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Partial discharges (PDs) are believed to be one of the key factors accelerating high voltage (HV) equipment ageing. The chemical by-products of PDs actively contribute to the modification of insulations surface quality, especially in air medium due to the diversity of its constituents. Although nonthermal plasmas in air have been widely studied, their adaptation to HV systems is still highly complex and prone to controversies. In this work, a typical simulation of a fault leading to PD in air, through a Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) point-to-plane configuration, is performed in order to measure ozone (O 3 ), nitrogen oxide (NO) and dioxide (NO 2 ) by-products gases. The evolution of these species regarding PD duration, PD power and humidity is analyzed. Ozone production rate and dynamics are found to predominate over NO 2 and NO ones. The effect of humidity on gases evolution is found to be indirect, as it mainly affects PD power.

The conduction current recorded when a high voltage impulse is applied to a rod-plane gap containing water is modelled. The electro/thermal model considers the coupling between electric field, Joule dissipation, temperature rise, and variation of liquid resistivity with temperature. A fairly good agreement between current measurements and calculations are obtained. The model also shows the evolution of temperature and field distributions in the gap versus time. The calculated average temperatures appear insufficient to explain liquid boiling. Boiling can be explained by considering the influence of local surface defects. Values of the bubble pressure at discharge ignition are evaluated, with the hypothesis that discharges occur in vapor following Paschen's law.

The characterization of pre-breakdown streamers in liquids is carried out under high temperature up to 200°C. Measurements are obtained either in a high temperature non-polar liquid (dibenzyltoluene, DBT), or in a synthetic ester (Midel®7131) for comparison. Streamer inception voltages are measured in both polarities, as well as propagation velocities. The results obtained show that only minor modifications are recorded when temperature is raised up to 200°C. Due to its stability at high temperature, DBT constitutes an interesting solution in the perspective of using liquids for the insulation of high temperature power electronics.

Partial discharges characterization on ceramic substrates and dielectric liquids under high temperature up to $350^{\circ}\mathrm{C}$ is investigated. Aluminum nitride (AlN) and alumina (Al 2 O 3 substrates, and a high temperature non-polar dibenzyltoluene (DBT) liquid are used. Several complementary measurements are also done in a synthetic ester liquid. PD measurements on AlN substrates embedded in DBT show a good behavior up to $300^{\circ}\mathrm{C}$, and up to $350^{\circ}\mathrm{C}$ with Alumina. This shows that high temperature insulating liquid may constitute a good alternative to silicone gels for the encapsulation of power electronics circuits at high temperature and high voltage. The comparison between PD characteristics in the liquid alone and with substrates show that PDs mostly occur within the ceramic material at temperatures up to $300^{\circ}\mathrm{C}$.

An experimental study of breakdown and pre-breakdown phenomena in liquid nitrogen (LN 2 ) is performed in this work, aiming to provide useful knowledge for the design of high voltage superconducting systems. A metallic tape subjected to pulsed heating is used as ground electrode to properly simulate the operating conditions of a quenching superconducting apparatus. Measurements of breakdown voltages between the tape and a plane electrode tied to high voltage show the strong influence of tape polarity, LN 2 temperature, and delay between heating and voltage application. Various measurements obtained with either a highspeed camera or an intensified camera allow to characterize the sequence of pre-breakdown events (i.e. liquid boiling, vapor bubble development, and streamer propagation) leading to breakdown.

Electrical breakdown properties of Dibenzyltoluene (DBT) are investigated over wide temperature range (from room temperature up to 350°C), and under pressure variation « 1 kPa to 200 kPa). The purpose is to investigate the suitability of DBT as potential insulating material for high temperature applications, such as encapsulant in high temperature power electronics modules. Measurements were carried out using a special high temperature test cell, under nitrogen atmosphere. Sphere-sphere electrodes and voltage ramp were used. Results show some reduction of breakdown voltage at high temperature, down to 58.2% at 350°C. A similar effect is observed when pressure is reduced. This reduction occurs when the liquid approaches boiling conditions, hence facilitating the appearance of vapor bubbles.

