acute phase response. Vaccination has a complex influence on infection-induced changes in expression of hepatic nuclear receptors (CAR, FXR, RXR, and PXR) and of the metabolic enzymes Sult2a and Cyp7a1. Although vaccination decreased CAR mRNA levels and prevented Cyp7a1 suppression by the CAR ligand 1,2-bis [2-(3,5-dichloropyridyloxy)]benzene (TCPOBOP) on day 8 p.i., Sult2a-induction by TCPOBOP was restored. Conclusion These data support the view that the liver is an essential effector site for a vaccine against blood stage malaria: vaccination attenuates malaria-induced inflammation thus improving hepatic metabolic activity and particle trapping activity of the liver.