This paper deals with physical processes involved during inception of positive streamers in liquid cyclohexane. The inception of streamers is detected with a high temporal resolution by measurements of charge, visualization, and detection of phase change by scattered laser light. These techniques allow us to obtain measurements of inception voltages and inception delay time in various conditions of impulse voltage with different slew rates, and pressure. In positive polarity, a minimum "formative time" close to 40 ns is observed, as well as a large influence of both pressure and slew rate. The hypothesis of cavitation induced by the EHD motion, and liquid boiling due to heat dissipation are considered to explain positive streamer inception.

International audience; Breakdown measurements are carried out in liquids under point-sphere and pointplane electrode geometries, over a large range of gap distances up to 35 cm. Non-polar hydrocarbon liquids with different chemical structures are studied: saturated, aromatic, polyaromatic, mineral oils, and ester. Two high voltage impulse shapes are used: the standard lightning impulse (LI), and a specific “step” impulse (ST). Step impulses are favorable to interpret breakdown measurements since the applied voltage remains constant while prebreakdown streamers propagate. Conversely, with lightning impulse and long gaps the propagation of streamers with a low propagation velocity (a few km/s) is quenched due to the rapidly decaying voltage. In this case, breakdown can result only from the propagation of faster streamers, which appear in very different conditions according to the liquid nature. The results obtained allow us to interpret the large variations of breakdown voltage observed in large gaps, when either the high voltage impulse shape or the liquid nature is changed. These results also help to define proper conditions for testing and comparing liquids. Testing with lightning impulse in short gaps, such as in standard tests, does not provides data relevant for very high voltage applications.

An experimental study of discharges in air at atmospheric pressure under impulse voltage, creeping on insulating solid surface is presented. The objective is to get a better understanding of creeping discharge by studying streamer initiation and propagation, and by looking at the influence of the nature of the insulating solid. Several solid materials, of different chemical natures and permittivity are investigated. Pre-breakdown streamers are investigated by high speed visualization and transient current measurements. In the presence of insulating solids such as epoxy resin, PPA/glass fibers and polycarbonate, surface streamers appear during the voltage rise, and the time delay to appearance is correspondingly rather short. With two materials of polyolefin and fluorine modified polyolefin families, characterized by lower permittivity, the first creeping streamer appears at the maximum voltage after a much longer statistical time delay, very close to that obtained in air without solid.

This paper deals with physical processes involved during streamer inception in liquid cyclohexane under impulse voltage. In point-plane geometry, the inception of streamers is detected with a high temporal resolution (about 1 ns) by measurement of charge, visualization, and detection of phase change by scattered laser light. These techniques allow us to obtain precise measurements of the inception delay time, versus applied voltage and hydrostatic pressure. Measurements carried out in positive and negative polarity with a fast impulse voltage (20 ns risetime) show a large difference. In positive polarity, a minimum "formative time" close to 45 ns is observed, while negative streamers can appear almost immediately at high voltage. The hypothesis of cavitation induced by the EHD motion is considered to explain positive streamer inception.

Breakdown, at least in point-plane geometry, is the result of inception and propagation of pre-breakdown phenomena called "streamers". The purpose of the present investigation is a spectroscopic measurement of the essential plasma parameters, i.e. the gas temperature and the neutral particle and electron densities. In this paper we focus our spectroscopic investigation on fast positive filamentary streamers obtained at large gap distance under high impulse voltage in LN 2 .

Dielectric properties of synthetic ester oil are investigated in wide frequency range (10 mHz–1 MHz) and temperature (−60°C −200°C) ranges. The aim is to determine the ability of liquid insulation, to be used as encapsulating materials for high temperature power electronics modules. As far as the ester remains in liquid state (above approximately −16°C), a typical frequency spectrum of the dissipation factor tan δ with two parts is observed. At low frequency, dielectric losses (tan δ > 0.10) are due to ionic conduction, and at high frequency losses are mainly due to dipolar relaxation. When temperature is increased, losses increase at low frequency, and decrease at high frequency. Results show that the liquid conductivity increases by more than 3 orders of magnitude between room temperature and 200°C. A slight decrease of permittivity is also observed, correlated to the lowering of density at high temperature. This behavior totally changes when the ester becomes a gel at low temperature. Dielectric relaxations reminiscent of solid materials then appear.

Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) under High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) are becoming widely investigated with the development of DC networks. Under DC voltage, mechanism of charge accumulation on the insulation surface is of major importance since it may distort the electric field distribution. The latter directly depends on material's conduction and so, on its volume and surface conductivities. Previous work has evidenced that those properties are influenced by the temperature, the electric field and the surrounding relative humidity [1-3]. The insulation characteristics must be clarified to allow a better estimation of the electric field distribution, as well as a better insulation design.

International audience; Surface resistivity of solid insulators is usuallydetermined by measuring the current induced when an electricfield tangential to the surface is applied. This classical methodcan become questionable when the electric field is raised. In fact,a current may also flow above the interface through the humidgas, in addition to currents flowing at the interface and below theinterface within the solid bulk. This paper presents anexperimental study of the variation of the surface resistivityversus electric field and relative humidity RH of the surroundinggas. The results show that in dry gas (RH < 1%) and for anelectric field up 8 kV/mm, the surface gets no specific propertiescompared to the volume. However, in humid gas (1% < RH

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This paper presents an experimental study of Partial Discharges and light emission with ceramic substrates embedded in silicone oil, under ac and square high voltage. Two types of ceramic materials used in power electronics modules are considered: Aluminum Nitrite (AlN) and Alumina (Al2O3). With AlN, a large light emission due to the electroluminescence of the ceramics occurs during the negative dV/dt. This phenomenon is not observed with Al2O3. With Al2O3 and silicon oil, the light emitted is only due to PDs, and recording under square voltage wave shows that PDs are more numerous and/or more intense compared to ac. Square voltage is more relevant to actual working conditions within power electronics modules than ac.

Surface resistance measurements on insulating solids are usually performed by measuring the current induced when an electric field tangential to the surface is applied. The measured current results from the addition of currents flowing along the surface, and also partly in the volume. In this paper, surface current measurements on an alumina-filled epoxy resin are performed under varying conditions of temperature (40-60°C), relative humidity (0-80 %), gas nature (SF6, N2, air), pressure (0.1-0.8 MPa). In dry conditions, measured currents do not depend on the gas nature and pressure. In air, when the relative humidity (RH) is varied, a large influence is measured, and the recorded variation of surface currents includes two phases: a rapid one attributed to the immediate change of surface resistance, followed by a much slower variation attributed to the progressive impregnation of the material by water. Numerical simulation shows the dominant influence of surface properties on measured currents, and evidences the existence of a surface layer with a higher conductivity compared to the material volume, even in dry conditions.

The dielectric properties of two grades of Bi-oriented isotactic polypropylene (BOiPP) are studied, using a variety of techniques: breakdown field measurements, dielectric spectroscopy, thermally stimulated depolarization currents, dc conduction currents. Standard (STPP) and high-crystallinity (HCPP) polypropylene films are investigated. Measurements are carried out over a wide temperature range, up to (-150°C/ +125°C). Breakdown field in both materials show a very small difference. On the other hand, dielectric losses and dc conduction currents are significantly lower in HCPP. Both materials show a decrease of dielectric losses versus temperature in the range (20-90°C), favorable for the application to ac power capacitors. The analysis of dc currents allows to evidence two main conduction mechanisms: (i) below 80°C in both materials, a hopping mechanism due to motion of electrons occurring in the amorphous phase; (ii) above 80°C, an ionic conduction in HCPP and a hopping conduction in STPP.

In Insulated gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) modules, ceramic substrates are used as insulation between semiconductor chips and the ground potential. The substrate, semiconductor chips and connections are covered with silicone gel to prevent partial discharges (PDs) from occurring. In this work, partial discharges are investigated on laboratory samples made of metalized substrates embedded in silicone gel and various liquids. Substrates are made of aluminum nitride (AlN), alumina (Al2O3), or glass/epoxy composite. The objective is to determine the actual origin of PDs, by changing the nature of encapsulating material and substrate. The various liquids used are first characterized using a point-plane geometry. Experiments show that a rather large discrepancy on the PD behavior can be due to the ceramic substrate itself. "Good" and "bad" substrates can be identified on the basis of PD measurements. The influence of the sample preparation (degassing procedure) is also evidenced. The main conclusion obtained in this paper shows that partial discharges do not occur within the encapsulating material, contrary to most previous hypotheses, but within pores existing in sintered ceramic materials. Changing the substrate nature has a large influence on PD behavior, whereas a modification of the encapsulating material has almost no effect.

Metalized polypropylene films are used to build power capacitors for ac voltage. The objective of this paper is to study the de-metallization processes that may occur under high electric field. A laboratory model of capacitor is first described. It allows us to visualize the de-metallization and record the corresponding capacitance loss, under various conditions of applied voltage, frequency, mechanical pressure, and gas nature. Four different de-metallization processes can be observed. The residual gas layer existing between films has a primary importance. Replacing air by nitrogen shows that the de-metallization is basically due to the oxidation of the metal.

The reliability of electrical contacts is now the major challenge to improve the lifetime of Micro Electro Mechanical Switches. This paper investigates contact failure due to material transfer in real MEMS devices. The mechanisms of degradation observed on components have been reproduced with a good correlation on an AFM-based setup. Therefore, the importance of the closure phase and the voltage applied across the contact on the material transfer phenomenon has been highlighted with a fine quantitative analysis of the transferred volume.

This paper describes an experimental study of streamer inception in mineral oil under ac voltage, with rod and point electrodes. Positive and negative streamer inception frequencies versus voltage are investigated in gaps up to 40 cm with different electrode shapes and different conditioning of the oil (filtered oil, addition of cellulose particles, water). Streamer inception probability increases exponentially versus field, and it is not possible to simply define an “inception voltage”. A voltage (or field) value correlated to an inception probability must be used to properly compare different experiments (comparison between liquids, influence of pollution, etc.). Under ac, several effects are superposed to reduce dielectric strength: “scale effects”, influence of pollution, long time duration. With sharp points, injected space charges considerably influence experiments, and the results obtained cannot be extrapolated to practical applications in which the effect of space charge is mostly absent.

International audience; An integrated solution for the galvanic isolation between power transistors and their control unit is presented in this paper. This solution is based on a monolithic integration of a photodetector within a power MOSFET without any modification of its fabrication process. This photoreceiver can be associated with a monolithic driver to drive high side switches. Exhaustive characteristics for several integrated photodetectors are presented and discussed: quantum efficiency, step response, small signal analysis and sensitivity to the High Voltage MOSFET's Drain. The results of this analysis are photoreceivers with a Full Width at Half Maximum above 300MHz and a responsivity above 0.15A/W at a wavelength of 500nm. This leads to an integrated low power and high bandwidth optical isolation.

This paper reports an experimental investigation about streamer propagation and breakdown in natural esters (rape-seed oils). Experiments are carried out over a large range of gap distances (from 2 to 20 cm) and voltage (up to 460 kV), in order to determine the properties of natural esters for high voltage insulation. A detailed description of positive and negative streamers is obtained by the measurement of propagation velocity, stopping length, transient currents, charge, streak photographs of the emitted light. As in previous studies carried out in mineral transformer oil, several propagation "modes" can be observed in rape-seed oil. They show the transition from "slow" streamers (velocity about 1 km/s), to fast streamers (velocity up to 200 km/s). Fast positive streamers propagate at much lower voltage in rape-seed oil compared to mineral oil. In turn, this induces lower breakdown voltages and shorter time to breakdown in this liquid. Measurements of currents and streak photographs bring the evidence of the stepped character of fast positive streamers and show the constancy of their velocity under very high voltage.

International audience; In this study, the efficiency of different types of pulsed electrical discharges for the removal of organic pollutants from wastewater has been determined. Three discharge types, either in the water volume or in close proximity to the water surface are studied. The production of hydrogen peroxide in pure water, and the degradation of two typical pollutants (4-chlorophenol and 4-nitrophenol) is measured together with the amount of electrical energy dissipated in discharges. It is shown that the energy yield for the degradation of organic pollutants, expressed in terms of degraded moles per Joule, strongly depends on the discharge type. The highest efficiency is obtained with pulsed corona discharges in humid air above the water surface. A lower efficiency is found with spark discharges in water, and the less efficient process is constituted by streamer discharges in water. The influence of ferrous ions added to solutions is also very different according to the discharge type. This helps to get a better understanding of the degradation processes involved with the different discharge types.

Water absorption in an epoxy composite used for insulation of stator bars in large generators is investigated in order to study both diffusion kinetics and effects on dielectric properties. Water absorption can be described by the superposition of two Fickian mechanisms, the first occurring within epoxy and the other at interfaces between epoxy and fillers. A large decrease of breakdown strength versus water uptake is observed. It points to the large deleterious effect of water on insulation reliability. Dielectric spectroscopy is performed under various conditions of water impregnation, electric field and temperature. A very large increase of permittivity and losses is recorded in the presence of water, especially at low frequency. At power frequency, dielectric properties do not show a non-linearity when the field is increased up to service values. At very low frequency, a decrease of losses when the field is increased is observed. It is due to the Garton effect. Most of results show that the wet material behaves as a low frequency dispersion system (LFD).

In this paper, the water concentration profile within the insulation of a stator bar in the presence of a water leak is calculated by resolving the Fick's equation. The temperature strongly activates diffusion processes, but the shapes of concentration profiles remain similar. From the measured dielectric properties versus water content, an electrical model is developed in order to calculate the field and potential distribution within the insulation. The field is reduced in wet zones due to the high local permittivity and conductivity compared to dry zones. This effect is favorable since the breakdown field is lowered in wet zones. On the other hand, the field in dry zones is reinforced, but the value attained remains lower than the short-term breakdown strength. This explains why stator bars in the presence of waters leaks may survive for long times, in spite of high local water concentrations in excess of 1%. The high sensitivity of dielectric properties at low frequency to the presence of water suggests non-destructive methods to detect wet bars in a real power generator.

This paper presents an experimental study of streamer inception in a silicone gel. Many parameters are able to influence the inception of discharges in a gel: voltage wave shape, electrode geometry, temperature, etc. In this work, streamer inception is studied in various conditions of electrode shapes (from sharp points up to quasi-uniform field), voltage (ac, dc, impulse voltage) and temperature. Streamer inception is detected by the measurement of breakdown voltages in selected conditions. The results obtained show that streamer inception field varies when the electrode shape is changed, in a similar way as in liquids: the inception field decreases when the electrode surface increases. On the other hand, temperature and voltage wave shape have almost no influence on the inception field. Results are discussed in comparison with data already obtained in liquids in similar conditions.

Silicone gels are widely used to encapsulate power electronics modules. The objective of this paper is to study the partial discharge (PD) mechanism in a silicone gel, using electrical measurements and fast visualization. Experiments are carried out in a pointplane geometry, using either impulse voltage or ac. Under impulse voltage, the visualization shows that the first discharges recorded in a new sample are due to the initiation and propagation of "streamers", with features close to those previously reported in viscous liquids. Under ac, a stable PD regime rapidly establishes: a streamer creates a cavity with a long lifetime, and PDs occur in this cavity during the subsequent ac waves. Since slow streamers develop during long times (some ms), classical PD measurements do not provide an adequate evaluation of the actual discharge magnitude: very small PDs (1 pC) are recorded, whereas large cavities with a total charge in excess of 10 pC are actually present in the gel. When PDs are repeated permanent degradations of the gel rapidly occur, showing the limited self-healing capabilities of silicone gels.

Rape-seed oil is considered for electrical insulation at high voltage. In this work, breakdown and streamer propagation in rape seed oil are studied in point-plane gaps up to 20cm, under impulse voltage of both polarities. In both polarities, two main streamer types are observed: "slow" streamers with a velocity of about 2km/s, and much faster streamers up to 150km/s. Compared to mineral oil in the same conditions, fast streamers in rape-seed oil appear at much lower voltage. They are able to propagate over large distances within a short time at moderate voltage. From these results, it is concluded that the properties of streamers in rape-seed oil are less favorable for high voltage insulation than in mineral oil.

This paper presents an experimental study of pre-breakdown discharges in water (usually called 'corona' or 'streamer') used to degrade organic molecules for depollution purposes. Streamers in water are generated by high voltage pulses of short duration in order to minimize energy losses by Joule heating. Measurements of the electrical energy used to develop streamers can be taken only when losses due to the electrical conduction in the test cell becomes negligible, i.e. at high voltage. Coupled to electrical measurements, the formation of hydrogen peroxide and the degradation of organic compounds such as 4-chlorophenol and 4-nitrophenol is studied. Chemical effects are correlated with the amount of electrical energy released, which depends mainly on conductivity and applied voltage. On the other hand, the chemical yield of these processes, expressed in terms of mole/joule is independent of voltage and conductivity.

In order to increase the knowledge of the processes involved during the degradation of insulating silicone gels under ac stress, recordings of the activity of partial discharges (PD) are performed. Silicone gels are commonly used for the insulation and packaging of high voltage semiconductors such as IGBT modules. We worked on a commercially available dielectric silicone gel. Electrical and optical apparatus allows the measurement of PD's and their location, either on actual power module substrates, or in a point-plane gap. The temperature dependence of PD inception voltage is moderate, while the number of PD's and their charge steeply increases versus temperature. We show that the formation of cavities constitutes the main factor responsible for the degradation under ac conditions. The actual self-healing capabilities of silicone gels are also studied and discussed.

We studied the effects of water absorption (up to 1 wt%) on the dielectric properties of mica/glass/epoxy laminated composites used for high-voltage insulation. The DC resistivity, the dielectric constant and the dielectric loss were studied in the 10 −2 –10 6 Hz range, as a function of water uptake. The dielectric characteristics are strongly affected by water ingress. Upon water sorption the resistivity decreases by several orders of magnitude. Its variation is well described by a percolation law. The low-frequency permittivity rises to very large values. The large increase in the permittivity is related to an electrode polarisation mechanism.

This paper presents an experimental study of the influence of vapor bubbles on breakdown in liquid nitrogen. Vapor bubbles are initiated by creating a small hot spot at the surface of an electrode. The behavior of vapor bubbles is first investigated by visualization, versus power dissipated by the heater, pressure and electric field. When breakdown occurs in the presence of bubbles, it is due to formation of either a vapor bridge between the electrodes (at low pressure), or a vapor layer on the hot spot (at high pressure). The results are discussed in comparison with gas breakdown fields obtained from the Paschen's law.

This paper presents a study of breakdown and prebreakdown phenomena (streamers) in liquid nitrogen and mineral oil under quasi uniform electric field, under ac and impulse voltage. Streamers preceding breakdown are studied up to 0.5 MPa by high-speed visualization and recording of emitted light. In these conditions, breakdown in LN/sub 2/ is mainly due to negative streamers, initiated at lower voltage than the corresponding positive voltage. Hydrostatic pressure has a limited effect on breakdown voltage, such as in mineral oil. It is shown that the ratio of impulse to ac breakdown voltage in LN/sub 2/ is surprisingly low (close to 1), whereas in the same conditions ac breakdown voltage in mineral oil is lower than impulse breakdown voltage. Practical consequences for the design of HV insulation in superconducting systems are discussed.

This paper first presents a characterization of positive streamers in pure water (conductivity /spl sim/ 0.05 /spl mu/S/cm), initiated by a fast rectangular impulse voltage in a point-plane electrode geometry. According to the conditions, two main streamers types can be observed, with average propagation velocities from 0.5 to 30 km/s. Then, a spectroscopic investigation of positive streamer propagation is carried out. According to the conditions, spectra of the light emitted close to the point, show the OH band, atomic lines (OI, H/sub /spl alpha//) and a strong continuum from 350 to 500 nm. From an analysis of the OH band and from the broadening of the atomic lines (H/sub /spl alpha// and OI at 777 nm), the kinetic temperature and the electron density within filaments of both streamer types can be evaluated.